(Note from Eri: Keep in mind the Author who wrote this piece wrote from a purely SCIENTIFIC point of view, not the SPIRITUAL point of view.... So I th ink this is a good overall history/science of the Thunderbird and Heyoka, but the Spiritual side is something that must be felt in the Heart...)
The Thunderbird is one of the few cross-cultural elements of Native
North
American mythology. He is found not just among Plains Indians, but
also
among Pacific Northwest and Northeastern tribes. He has also become
quite
a bit of an icon for non-Indians, since he has also had the honor of
having automobiles, liquors, and even a United States Air Force squadron
named after him. Totems bearing his representation can be found all
over
the continent. There have been a number of curious theories about the
origins of the Thunderbird myth - ones which I will show are probably
wrongheaded.
In this paper, moreover, I want to
examine how the myths and legends of the Thunderbird tie into the sacred
clowning/trickster ritual complex of Plains tribes such as the Lakota.
I
will show how the Thunderbird is intimately connected to this complex,
and attempt to explain why. It is the intimate association between
these
two traditions that may help explain some features of Plains culture
and
folklore. Aspects of the Thunderbird myth only make sense in light
of
these associations.
In order to understand Plains Indians folklore, we have to realize
that
their myths were not just "just-so" stories to entertain, divert, or
make
inadequate efforts at naturalistic explanation. Rather, Indian myth
functioned in religious, pedagogical, and initiatory ways, to help
socialize young people and illuminate the various religious and other
roles in society. Indian myth was always fluid, and grounded
in the
present, which is what might be expected of societies which largely
lacked static, written traditions. Storytelling was an art which was
maintained by the medicine people with great fidelity, because it was
used to explain the development of certain rituals and elements of
society. (Hines 1992)
Some have
looked at the Thunderbird
myths through the same lens of understanding applied to European
mythology. The Thunderbird is like the Indo-European DRAGON or ogre
or
Leviathan, a huge monster who kidnaps virginal maidens, and who must
be
slain by the brave hero. Or the Thunderbird is simply treated as some
kind of fantastic oddity, like the mythical unicorn or mermaid - an
impossible construction borne from the extremes of the imagination.
Both
these attempts at explaining myth lose the important point of seeing
Thunderbird as a personification of energies in nature - those
found in
violent thunderstorms and such - and his crucial dual nature.
Still, the Indians were not merely "mythmaking" in the pejorative sense.
Thunderbird is an allegory; his conflicts with other forces in nature
are
then an attempt to allegorize relationships observed in the natural
order, such as the changing of the weather. Like other Thunder Beings,
he
is essentially an attempt to represent the patterns of activity of
a
powerful, mysterious force in a way that can be understood simply and
easily - sort of the way in which a weather map functions today. (Edmonds
and Clark 1989)
The Plains Indians believed that
everything that was found in nature had a human representative in
microcosm. Everything in nature often contained its own opposite
polarity, hence the expected existence of beings such as contraries,
women warriors, and berdaches. Because the Thunderbird
in
particular represented this mysterious dual aspect of nature, manifest
through the primordial power of thunderstorms, it is not surprising
that
his representatives were the heyoka or sacred clowns,
who
displayed wisdom through seemingly strange action. Western thinking
has
prevented us from seeing the reasons why Indians perceived this
connection. Few anthropologists have sought to locate how Thunderbird
may
have been mythologically linked to Trickster.
In Plains tribes, the Thunderbird is
sometimes known as Wakinyan<, from the Dakota word
kinyan,
meaning "winged." Others suggest the word links the
Thunderbird to wakan, or sacred power. In many stories,
the
Thunderbird is thought of as a great Eagle, who produces thunder from
the
beating of his wings and flashes lightning from his eyes. (Descriptions
are vague because it is thought Thunderbird is always surrounded by
thick, rolling clouds which prevent him from being seen.) Further,
there
were a variety of beliefs about Thunderbird, which suggest a somewhat
complicated picture. Usually, his role is to challenge some other great
power and protect the Indians - such as White Owl Woman, the bringer
of
winter storms; the malevolent Unktehi, or water oxen who plague mankind;
the horned serpents; Wochowsen, the enemy bird; or Waziya, the killing
North Wind. But in some other legends (not so much in the Plains),
Thunderbird is himself malevolent, carrying off people (or reindeer
or
whales) to their doom, or slaying people who seek to cross his sacred
mountain. (Erdoes and Ortiz 1984)
Many Plains Indians
claim there are in fact four colors (varieties) of Thunderbirds (the
blue
ones are said, strangely, to have no ears or eyes), sometimes associated
with the four cardinal directions, but also sometimes only with the
west
and the western wind. (According to the medicine man Lame Deer, there
were four, one at each compass point, but the western one was the
Greatest and most senior.) (Fire and Erdoes 1972) The fact that they
are
sometimes known as "grandfathers" suggest they are held in considerable
reverence and awe. It is supposed to be very dangerous to approach
a
Thunderbird nest, and many are supposed to have died in the attempt,
swept away by ferocious storms. The symbol of Thunderbird is the red
zig-zag, lightning-bolt design, which some people mistakenly think
represents a stairway. Most tribes feel he and the other Thunder beings
were the first to appear in the Creation, and that they have an
especially close connection to wakan tanka, the
Great Mysterious.
(Gill and Sullivan 1992)
The fact that Thunderbird
sometimes appears as something that terrorizes and plagues Indians,
and
sometimes as their protector and liberator (in some myths, he was once
an
Indian himself) is said to reflect the way thunderstorms and violent
weather are seen by Plains people. On the one hand, they bring
life-giving rain (Thunderbird is said to be the creator of 'wild rice'
and other Plains Indians crops); on the other hand, they bring hail,
flood, and lightning and fire. It is not clear where with them worship
and awe end, and fear and terror begin. Some Indians claim that there
are
good and bad Thunderbirds, and that these beings are at war with each
other. Others claim that the large predatory birds which are said to
kidnap hunters and livestock are not Thunderbirds at all. Largely,
I
suspect that this dual nature of the Thunderbird ties it to the Trickster
figure in Indian belief: like the Trickster, the harm the Thunderbird
causes is mostly because it is so large and powerful and primeval.
Cryptozoologists
like Mark A. Hall, having studied the Thunderbird myths of numerous
tribes, and compared them to (mostly folkloric) accounts of unusually
large birds in modern times, as well as large birds (like the Roc)
in
other mythic traditions, suggest that there may well be a surviving
species of large avians in America - big enough, apparently, to fly
off
carrying small animals or children, as has been claimed in some accounts.
(Hall suggests the wingspan of such a species would be several feet
longer than any known birds - certainly bigger than that of the turkey
vulture or other identifiable North American species.) (Hall 1988)
Such
researchers feel the Thunderbird myth may have originated from sightings
of a real-life flesh-and-blood avian which might be an atavism from
earlier epochs (a quasi-pterodactyl or teratorn, perhaps.)
However, the big problem with this theory is that most ornithologists
consider it to be quite farfetched. If such a species existed (a
situation akin to the folkloric Sasquatch), it would be amazing that
to
this point it has remained unidentified and uncatalogued. A species
of
birds that big, unless it consisted of an extremely small number of
members, would find it hard to avoid detection for long. Hall does
suggest the possibility that maybe, like the mastodon, these large
birds
were hunted to extinction prior to the arrival of Europeans on the
North
American continent. Still, the other problem with his theory is that
it
ignores what Indians themselves have to say about the Thunderbird.
They describe the Thunderbird as a spiritual, not just
physical,
being. It is not seen as just a large, fearsome predatory bird that
people tell stories about. Rather, it's an integral part of Plains
Indians religion and ritual. Only by ignoring this fact could we put
our
Western ethnocentric biases into effect, and reduce it to a zoological
curiosity. The Thunderbird is much more than that; the Indian attitude
toward it comes from more than just the mere fact that it is supposed
to
be really big. To understand the origins of Thunderbird myths, it's
necessary to see how they connect with other elements of Indian belief
and ceremony - especially the Trickster complex - and see how they
fit
into the structure of Plains Indian myth as a whole.
Clowning, like
the
icon of the Thunderbird, could be found in almost every North American
Indian society. In every case, it involved ridiculous behavior, but
on
the Plains it especially exhibited inversion and reversal as elements
of
satire. There were four types of clown societies on the Plains -
age-graded societies, military societies, the northern plains type,
and
the heyoka shamanistic societies. The behaviors
of all sorts of
clowns revolved around a few basic themes or attributes: burlesque,
mocking the sacred, playing pranks or practical jokes, making obscene
jokes or gestures, caricature of others, exhibiting gross gluttony
or
extreme appetite, strange acts of self-mortification or self-deprecation,
and taunting of enemies or strangers. (Steward 1991)
The
age-graded clown societies primarily consisted of older people who
had
been inducted into their ranks - groups such as the Gros Ventre Crazy
Lodge or the Hidatsa Dog Society. These clowns were assumed to simply
be
playing a role appropriate to their sodality, rather than receiving
some
sort of supernatural inspiration. They carried out certain expected
ritual performances on proscribed days, such as the Crazy Dance or
the
imitation of animals. In contrast, the military clown societies such
as
the Cheyenne Inverted Bow String Warriors, often carried comical or
ridiculous weapons, but were also expected to show absurd bravery in
battle, provoking the enemy into giving up its discipline and cohesion
with taunts and insults. Not surprisingly, they sometimes rode their
horses backwards into battle.
The northern
plains clowns,
found among tribes such as the Ojibway, wore masks which made them
appear
to be two-faced, and costumes of rags which made them appear comical.
All
of these three types of clown societies practiced a sort of
conventionalized or patterned sort of anti-natural behavior.
That is,
they might do something which seemed strange or contrary, but under
somewhat regular conditions. You knew when they might do something
weird
- and there were times when they were forbidden to perform their antics.
Further, they might often "give up" the clowning way of life, and return
to a non-contrary state by marrying and engaging in a more normal mode
of
existence.
The
HEYOKA were different in three primary
ways from the other sorts of clowns. They were truly unpredictable,
and
could do the unexpected or tasteless even during the most solemn of
occasions. More so than other clowns, they really seemed to be
insane! Also, they were thought to be more inspired by
trans-human
supernatural forces (as individuals driven by spirits rather than group
conventions), and to have a closer link to wakan
or power than
other clowns. And lastly, they kept their role for life - it was a
sacred
calling which could not be given up without performing an agonizing
ritual of expiation. Not surprisingly, these unique differences were
seen
as the result of their having visions of Thunderbird, a unique and
transforming experience.
"When a
vision comes from the thunder beings of the West, it comes with terror
like a thunder storm; but when the storm of vision has passed, the world
is greener and happier; for wherever the truth of vision comes upon the
world, it is like a rain. The world, you see, is happier after the terror
of the storm... you have noticed that truth comes into this world with
two faces. One is sad with suffering, and the other laughs; but it is the
same face, laughing or weeping. When people are already in despair, maybe
the laughing is better for them; and when they feel too good and are too
sure of being safe, maybe the weeping face is better. And so I think this
is what the heyoka ceremony is for ... the dog had to be killed quickly
and without making any scar, as lightning kills, for it is the power of
lightning that heyokas have."
(quoted in Neihardt 1959:
It was
believed among the Lakota and other tribes that if
you had a dream or vision of birds, you were destined to be a medicine
man; but if you had a vision of Thunderbird, it was your destiny to
become something else; heyoka, or sacred clown. Like Thunderbird, the
heyoka were at once feared and held in reverence. They were supposed
to
startle easily at the first sound of thunder or first sight of lightning.
Thunderbird supposedly inspired the "contrariness" of the heyoka through
his own contrary nature. He alternates strong winds with calm ones.
While
all things in nature move clockwise, Thunderbird is said to move
counterclockwise. Thunderbird is said to have sharp teeth, but no mouth;
sharp claws, but no limbs; huge wings, but no body. All of these things
suggest Thunderbird (and the heyoka) have a curious, paradoxical,
contrary nature. You could become heyoka through a vision of the
Thunderbird, or just of lightning or a formidable winged being of power.
(Steiger 1974)
While clown
societies were found throughout
the Plains, the heyoka, or sacred clowns, were usually few in number,
but
were found in almost every clan. Heyoka were contraries, often speaking
and walking backwards. They acted in ridiculous, obscene, and comical
ways, especially during sacred ceremonies. They were thought to be
fearless and painless, able to seize a piece of meat out of a pot of
boiling water. They often dressed in a bizarre and ludicrous
manner,
wearing conical hats, red paint, a bladder over the head (to simulate
baldness), and bark earrings. The heyoka was thought to usually carry
various sacred items - a deer hoof rattle, a colored bow, a flute,
or
drum. His "anti-natural" nature was thought to be shamanistic in origin
-- and as a contrary, he was expected to act silly and foolhardy during
battle (although this was found more among warrior clown societies
such
as the Cheyenne Inverted Warriors.)
However
insulting or
sacrilegious heyoka actions might be, they were tolerated, since it
was
assumed they were acting on the higher and more inscrutable imperatives
of the Great Mystery. Heyoka were freed from all the ordinary constraints
of life, and thus were usually not expected to marry, have children,
or
participate in the work of the tribe. Despite their bizarre acts (such
as
dressing in warm clothes during summer or wearing things inside out),
they were trusted as healers, interpreters of dreams, and people of
great
medicine. Whenever they interrupted the solemnity of a ceremony, people
took it as an admonition to see beyond the literalness of the ritual
and
into the deeper mysteries of the sacred. Like the flash of lightning,
the
heyoka's sudden outbursts and disturbances were thought to be the keys
to
enlightenment - much like the absurd acts of Zen masters in Japan.
(Hultkrantz 1987)
Part of the link between heyoka and Thunderbird comes from <I>Iktomi</I>,
the Trickster figure. Iktomi is said to be heyoka because he has seen
and
talked with Thunderbird. Iktomi is the first-born son of <I>Inyan</I>
(rock), and is said to speak with rocks and stones. Like Coyote and
other
Trickster figures, Iktomi likes to pull pranks on people, but is just
as
often the victim of tricks and misfortunes. This makes him at once
a
culture hero, and a figure to be feared and avoided. Iktomi was thought
to be a hypersexual predator, one who frequently pursued
winchinchalas (young virgins) who bathed in streams,
through
various methods of deceit. Yet his pursuits and antics often wound
up
with him inadvertently getting hurt or winding up in trouble.
Paul Radin suggests that Iktomi and other Trickster figures are akin
to
the Great Fool or Wild Man of European folklore, who often shows up
in
the Feast of Fools and other ceremonies where the social order is turned
topsy-turvy. (Radin 1956) Jung, following his lead, claims the Trickster
as an archetypal part of the collective unconscious; and his "crazy
wisdom" as emblematic of humankind's earlier, undivided, unindividuated
consciousness. Iktomi and other tricksters seem to be at the constant
mercy of their desires; yet their blind luck always seems to protect
them
from the consequences of their missteps. He is dangerous primarily
because he is so powerful, yet so rarely has the forethought or good
judgment to use his power wisely. Radin and others proclaim him the
representative of untamed, unpredictably wild nature, within the confines
of culture.
In other
cultural traditions, thunder and
lightning are connected with the unexpected. We talk about a "bolt
out of
the blue." In American folk culture, there are a host of legendary
stories of mysterious cures or transformations wrought by someone being
struck by lightning. It's at once dangerous, and a symbol of sudden,
shocking revelation and inspiration. It's also the primary weapon in
most
pantheons of the chief sky god (such as Zeus in Greek mythology.) For
the
Plains Indians, thunder and lightning symbolized the vast, uncontrollable
energy of nature. It's not surprising, then, that the Thunderbird is
connected with the strange, uncontrollable force of the Trickster figure,
and his avatar, the heyoka.
Psychological
anthropologists, especially those oriented toward psychoanalytic theory
and depth psychology, point to the Trickster figure as a sort of
important cultural "release valve." He represents the "return of the
repressed," the Dionysian aspects of life only temporarily held in
abeyance by the Apollonian forces of civilization. The carnivals and
feasts held in honor of fools in Europe, suggest some anthropologists,
are "outlets," allowing people to invert the social order temporarily
as
a way of promoting its continuity in the long run (avoiding its ultimate
collapse.) The ruler is dressed in peasants' clothes, and some ignorant
serf is crowned king. Symbols of authority normally held in extreme
reverence are mocked and desecrated.
Clowns
and
contraries in Plains societies do not just come out once a year, however.
They are permanent parts of the society, and are seen as continual
reminders of the contingency and arbitrariness of the social order.
Long
before French theorists came on the scene, the heyoka was reminding
his
own people about the social construction of reality. By doing everything
backwards, the heyoka in a way is carrying out a constant experiment
in
ethnomethodology, showing people how their own expectations
limit
their behavior. Like a good performance artist, the shocking behavior
of
the heyoka is supposed to confront people and make them reconsider
what
they may have arbitrarily accepted as normal. It's to "jolt" them out
of
their ordinary frames of mind. (Steward 1991)
More
importantly, as a representative of Thunderbird and Trickster, the
heyoka
reminds his people that the primordial energy of nature is beyond good
and evil. It doesn't correspond to human categories of right and wrong.
It doesn't always follow our preconceptions of what is expected and
proper. It doesn't really care about our human woes and concerns.
Like
electricity, it can be deadly dangerous, or harnessed for great uses.
If
we're too narrow or parochial in trying to understand it, it will zap
us
in the middle of the night. Like any good trickster, the heyoka plays
pranks on others in his culture not to make them feel embarrassed and
stupid, but to show them ways they could start being more smart. <P>
Lame Deer calls the heyoka the "upside-down, forward-backward,
icy-hot
contrary." He describes in detail one particular heyoka trick
which
may give some clues to the nature of their antics. Apparently, they
would
grab pieces of dog meat out of a pot of boiling water, and fling them
at
a crowd of people, without being burned or harmed in any way. (Why
dog
meat? Lame Deer gives a clue when he says, "For the heyoka, he says
god
when he means dog, and dog when he means god.") Lame Deer suggests
before
doing this they chewed a grayish moss called tapejuta.
I suspect
that heyoka were able to perform this feat through going into trance,
an
altered state of consciousness, by utilizing this and other psychotropic
plants on occasion.
More importantly,
I think they induced
trance in others through their contrary behavior. Psychologists have
noted that trance does not always occur through rhythmic repetition.
Another way in which it occurs (the "paradoxical state") is through
a
sudden shock to the nervous system. Ethnomethodologists have often
noted
the blank, glassy stares and strange states produced by violating
peoples' expectations - by, for example, getting into an elevator and
facing the other people in it. It's in such "paradoxical states" that
people often may assimilate new information quickly, without filtering.
They also may be able to "abreact" psychological trauma. For these
reasons, the heyoka may have been seen as a source of wisdom and healing.
Lame Deer seems to
suggest the power of trance is connected
to the power of Thunderbird. As a paradoxical state of consciousness,
it
ties into the paradoxical energy of thunder and lightning. The crash
of
thunder can startle us and wake us up out of dreaming sleep. The trance
of the heyoka comes from sacred power. He ties it all together in a
way
that's fairly succinct.
" These Thunderbirds
are part of the Great Spirit. Theirs is about the greatest power in the
whole universe. It is the power of the hot and the cold clashing above
the clouds. It is blue lightning from the sun. It is like atomic power.
The thunder power protects and destroys. It is good and bad; the great
winged power. We draw the lightning as a forked zigzag, because lightning
branches out into a good and bad part... In our Indian belief, the clown
has a power which comes from the thunder beings, not from the animals or
the Earth. He has more power than the atom bomb, he could blow off the
dome of the Capitol. Being a clown gives you honor, but can also bring shame. It
brings you power, but you have to pay for it."
(quoted in Erdoes 1972: