Ancient Egyptian history spanned an unbroken period of almost three thousand years, down to the time of the Roman conquest in 31 BC. It spanned some thirty dynasties, each consisting of several generations of kings. Modern Egyptian people and culture trace direct influences from the ancient periods.

Egypt's history was played out on a long, narrow strip of fertile land following the Nile River, winding more than sixteen hundred miles through Egypt. The Upper Nile (southern part) flows in a narrow valley never more than about twelve miles wide. The Lower Nile (northern part) widens north of Memphis and Cairo into the Nile Delta, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile flooded annually, providing irrigation for growing crops in the otherwise arid desert.

The time of the Old Kingdom (the Third through the Sixth Dynasties, about 2700-2200 BC) represented an early peak of prosperity and cultural achievement. The Great Pyramids were built during this time.

A second peak was reached during the Middle Kingdom (especially the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, about 2000-1800 BC). During this time, Egypt expanded into Syria-Palestine and produced a golden age of classical literature, especially short stories. Following a period of domination by foreign (mostly Semitic) rulers called the "Hyksos" (about 1675-1550 BC), the New Kingdom arose. It represented the zenith of Egyptian culture and political power (especially the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties, about 1550-1200 BC).

At this time Egypt controlled territory stretching a thousand miles from the Euphrates River in the north to the Fifth set of rapids on the Nile in the south. Egypt's greatest temples and its short-lived but much-celebrated experiment with monotheism under Pharaoh Amenophis IV (Akhenaten) come from this period. Much of its great literature also comes from this cosmopolitan age. Following this, a long period of decline and relative isolation set in. Egypt still ventured forth but was overshadowed by other powers, especially from Mesopotamia.

Israel had scattered contacts with Egypt throughout its history. The most significant contacts were early, the several hundred years between Abraham's and Moses' times (about 2100-1400 BC). (Most dates here are approximate, since dating schemes for Egypt vary widely - often by two or more centuries - as do those for early Israel. Synchronizing these for both nations poses even more difficulties.)

In patriarchal times Abraham spent time in Egypt due to a famine in Canaan (Gen. 12:10-20). Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers, ending up in Egypt. He rose to prominence there, possible during the late Middle Kingdom, and helped Egypt and surrounding lands prepare for another famine (Gen. 37-50). Many of the customs seen in the Joseph story reflect known Egyptian practices from the period in question.

Following the glory years under Joseph, Israel was subjected to Egyptian slavery for many years until GOD raised up Moses and delivered Israel (Exod. 1-15). The great event of the exodus (about 1446 BC) is not mentioned in Egyptian records. This oversight is not surprising, since ancient Near Eastern chronicles tended to record political successes, not failures.

Egypt's religion was polytheistic. Its major national gods were Ra, the sun god; Osiris, the god of the dead; and Isis, Osiris's wife. Elaborate ritual systems built up around the cults of the dead associated with Osiris. Egyptians also worshiped numerous lesser gods, many of them associated with specific locales and households. In addition, Pharaoh was considered to be divine, in contrast to beliefs about kings in most of the ancient Near East.

For more information, see the page on Egypt.

The series of afflictions used by GOD to break the will of Pharaoh and to bring about the release of the Hebrew people from slavery in Egypt.

After the Hebrews had been in Egypt for about 400 years, "there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph" (Exod. 1:8). This new king enslaved the Hebrews and forced them to labor in his extensive building projects (Ex. 5:7-19). When the Hebrews cried out for deliverance, GOD sent Moses to lead them from bondage. The Pharaoh resisted the release of the Hebrew people. The plagues of Egypt occurred as GOD's action to change the mind of the Pharaoh, thus bringing the Hebrew's freedom.

A total of ten plagues occurred. Scholars generally agree that the first nine plagues were regular, natural occurrences in Egypt. They were remarkable only in their intensity and in the timing with which they happened. But this does not mean that they were purely natural phenomena. They were miraculous in that GOD used natural forces to achieve His purpose. A sovereign GOD can use whatever methods He chooses to bring about a miracle. The method does not diminish the miraculous nature of the occurrence.

The tenth plague, the death of the firstborn of Egypt, was altogether supernatural. There is no known natural phenomenon closely related to this plague.

The sequence of the plagues has been studied and compared with the observations of travelers to Egypt. Many scholars point out that the first nine plagues are logical consequences of an unusually high flooding of the Nile River. Such flooding usually occurred in July, August, and September. Based on the best estimates that can be made from the biblical account, the plagues probably occurred over a period of about seven to nine months, beginning in July or August and continuing until around April or May.

The plagues may be viewed as GOD's intervention to seek the release of the Hebrew people. They also represented GOD's challenge to the Egyptian religious system. To the Egyptians, the Nile River was a god. From it came the power and life of the Egyptian culture. They worshiped the Nile and the abundance of resources that it provided. Since the first nine plagues seem to be a natural progression of GOD's attack on the Nile River, all of these plagues relate to GOD's challenge to the Egyptian religious system.

Following are the ten plagues, as recorded in Exodus 7:14-12:30:

1. The Water of the Nile Turned into Blood (Ex. 7:14-25). This first plague probably was the pollution of the Nile River by large quantities of fine, red earth, brought down from the Sudan and Ethiopia by abnormal flooding. The pollution of the water provided a favorable environment for the growth of micro-organisms and parasitic bacteria. Their presence could have led to the death of the fish in the river (Ex. 7:21).

   In addition to depriving Egypt of water and fish - an important part of their diet - the plague also had a religious effect. The Nile River, god of the Egyptians, had been confronted by the power of the Redeemer GOD of the Hebrew people.

2. Frogs Cover the land (Ex. 8:1-15). Seven days after the first plague, frogs came out of the river and infested the land. The frogs would have been driven from the Nile and its canals and pools by the polluted water. When Moses prayed to GOD, the frogs died in the houses, courtyards, and fields. The frogs were symbols of the Egyptian goddess, Heqt, who was supposed to help women in childbirth. This plague was another demonstration of the superior power of GOD over the gods of Egypt.
3. Lice Throughout the Land (Ex. 9:16-19). Insects of various kinds are common in Egypt. It is not easy to identify the exact pests involved in the third and fourth plagues. Various translations have lice (KJV, NKJV), gnats (NASB, RSV, NIV), maggots (NEB), and sand flies and fleas (RSV).
4. Swarms of Flies (Ex. 8:20-32). Many kinds of flies are common in Egypt. The mounds of decaying frogs would have provided an ideal breeding ground for these pests. Some scholars suggest that the swarms mentioned here were a species known as the stable-fly, a blood feeder that bites man as well as cattle. This fly is a carrier of skin anthrax, which is probably the disease brought on by the sixth plague.
5. Pestilence of Livestock (Ex. 9:1-7). Either the frogs or the insects may have been the carriers of this infection. The livestock of the Israelites were miraculously protected (Ex. 9:6-7). This was the second time GOD had made a distinction between the Israelites and the Egyptians in the plagues which He sent (Ex. 9:22-23).
6. Boils on Man and Beast (Ex. 9:8-12). This infection was probably skin anthrax, carried by the flies of the fourth plague. The festering boils broke into blisters and running sores.
7. Heavy Hail, with Thunder and Lightning (Ex. 9:13-35). Egypt was essentially an agricultural country. By destroying the crops, this plague and the next struck at the heart of Egypt's economy. Moses' warning gave the Egyptians a chance to save their remaining livestock, and some acted upon it (Ex. 9:19-20). The severe storm caused great destruction (Ex. 9:24-25). The flax and barley were ruined, but not the wheat because it had not yet been planted (Ex. 9:31-32). This would suggest early February as the time of this plague. Again the Israelites received special protection. There was no hail in the land of Goshen, where the Hebrews lived (Ex. 9:26).
8. Swarm of Locusts (Ex. 10:1-20). The destruction from the previous plague was fresh in the minds of Pharaoh's advisors (Ex. 10:7) The eighth plague must have followed the hail very closely. Heavy rainfall in July-September would have produced conditions favorable for locusts in March. These locusts, swarms of foliage-eating grasshoppers, probably were driven into the Egyptian delta by strong winds. They wiped out the vegetation that had survived the earlier destruction. Again, as after the seventh plague, Pharaoh confessed "I have sinned" (Ex. 10:16). But again, after the plague was withdrawn, Pharaoh hardened his heart and would not let the children of Israel go (Ex. 10:20).
9. Three Days of Darkness (Ex. 10:21-29). This darkness could have been caused by a severe dust storm. For three days darkness covered the land (Ex. 10:23). This storm would have been intensified by fine earth deposited over the land by previous flooding. This plague probably occurred in March. Again, the Israelites were spared the effects (Ex. 10:23). By showing GOD's power over the light of the sun - represented by one of Egypt's chief deities, the sun-god Ra - this plague was a further judgment on the idolatry of the Egyptians.
10. Death of Egyptian Firstborn (Ex. 11:1-12:30). The tenth plague was the most devastating of all - the death of the firstborn in Egyptian families. The Hebrews were spared because they followed GOD's command to sprinkle the blood of a lamb on the doorposts of their houses. The death angel "passed over" the houses where the blood was sprinkled - hence, the name Passover for this religious observance among the Jewish people. Only a supernatural explanation can account for the selective slaughter of the tenth plague.

    Some people might wonder if such a massive slaughter was really necessary. But Pharaoh had been given ample warning (Ex. 4:23). He had seen many demonstrations of GOD's reality and power, and yet he had refused to acknowledge Him. Although Pharaoh wavered at times and promised to release the Israelites (Ex. 9:9,28; 9:28), once the danger passed he changed his mind (Ex. 8:15,32; 9:34-35). Because he rejected the power of GOD, Pharaoh was forced to face one final, terrible manifestation of GOD's power. The deliverance of the Hebrews from slavery in Egypt was one of the most memorable occasions in Hebrew history. The Passover Feast was observed annually as a celebration of GOD's deliverance of His people from bondage.