The Egyptians called their country Tawy, the two lands" - referring to Upper and Lower Egypt - or Kemyt, "the black land," which distinguished the fertile Nile valley from the red desert sand. In the Bible the word for Egypt is Mizraim, which is the name of one of the sons of Ham who founded the country (Gen. 10:6; I Chron. 1:8).

History of Egypt: Information about Egyptian history is found in the Bible, Egyptian and Greek historical books, various Egyptian papyrus documents and stone writings, and facts from archaeological investigations of ancient Egyptian cities, temples and graves. One of the most helpful chronological surveys of the Egyptian kings was provided by the Egyptian priest Manetho. He divided the kings of Egypt into 30 different dynastic families who ruled from 3000-300 B.C. Some of these dynasties were strong, while others were comparatively weak.

The history of Egypt can be simplified by ordering these dynasties into three main periods of strength: the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 B.C.); the Middle Kingdom (2000-1800 B.C.); and the New Kingdom (1570-1100 B.C.). Each of these kingdoms was followed by a period of weakness.

After the New Kingdom, Egypt was dominated by Libyan, Ethiopian, Persian, Greek and finally Roman powers during New Testament times. The dates for these periods and the length of the reigns of each king is not securely fixed. But Egyptologists have been able to reconstruct a fairly accurate chronology by using evidence from many different sources.

Archaeologists have found a number of small villages that date prior to the beginning of the Old Kingdom period of Egyptian history. These primitive hunting and farming communities were the descendants of Mizraim, the son of Ham (Gen. 10:6). Metal objects, tools, pottery, jewelry and religious objects were found in these early graves. Trade with Mesopotamia may have been an important factor in the development of a written Egyptian language, which used pictures in a system known as Hieroglyphics.

Around 3000 B.C., some 1000 years before Abraham, all of Egypt was joined together under one king at Memphis. The land was divided into districts called "nomes". Irrigation and the plow were introduced to increase the nation's agricultural productivity. Shortly thereafter, the Old Kingdom period of Egypt's history began. During this era, the famous pyramids of Egypt were built. Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara and the three great pyramids at Giza are a testimony to the power and prosperity of the nation, as well as evidence of the people's belief in the divine character of the Pharaoh, the Egyptian ruler.

Special pyramids have long series of curses, magical spells and ritual formulas written on the walls of the burial chambers. These were to be used by the dead Pharaoh for protection on his journey to the afterlife. Large open-air temples where various rituals in honor of the king were performed were built beside the pyramids.

The arts of painting, sculpturing, and architecture excelled in Egypt. One group of texts known as the "Memphite Theology" probably date back to this era. They describe how the god Ptah spoke and created all things, indicating the Pharaoh was considered divine. Wisdom writings from Imhotep and Ptahhotep reveal something of the moral values and ideals of the nation and the high literary achievements of the educated classes.

As the government of Egypt expanded, noblemen from various parts of the nation began to gain greater power. This led to a decentralization of power and ultimately to the first intermediate period of weakness around 2200 B.C. This time was described as an epic of chaos, instability, poverty, and despair.

Two texts from this period describe man's disillusionment with life. Another expresses a strong desire for social stability and justice. These events led to a rethinking of man's ideals. As a result, the highly structured social order was re-evaluated and social justice for even the peasant was proclaimed as important. The possibility of life after death, which had been limited to the kings, became the goal of noblemen as they rose to higher power. Ultimately even the common person pursued this hope.

The Middle Kingdom era of Egypt's history (2000-1800 B.C.) parallels the time of Abraham's journey into Egypt (Gen. 12:10-20). Wisdom texts, one supposed prophecy, and stories about fishing and hunting depict life at this time. During this era the new kings centralized the government, expanded agricultural production through new irrigation projects, established the security of the nation by defeating the Nubians from Cush, and set up a series of defensive fortresses on the southern and western borders.

Trade with Phoenicia, mining in the Sinai desert, and at least one military raid into Palestine to Shechem indicate that Egypt had close relationships with Palestine when the patriarchs such as Abraham and his descendants first came to the land. The "Story of Sinuhe" describes an Egyptian's trip to Palestine and the fertility of the land. A painting in a tomb from this period shows 37 men from Canaan who traveled to settle in Egypt. Texts containing magical curses (the Execretion Texts) on Egypt's enemies contain the names of the kings of Tyre, Beth-Shemesh and Jerusalem. These indicate that Egypt's stability was weakening and that the second intermediate period of weakness (1750-1570 B.C.) was about to begin.

During this time of weakness, many non-Egyptians entered the country. A group called the Hyksos ("ruler from a foreign land") took control of the nation. Joseph's rise to an important position in the houose of Potiphar (Genesis 39) and his appointment to the task of collecting grain during the years of plenty (Genesis 41) were possible because other foreigners had significant places in the Hyksos goverment.

Some scholars once thought the Hyksos were the children of Israel, but few accept this view today. The Hyksos used the bow, body armor, the horse and chariot, and a new defensive wall system for Egyptian cities. But in spite of their military power, they were driven out of Egypt when the New Kingdom began.

The New Kingdom period (1575-1100 B.C.) parallels the biblical period just before the birth of Moses until the time of Samuel. The New Kingdom began when the Egyptians managed to drive out this Hyksos and reunite Egypt. This new dynasty was made of kings "who did not know Joseph" (Exod. 1:8). They began to persecute the Hebrews, forcing them to build the cities of Pithom and Rameses (Exod. 1:11). The Hebrews were seen as foreigners who were a threat to the security of the nation (Exod. 1:10), so they were enslaved.

The powerful Queen Hathshepsut carried out many building and reconstruction projects and expanded trade relations with several foreign countries. The next king was an aggressive warrior, and he conducted several campaigns into Palestine. Many believe his son, Amenhotep II, was the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Egyptian texts do not mention the ten plagues, the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt, or the defeat of Pharaoh and his army in the Red Sea (Exodus 7-15). But this would hardly be expected since the Egyptians seldom recorded any of their defeats. Before the Exodus, Egypt was at the height of its power; but GOD humbled the nation and taught its people that He was GOD - not Pharaoh or any of the other gods of Egypt (Exod. 7:5; 8:10,22; 9:14,29; 10:2; 12:12).

Many interesting stories come from this period of Egyptian history. "The Tale of Two Brothers" describes how the wife of one brother lied about the sexual advances of the other brother. This story is similar to the false accusation of Potiphar's wife against Joseph. Myths about the struggles between the gods Horus and Seth and the wisdom "Instructions of Amenemopet," which are in some ways similar to the book of Proverbs, are a few of the important literary compositions from Egypt during these years.

No one knows how the Exodus affected Egypt's religious beliefs. But several years later in the middle of the New Kingdom, King Akhenaten rejected the worship of Amon at Thebes and proclaimed that Aten, the solar disk of the sun, was the only god. A beautiful hymn of praise to Aten has been discovered. This shows clearly that Akhenaten was pushing the Egyptians to adopt belief in one god. Religious tension was very high because Akhenaten dismissed the priests at the other temples and moved his capital to El-Amarna.

About 350 letters from Babylon, the Hittites, and many cities in Palestine were found at this capital. These letters reveal that Palestine was under a great deal of political unrest during the time of Joshua and the judges. A few years later the famous King Tut (Tutankhamen), whose burial chambers were found near Thebes, ruled for a few years. He brought the nation back to the worship of its traditional gods at Thebes, relieving much of the tension within the nation.

During the final 200 years of the New Kingdom, the capital of Egypt was moved from Thebes to the city of Rameses in the delta area. Large construction projects at Thebes, Abydos, Abu Simbel, and in the delta stand as a memorial to the greatness and power of these kings. Some believe the Exodus took place during the reign of Rameses (1304-1238 B.C.), but this contradicts the statement of the Bible that the Exodus took place 480 years before Solomon began to build the temple in 955 B.C. (966 plus 480 equals 1446 B.C. for the Exodus). One king, Merneptah, described his defeat of several Canaanite countries and actually mentions his defeat of Israel.

There is a wealth of historical, literary, and religious writings from the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history. Papyri, ostraca, and tomb and temple acccounts give a graphic picture of Egyptian life. A primitive alphabetic script was discovered on the rocks in the Egyptian mines in the Sinai desert. The New Kingdom ended because of government corruption, strikes, inflation, and the increasing power of the temple priests, who constantly contended for greater advantage.

After the New Kingdom came the Late Period of Egyptian history (110-330 B.C.). The fragmentation of Egyptian power allowed David and Soloman to establish Israel as a strong nation. The Egyptian story of Wen-Amon's trip to Byblos to secure cedar for the construction of a ship for the Pharaoh tells how he was robbed and then refused the needed lumber until proper payment could be made. Such incidents clearly indicate the low status of Egypt during this time. The nation was not a strong military power; so more emphasis was placed on trying to form peaceful trade relations with neighboring states.

Solomon married the daughter of an Egyptian Pharoah (I Kings 3:1), but later in his reign a new king (probably Shishak) provided refuge for two of Solomon's enemies (I Kings 11:17,40). A few years after Solomon's death (930 B.C.), Shishak, a Libyan who had become Pharaoh, attacked Rehoboam, and plundered the gold from the king's palace and the temple in Jerusalem (I Kings 14:25-28). A monument of Shishak was discovered by archaeologists during their excavation of Megiddo. His record of this battle on the walls of a temple at Thebes indicates that he defeated 150 towns in Judah and Israel. Later Zerah, an Ethiopian general or Pharaoh (II Chron. 14:9-15; 16:8), led an Egyptian army against Asa, king of Judah; but GOD miraculously gave victory to Asa.

Ethiopian and Saite dynasties controlled Egypt for several hundred years until the destruction of Israel by the Babylonian King, Nebuchadnezzer, in 587 B.C. These Pharaohs were not particularly powerful because of the political supremacy of the Assyrians and the Babylonians. The Israelite king Hoshea sought the help of Pharoah So around 725 B.C. (II Kings 17:4) to fight against the Assyrians, but the Egyptians were of little value.

Around 701 B.C. Hezekiah was attacked by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Tirhakah, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, came to Hezehiah's aid (II Kings 19:9; Is. 37:9). The Assyrians themselves marched into Egypt in 671 and 664 B.C., destroying the Egyptiaan forces as far south as Thebes. To strengthen the Egyptian army, the nation hired Greek mercenaries to fight in their army; but this still did not give them any great strength. Josiah, king of Israel, was killed by the Egyptian Pharaoh Necho in 609 B.C. because Josiah tried to interfere with the Egyptian efforts to help the Assyrians who were under attack by the Babylonians (II Kings 23:29). After Josiah's death, Judah came under the control of Egypt; but in 605 B.C. the Egyptians were crushed by the Babylonians. Many Jews fled to Egypt after the destruction of Jerusalem, although the prophet Jeremiah warned against it (Jeremiah 39-44). Nebuchadnezzar later defeated Egypt (Jer. 46:13); he was followed by the Persians (525 B.C.) and the Greeks (330 B.C.). After 330 B.C. a group of Ptolemaic kings ruled Egypt, developing the great city of Alexandria as a center of culture and learning.

Many Jews lived in Alexandria during this period. The Greek translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew to Greek was completed during this time so the Greek-speaking Jews would have a Bible in their language. The Romans took control of Egypt around 30 B.C. From the second century A.D. until the Muslim conquest of Egyptin 642 A.D., Egypt was primarily a Christian nation.

The Religion of Egypt: The Egyptians were polytheists, believing in many gods. Many of these gods were the personification of nature, such as the Nile, the sun and the earth. But other gods stood for abstract concepts such as wisdom, justice, and order. Some gods were worshiped on a national level, but others were local deities. Many cities had their favorite deity, which was the patron god of that locality (Ptah at Memphis or Amon at Thebes). But the cosmic gods like Nut (the goddess of the sky), Geb (the god of the earth), and Re (the sun god), were known throughout the nation.

The beliefs and practices of the Egyptians changed over their 3000-year history. Thus, any discussion of the Egyptian religion must involve generalizations that permeated most aspects of religious life, as well as the individual details and variations that changed within the nation's complex history.

One of the most confusing aspects of Egyptian religion was its ability to accept the process of syncretism. Through this process one god would take on the characteristics of another god and thus eliminate its distinctiveness. Another aspect of Egyptian religion, which is largely hidden, is the extent to which the official beliefs of the priests differed from those of the common peasants. Since most information is based on the official records kept in temples and the tombs of the kings, it is likely that these do not represent the beliefs of the poorer people.

The Egyptians believed that the gods were intimately involved with all aspects of life. The gods caused the rain, controlled the growth of crops, determined birth and death, and ultimately were behind everything. Nothing happened by chance. They did not give natural explanations to events, because they made no distinction between the secular and the sacred. The Israelites also believed that GOD was the force behind everything, but they had only one GOD who was not identified with any part of nature. The Egyptians confused the Creator with His creation.

Many of these nature deities were represented as animals (bull, crocodile, falcon, ram, jackal) or by a part-human and part-animal statue. These gods were wordhiped in temples throughout the land. Huge temples that covered many acres were built for the great cosmic gods. These were cared for by a large company of priests. The priests were responsible for the regular festivals at the temples and for the daily care for the gods.

Since each god was the king of its own realm of influence, it was treated as a king in its temple. The deity would be awakened, washed, dressed, fed (by an offering), taken for walks, and put to bed. These practices were totally opposite the activities in the Israelite Temple, where GOD was separated from the priest in the Holy of Hoies. GOD was considered the King of Israel and the head of the nation, but the sacrifices were for the removal of man's sin - not to provide food for GOD.

The Pharaoh himself was one of the most important Egyptian gods. While ruling, he was the incarnation of the god Horus and the son of Re. After his death, he was identified with the god Osiris. The Pharaoh was a mediator between the people and the cosmic gods of the universe. Thus the Pharaoh was a key factor in determining the fate of the nation. Israel's kings were never considered gods, because GOD was the true King of Israel (I Sam. 8:7). Originally only the Egyptian kings had the possibility of eternal life after death, but later this hope was opened to all people. This possibility was dependent on one's character in this life.

The worship of Osiris was one of the most important aspects of Egyptian religion. Osiris was the king of the underworld, where people went after death, as well as the god of fertility. An Egyptian myth about the murder of Osiris by the god Seth and the subsequent avenging of his death by Horus was very popular in Egypt. It provided the basis for people's hope for prosperity and immortality in the next life because of fertility in this life.

Before the rise of cult of Osiris, the worship of Ptah at Memphis was dominant. The "Memphite Theology" claimed that Ptah was the supreme god of Egypt who created the world and man. The god Amon came to prominence when the kings from Thebes came to power and the god Aten received special attention during the reign of the Pharaoh Akhenaten. Thus the significance and honor of the Egyptian gods rose and fell according to the religious convictions of the ruling Pharaoh and the political power of the priests at the various temples.

In the New Kingdom period three gods were given special status: Amon, Re, and Ptah. One text even talks about these three as different aspects of one great Egyptian god. It is astonishing how religious the Egyptians were and how close some of their beliefs came to the truth. But there is no sign that their contact with Moses and the children of Israel had a lasting effect on the religious beliefs or practices within Egypt.

NEXTBack to Top
Back to Exodus

Home	Site Index	Bible Index
Kingdom Dynamics	Truth in Action	Links

&