Order
ARTIODACTYLA
Family
Bovidae
GAUR
Status: VULNERABLE
Bos gaurus (H. Smith, 1827)CITES: Appendix I
The Gaur,
or Indian Bison, inhabits evergreen and deciduous
forested hills and associated grassy clearings up to
1,800 m, eastwards from India, Nepal and Bhutan to
Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern
China and the Malay Peninsula. A large (650 - 1,000
kg) and where undisturbed mainly diurnal animal, it
lives in herds of from 2 - 40 individuals containing
only one mature bull. Other adult males may live
singly or in bachelor groups. Primarily a grazer, the
Gaur prefers green grass but in its absence will take
coarse dry grass, forbs, and the leaves of some trees
and creepers. In eastern India and Burma a
domesticated form of the Gaur, the Mithan, is widely
used both as a draught animal and for meat production.
The wild population probably numbered at least 10,000
in 1983 (Thornback 1983). It was however declining
drastically through over-hunting; intolerance of
habitat destruction and disturbance by people; and
exposure to the diseases of domestic cattle (e.g.
rinderpest, foot-and-mouth and anthrax). Outside
Protected Areas the Gaur is now confined to remote and
isolated forest regions. The species breeds in
captivity, and is protected by law in most countries
of its range. Adequate law enforcement in all
Protected Areas in which the Gaur persists is
required.
Sources:
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
Thornback,
J. (1983). Wild Cattle, Bison and Buffaloes: Their
Status and Potential Value. Publ. by WCMC,
Cambridge, U.K.
WILD
YAK
Status: ENDANGERED
Bos mutus Linnaeus, 1766CITES: Appendix I ( = Bos
grunniens )
The Wild
Yak inhabits alpine tundra and ice desert in the
Tibetan plateau and adjacent highlands at altitudes
from 4,270 to 6,100 m, occurring in China, India and
possibly Bhutan, Nepal and Afghanistan. Males may
weigh up to 1,000 kg, females only one-third as much.
The long shaggy coat reaches almost to the ground, and
in spite of the Yak's awkward appearance it is an
agile climber. It stays in high areas with permanent
snow during the few summer months, and descends to
lower elevations during the rest of the year. The diet
consists of grasses, herbs and lichens. Females and
young live in large herds - once reported to contain
thousands of individuals - while adult males live
alone or in groups of up to 12, only joining the
females during the rut. The Domesticated Yak is an
integral part of the economy of the people of the
area, used as a draught animal and for milk, meat and
wool production. Although legally protected in China
and India, Wild Yak have declined drastically in the
past few decades - primarily through uncontrolled
hunting by local tribes - and the species is now
confined to scattered and remote areas of its former
range. In 1983 the wild population was estimated to be
in the low hundreds compared to a population of
Domesticated Yaks numbering millions (Thornback 1983).
Measures considered necessary to conserve the Wild Yak
include surveys to locate viable populations; legal
protection throughout its range; the establishment of
further Protected Areas; and conservation education
programmes.
Sources:
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
Thornback,
J. (1983). Wild Cattle, Bison and Buffaloes: Their
Status and Potential Value. Publ. by WCMC,
Cambridge, U.K.
WILD
ASIATIC WATER BUFFALO
Status: ENDANGERED
Bubalus arnee (Linnaeus, 1758)CITES: Appendix
III (= Bos bubalus)
The Wild
Asiatic Water Buffalo naturally occurs only in India
(mainly in Assam and Madhya Pradesh) and Nepal. Wild
populations found elsewhere in Asia, Australasia and
Brazil are the descendants of either translocated or
feral individuals, since some 130 million Domestic
Water Buffalo are employed in agriculture throughout
the world. The Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo weighs 700 -
1,200 kg and inhabits wet grasslands, swamps, densely
vegetated river valleys and lake margins, and
sometimes drier savannah with scattered trees,
particularly in the south of its range. It is chiefly
a grazer, feeding in the morning and evenings and
lying up in dense cover or submerged in wallows during
the heat of the day. Females and young usually
associate in small groups, often accompanied by a
single adult bull, but led by an old cow. Other males
live solitarily or in bachelor herds. Once common, the
species' decline has been caused by loss of its
riverine habitat to cultivation and human settlement;
interbreeding with Domestic Water Buffalo; and
competition for forage with, and vulnerability to
disease (particularly rinderpest) transmitted by,
domestic stock. By the 1980s the total population was
probably only 1,000 - 1,500 (Thornback 1983) scattered
mainly in various Protected Areas. Due to
interbreeding with free-ranging Domestic Water Buffalo
only some 100 of these in the Bastaar region of Madhya
Pradesh could be considered "pure" stock
(Kane, 1989). Various proposed hydroelectric and
irrigation projects threaten some of the last known
haunts of the species. The Asiatic Wild Water Buffalo
will soon become extinct unless measures are taken to
protect its habitat and segregate populations from
livestock to prevent interbreeding and disease
transmission. It is protected by law in both India and
Nepal, but none are kept in captivity.
Sources:
Kane, R.
(1989). The Wild Buffalo. Asian Wild Cattle
Specialist Group Newsletter, No. 2. pp 4 - 5.
Thornback,
J. (1983). Wild Cattle, Bison and Buffaloes: Their
Status and Potential Value. Publ. by WCMC,
Cambridge, U.K.
MARKHOR
Status: ENDANGERED
Capra falconeri (Wagner, 1839) CITES: Appendix
II
HB
140-168cm; SH 65-100cm; W 32-100kg; H 82-143cm
(MacDonald 1985).
The
Markhor was once widespread in rugged mountain ranges
within the north-western great Himalayan Chain of
Afghanistan, Pakistan and India, its range also
extending in a southerly arc down through the mountain
ranges of Waziristan and Baluchistan in Pakistan. The
largest species of goat, with adult males weighing up
to 100kg, it is a striking animal since both sexes
bear long sharp-keeled horns twisted into a tight or
open spiral, and in addition males have a long neck
mane, pantaloons and strong markings. It has been
eliminated over most of its range by over-hunting as a
trophy animal, particularly within the last 25 years,
and also suffers from competition with domestic stock.
It now survives mainly in small populations in
isolated areas. Originally seven subspecies were
distinguished but taxonomic revision has reduced this
to three (Schaller and Khan 1975): the Flare-horned
Markhor C. f. falconeri from eastern
Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and north-western
India; the Tadzhik Markhor C. f. heptneri of
Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan in southern USSR and the
adjacent Badakhshan area of northern Afghanistan; and
the Straight-horned Markhor C. f. megaceros of
the border area between Afghanistan and Pakistan, from
approximately the Khyber Pass to Quetta. This last
subspecies is classed as Endangered and is dealt with
separately below. The Markhor occurs in forest steppe
and Artemesia steppe country at altitudes of
from 700 - 4,000 m, with access to cliffs (which form
its refuge from predators) and suitable terrain below
2,200 m where temperatures are moderate in winter. In
1976 the total population of Markhor was estimated as
8,000, although precise estimates are difficult
because of the physical and political inaccessibility
of many parts of its range. The breakdown was as
follows: 4500 C. f. falconeri in Afghanistan
and Pakistan plus 250-300 in India: less than 2,000 C.
f. megaceros, and 1,000 C. f. heptneri in
USSR plus 125-150 in Afghanistan (IUCN 1976). It is
believed that since 1976 most populations have
declined, with the exception of that in
Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park which has increased
under governmental protection, and one small
population north of Quetta, which has increased after
being accorded protection by the local community
(Thornback, 1989). The species is totally protected by
law in India and the USSR, and partially protected in
some states of Pakistan. It occurs in several
Protected Areas, including Chitral Gol Reserve in
Pakistan and the Dashti-Dhum Sanctuary in Tadzhikistan
- which harbours 70% of the population of the USSR -
but there is an urgent need to increase the number of
Reserves and improve levels of protection. Once
populations are re-established, controlled trophy
hunting could be implemented to generate revenue. The
Markhor breeds readily in captivity and is a popular
exhibit. The species is listed on CITES Appendix II,
with 3 subspecies C. f. chialtaensis, C. f.
jerdoni, and C. f. megaceros (see below)
listed on Appendix I.
Sources:
IUCN,
(1976). Markhor Red Data Sheet. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK.
Macdonald,
D.W. (1984). The Encyclopaedia of Mammals.
Unwin Hyman, London, UK. 895 pp.
Thornback,
J. (1989). Markhor Capra falconeri in Pakistan.
Unpublished report to N.C.C. 3 pp + Map.
NILGIRI
TAHR
Status: VULNERABLE
Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838 CITES: Not
listed
HB
90-140cm; SH 61-106cm; T 9-12cm; H 45cm; W 50-100 kg
(Nowak 1991).
The
Nilgiri Tahr is a goat-like animal with a short coat
and short, laterally-flattened, curved horns. Males
are black with a silver saddle and a short bristly
mane, while females are greyish brown with white
bellies. It is active intermittently from dawn to dusk
and is primarily a grazer, living in herds of from 6 -
104 animals, with average group sizes of 9 for
all-female groups and 27 for mixed herds (Davidar
1978, Schaller 1977). Mating takes place throughout
the year but there is a birth peak in winter. Wild
tahr rarely give birth to twins. A single offspring is
born after a gestation period of 180 - 242 days, and
females can give birth twice in one year. The species
was once abundant in grass-woodland mosaic habitat in
rugged hills and mountain slopes at altitudes from
1200 - 1600 m in the southern Indian states of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. It is now limited to some 17
populations in the Nilgiri, Anamalai, Palani and
Highwavy Hills, the Eravikulam area of the High Range,
and possibly a few other areas in the western Ghats.
In 1986 total numbers were estimated at 2,000 - 2,200
(Rice, 1986) relatively unchanged since 1978 (Davidar
1978). The Nilgiri Tahr has been protected by law in
India since 1972 and the two largest populations
(comprising approximately 50% of the remaining
animals) occur in Nilgiri Hills and Eravikulam
National Parks. In 1987 numbers in the latter were
estimated at 550 (Rice, 1988). Most other populations
are small (20 - 100) and isolated, and deserve more
attention since all are subject to poaching by
shooting and snaring, and many are also threatened by
grazing competition with domestic stock, hydroelectric
schemes, and habitat loss to agriculture and
plantations of eucalyptus and wattle. Ecological
studies are needed to form the basis of management
plans since sustainable harvesting and / or licensed
sport hunting of a restored population could be a
valuable source of protein and income for local
people. The Nilgiri Tahr breeds well in captivity.
Sources:
Davidar,
E. R. C. (1978). Distribution and status of the
Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) 1975-1978. J.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 815-844.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
Rice, C.
G. (1986). Conservation of Tahr. Caprinae News.
No. 1 (1): 7-9.
Rice, C.
G. (1988). Reproductive biology of Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus
hylocrius (Mammalia: Bovidae). J. Zool. Lond.
214, 269-284.
Schaller,
G. B. (1977). Mountain Monarchs. Wild sheep and
goats of the Himalaya. Univ. Chicago Press,
Chicago, USA.
Family
Suidae
PYGMY
HOG
Status: ENDANGERED
Sus salvanius (Hodgson, 1847)CITES: Appendix I
At 6 -10
kg the smallest member of the family Suidae, the Pygmy
Hog was once found in the southern Himalayan foothill
belt in southern Nepal, northern Bangladesh, Sikkim,
Bhutan and adjacent parts of northeast India.
Considered extinct by the 1960s, it was rediscovered
in 1971 in north-western Assam in India, to which its
distribution now seems confined. The population is
extremely small - in 1978 total numbers were estimated
at only 100 - 150 (Oliver in press). The Pygmy Hog
inhabits tall-grass upland savanna or "thatchland",
lives in small family groups of 5 - 20 individuals,
and feeds mainly on roots, tubers, insects and small
mammals. It is under threat from permanent habitat
loss to human settlement, cultivation, and
afforestation; temporary habitat loss due to the
harvesting of grasses to provide local thatching
materials, and the officially-sanctioned burning of
areas of grassland to improve grass yield for thatch
and grazing - both activities which temporarily
displace the Hog into less favourable regions; and
hunting for meat. Although the species itself is fully
protected under Indian law, enforcement is difficult.
In addition its habitat is only safeguarded in two
Protected Areas: Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary (2,621 ha)
the site of the Pygmy Hog's original
"reappearance", and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
which probably harbours the only viable wild
population. A plan to construct a hydroelectric dam
and flood control scheme in Manas was defeated in 1986
after the intervention of the Prime Minister of India,
but the Sanctuary was then occupied by armed political
extremists of the All Bodo Students Union in late 1988
/ early 1989 (Oliver, 1993). The current status of the
Pygmy Hog in Manas is therefore not known since access
is impossible, but it is assumed to be critical. The
establishment of new Protected Areas, improved
protection of wild populations, and better management
of captive populations are necessary. The Pygmy Hog
breeds well in captivity. A three-point Action Plan
proposed by the IUCN Pigs and Peccaries Specialist
Group is to be implemented in Barnadi, rather than in
Manas as originally suggested, and a field study of
the species' behavioural ecology and a captive
breeding programme are planned for 1991.
Source:
Oliver,
W. (1993). Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos. Status
Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Order
CARNIVORA
Family
Canidae
GREY
WOLF
Status: VULNERABLE
Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758CITES: Appendices I
& II
The Grey
Wolf was once the world's most widely distributed
terrestrial mammal, occurring throughout the
Palaearctic region above 20oN, and
ranging southwards into northern Mexico, Saudi Arabia
and peninsular India. Populations in the USA, Canada,
former USSR and Poland are large and relatively stable
- for example the Canadian population was estimated at
45,000 - 65,000 in 1991 (Anon. 1991) - but elsewhere
numbers are decreasing due to a combination of habitat
destruction by human settlement and agriculture;
hybridisation with domestic dogs; and persecution as a
livestock predator, competitor for game species
(particularly deer), and for fear of attacks on
humans. It is now extinct in many parts of its
original European range (e.g. U.K., France and
Germany) and only some 5,750 - 6,250 are left in west
and central Europe (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). At
12 - 80 kg the Grey Wolf is the largest canid species.
It occupies a variety of habitats from Arctic tundra
through forest to desert. Home range size varies from
30 to 1,000 km2 depending on the habitat
occupied. Living in large family packs, its diet
consists mainly of large ungulates which are hunted
co-operatively although smaller prey items, carrion
and garbage may also be taken (Mech 1970). The legal
status of the Grey Wolf varies greatly from region to
region. In some areas it is completely protected,
whilst in others it is the subject of concerted
eradication efforts by bounties, poisoning and
government control programmes. Although substantial
populations exist in Protected Areas in some parts of
its range, conservation measures necessary in Europe
include full legal protection; introduction of
livestock-compensation schemes for herders; limiting
of development in protected areas; reintroduction of
prey species; control of feral dog populations and
establishment of captive breeding programmes. The Grey
Wolf breeds well in captivity. Populations in Bhutan,
India, Nepal and Pakistan are listed on Appendix I of
CITES, all others are on Appendix II.
Sources:
Anon.
(1991). World Wildlife Fund - Canada proposes
carnivore conservation strategy. Wolf! Vol. IX,
No. 1: 29-31.
Ginsberg,
J. R. and Macdonald, D. W. (1990). Foxes, Wolves,
Jackals and Dogs. An Action Plan for the Conservation
of Canids. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Mech, D.
L. (1970). The Wolf. New York: Natural History
Press.
DHOLE
Status: VULNERABLE
Cuon alpinus (Pallas, 1811)CITES: Appendix II
The Dhole,
Red Dog or Asiatic Wild Dog is a fairly large (10 - 20
kg) pack-living canid found in thick scrub jungles and
dense forests up to 3000 m throughout mainland
southeast Asia from India to eastern China, and on the
islands of Java and Sumatra. Dholes prey mainly on
medium-sized ungulates e.g. chital deer, wild boar and
wild sheep, but rodents, reptiles, insects and berries
are also taken. The population is in steep decline in
most parts of India, the Soviet Union and the
Himalayas due to disease (virulent canine distemper
and rabies) exacerbated by contact with domestic dogs;
deforestation; depletion of natural prey outside
Reserves; and poisoning by herders. Fortunately
reasonably large sub-populations exist in Protected
Areas in India, where they have been studied by
Johnsingh (1982, 1985). In the long-term, populations
outside Protected Areas are unlikely to survive.
Recommended conservation steps include assessments of
the status of the species in Burma (which possibly
harbours the largest remaining wild population) the
former USSR and China, and the banning of the use of
poisons in Grey Wolf control programmes in the former
USSR. Dholes are legally protected in both India and
the Soviet Union.
Sources:
Ginsberg,
J. R. and Macdonald, D. W. (1990). Foxes, Wolves,
Jackals and Dogs. An Action Plan for the Conservation
of Canids. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Johnsingh,
A. J. T. (1982). Reproductive and social behaviour of
the dhole (Cuon alpinus). Journal of
Zoology, (London) 198:443-463.
Johnsingh,
A. J. T. (1985). Distribution and status of the dhole Cuon
alpinus Pallas, 1811 in South Asia. Mammalia
49:203-208.
BENGAL
FOX
Status: INDETERMINATE
Vulpes bengalensis Shaw, 1800CITES: Appendix
III
The
Bengal fox inhabits open country, thorny scrub and
semi-desert up to 1,500 m in India, Pakistan and
Nepal. Weighing 1.8 - 3.2 kg, it is believed to form
long-term monogamous pairs, and feeds
opportunistically on insects, fruits, ground-nesting
birds and smaller mammals. The species has been
eliminated from most of the Indian plains by killing
for sport and for the alleged medicinal properties of
its flesh, coupled with the loss of open habitat to
agriculture and human settlement. Currently no
significant populations exist in Protected Areas in
India, but the establishment of reserves for the Great
Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps should
improve the situation. An education campaign aimed at
curbing sport killing is necessary, together with a
survey of the distribution and status of the species
in Nepal and Pakistan.
Source:
Ginsberg,
J. R. and Macdonald, D. W. (1990). Foxes, Wolves,
Jackals and Dogs. An Action Plan for the Conservation
of Canids. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Family
Felidae
ASIATIC
CHEETAH
Status: ENDANGERED
Acinonyx jubatus venaticus (Griffith,
1821)CITES: Appendix I
The
Asiatic subspecies of the Cheetah is classed as
Endangered by IUCN. Originally distributed from the
Middle East to India and extending northwards into the
former USSR, it has disappeared from most of its
range. It is believed to survive in desert steppes and
low hills in the plateau provinces of Iran and
possibly also occurs in adjacent parts of Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Although long thought to
be extinct in India one sighting was reported in
November 1990 from Simlipal Wildlife Sanctuary (Anon,
1991). Like its African relative it has suffered from
persecution as a predator of livestock, and the
decimation of its natural prey species - particularly
gazelles - by motorized sport hunting. The Asiatic
Cheetah is totally protected by law in Iran and the
former USSR, and until 1977 populations in Protected
Areas in Iran were reported to be stable or
increasing. There were then estimated to be 200
remaining in the wild. In the last decade however, the
population has decreased severely. The present number,
status and distribution of Cheetah in Iran is not
known, and should be clarified.
Sources:
Anon.
(1991). Cheetah sighting in India. Oryx 25: 69.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
ASIATIC
GOLDEN CAT
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Catopuma (= Felis) temmincki (Vigors &
Horsfield, 1827)CITES: Appendix I
At 12 -
15 kg one of the larger members of the genus Felis,
the Asiatic Golden Cat is widely distributed from
Tibet, Nepal and India to southern China, Indochina,
Thailand, the Malay peninsula and Sumatra. It mainly
inhabits dry deciduous forest and tropical rainforest,
though it is occasionally found in more open habitats.
It is mainly terrestrial, often hunts in pairs, and
preys on hares, small deer, birds, lizards and other
small mammals. Nowhere common in any part of its
range, the species is declining in India and Indonesia
due to habitat destruction and intolerance of human
disturbance. It is protected by law in Malaysia and in
most Indian states. A survey of the status,
distribution and ecology of the Asiatic Golden Cat is
required to clarify its situation.
Sources:
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
IUCN
(1978). Asiatic Golden Cat Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
CLOUDED
LEOPARD
Status: VULNERABLE
Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith, 1821)CITES:
Appendix I
The
Clouded Leopard inhabits jungle and forests up to 2500
m from northeastern India and Nepal to southern China,
Taiwan, the Malay peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. A
medium-sized cat weighing 16 - 23 kg, it is believed
to live in pairs which may hunt together. It preys on
birds, monkeys, pigs, cattle, young buffalo, goats,
deer and porcupines. Its numbers have declined
drastically in the last 10 - 20 years due to habitat
loss to agriculture and overhunting for its pelt.
Although protected by law in most countries, illicit
trade in skins continues. In Taiwan there is a growing
market for pelts smuggled from mainland China, since a
Clouded Leopard jacket is a traditional symbol of
prestige. The species breeds well in captivity.
Sources:
IUCN
(1978). Clouded Leopard Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
ASIATIC
LION
Status: ENDANGERED
Panthera leo persica (Mayer, 1826)CITES:
Appendix I
Once
widely distributed from northern Greece eastwards
through Syria, Iraq and Iran to central India, the
Asiatic Lion was exterminated over most of its range
with the advent of modern firearms in the 19th
Century. The last remaining population occurs in the
1412 km2 Gir Forest Sanctuary of Gujarat
State in India, where it survived under the patronage
of the Nawab of Junagadh, and is now strictly
protected under Indian law. One of 7 subspecies of the
Lion (Panthera leo) - 2 of which are already
extinct - the Asiatic Lion weighs 150 - 250 kg and
inhabits teak forest, scrub and grassland. It lives in
social groups or prides and cooperatively hunts large
mammals e.g. nilgai, sambar, chital, and wild pig. At
one time the Gir Forest suffered heavily from
overgrazing by domestic cattle, reducing natural
ungulate populations and forcing the lions to turn to
livestock predation. Cattle have now been effectively
excluded and the lion population has increased from
180 in 1974 to 280 in 1990 (Anon, 1990). Plans have
been proposed to create a second lion reserve, both to
relieve the pressure on the Gir Sanctuary and to
lessen the risks of a catastrophe wiping out a single
population.
Sources:
Anon.
(1990). Asiatic Lion population up. p12 in Cat News
13.
IUCN
(1978). Asiatic Lion Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
TIGER
Status: ENDANGERED
Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)CITES: Appendix
I
HB
140-280cm; T 60-95cm; W 65-384kg (Nowak, 1991).
Within
the past century the Tiger occurred from eastern
Turkey and the Caspian Sea across Central Asia to the
sea of Okhotsk, and south through the Indian
sub-continent to South East Asia, Sumatra, Java and
Bali. It is adapted to a wide range of habitats, from
tropical rain forest, evergreen forest and mangrove
swamp to grassland, savanna and rocky country. The
largest species of cat, weighing from 65 - 384 kg, the
Tiger is usually solitary and preys mainly on large
mammals such as pigs, deer, antelope, buffalo, gaur
and on occasion, man. Fond of water, Tigers can swim
long distances. Male territories overlap those of
several females. The Tiger now persists only in
isolated pockets of its former range. Its decline has
been caused by habitat loss, mainly to agriculture,
logging, and malaria eradication programmes;
overhunting (both legal and illegal) for sport, for
skins, and for carcasses which are highly sought after
for use in Asian traditional medicines; elimination of
natural prey; and deliberate eradication programmes
and persecution for fear of attacks on humans and
domestic livestock - which have tended to increase as
numbers of wild prey have dwindled. Incidental capture
in traps set for wild pig and deer, and the
fragmentation and isolation of populations resulting
in poor breeding success have become more important
threats as the numbers of Tigers have decreased. Of
the original 8 subspecies of Tiger, 3 (the Caspian
Tiger P. t. virgata, the Bali Tiger P. t.
balica and the Javan Tiger P. t. sondaica)
are believed to be Extinct and the remaining 5
are considered Endangered. The total number of Tigers
in the wild in 1990 was only 6,500 - 9,000 (Jackson
1990) and probably only 2 subspecies now have viable
wild populations. The Indian Tiger P. t. tigris
increased in India from 1,800 in 1972 to 4,300 in 1990
under the government's "Project Tiger"
programme to establish Tiger Reserves (Anon, 1990) and
in 1990 the total population numbered 4,500 - 6,000;
while that of the Indochinese Tiger P. t. corbetti
was estimated at 1,100 - 1,500 (Jackson in litt.). In
contrast the South China Tiger P. t. amoyensis
is in immediate danger of extinction, having declined
from an estimated 4,000 in 1949, to 150 - 200 in 1981
- 1982, and being further reduced to 30 - 50 in 1990
(Koehler, 1991). The populations of the Amur or
Siberian Tiger P. t. altaica (estimated at 380
- 480 in 1990) and the Sumatran Tiger P. t.
sumatrae (estimated at 500 - 1,000 in 1990) are
fragmented and severely threatened (Jackson 1990). The
Tiger is totally protected by law in most countries of
its range except Burma, and occurs in many Protected
Areas (e.g. Corbett Tiger Reserve, India). It breeds
well in captivity and a Tiger Studbook is produced
each year. In the 1990 edition the captive population
was recorded as 1085 individuals belonging to all 5
subspecies (Anon. 1991). A Global Tiger Master Plan is
also in preparation to conserve the species in the
wild with support from captive breeding and
reintroduction programmes. Other measures necessary
include the effective enforcement of existing laws by
increasing levels of patrolling in Protected Areas to
suppress poaching both of the Tiger and its natural
prey; a clampdown on illegal trade in skins and tiger
products; prevention of encroachment on existing
Reserves and the continued establishment of new ones;
and a greater emphasis on protection outside Reserves.
In some regions public education and information
campaigns, and research on Tigers and their prey may
also be necessary (Koehler 1991). All populations of
the Tiger are now listed on Appendix I of CITES.
Sources:
Anon.
(1990). Results of Tiger Census in India. Cat News
13: 3.
Anon.
(1991). International Tiger Studbook 1990. Cat News
15: 6.
Jackson,
P. (1990). In litt. to WCMC.
Koehler,
G. M. (1991). Survey of Remaining Wild Population
of South China Tigers. WWF Project 4512 / China.
Final Project Report. WWF, Gland.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
MARBLED
CAT
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Pardofelis (= Felis) marmorata Martin,
1837CITES: Appendix I
The
Marbled Cat inhabits thick jungle from Nepal, India
and northern Burma to Thailand, Indochina, the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. A small (2 - 6 kg) shy,
nocturnal species, it is thought to prey on birds,
squirrels, rats and other small mammals, lizards,
snakes, frogs and small monkeys. It has always been
regarded as rare, but this may reflect the
inaccessibility of its habitat and its secretive
nature. Protected by law in most parts of its range,
the Marbled Cat is threatened by habitat destruction
and disturbance, since it deserts forests that are
even moderately disturbed. A survey of the
distribution, status and ecology of the species is
required to clarify its situation.
Sources:
IUCN
(1978). Marbled Cat Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
RUSTY-SPOTTED
CAT
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Prionailurus (= Felis) rubiginosa (I. Geoffroy,
1831)CITES: Appendices I & II
The
Rusty-Spotted Cat is a small (1 - 2 kg) solitary
species found in scrub, dry grassland, and open
country in India, and humid mountain forest in Sri
Lanka. It is nocturnal and preys on birds and small
mammals. Nothing is known about its status or
potential threats to its survival. It has been
recorded from the Gir Forest Sanctuary in India. The
Indian population is on Appendix I of CITES, the Sri
Lankan on Appendix II.
Source:
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
SNOW
LEOPARD
Status: ENDANGERED
Uncia (= Panthera) uncia (Schreber, 1775)CITES:
Appendix I
The Snow
Leopard (or Ounce) is found in the high altitude
mountain ranges of Central Asia from Afghanistan,
Pakistan and the former USSR in the west through
northern India, Nepal and Bhutan to Mongolia and
China. In summer it inhabits the arid alpine meadow
region between the tree-line and permanent snow at
elevations from 2,700 to 6,000 m, while in winter it
may follow its prey down into the forests below 1,800
m. At 25 - 75 kg the smallest member of the genus Panthera,
the Snow Leopard is solitary, crepuscular, and preys
on mountain ungulates such as markhor, ibex, bharal
and tahr, domestic stock, and smaller mammals such as
hares and marmots. It is believed to be in decline in
most regions due to uncontrolled hunting (for its fur
and other trophies, as vermin because it preys on
livestock, and because a large cat represents a
challenge to the hunting instinct of many hill
people); increased use of alpine pastures by people
and their livestock; and a reduction in natural prey.
The world population was recently estimated as 5 -
6,000 (Jackson 1987) with some 2,000 of these in China
(Schaller 1988) and 500 in India (Fox et al.
1991). Although the Snow Leopard is legally protected
in all countries of its range, enforcement is
difficult in the remote terrain it inhabits, and
therefore a stricter ban on the bazaar trade in skins
is necessary. It is present in several Protected Areas
(e.g. Hemis National Park, India) but more are needed
to secure refuges both for the cat and its prey
species. The Indian government has planned a five-year
"Project Snow Leopard" modelled on the
successful "Project Tiger" beginning in 1990
and aimed at securing the recovery of the species. The
species breeds well in captivity. A Species Survival
Plan run by the AAZPA exists to manage the breeding
programme for about 200 of the approximately 450 Snow
Leopard currently held around the world (Wharton,
1991).
Sources:
Fox, J.
L., Sinha, S. P., Chundawat, R. S. & Das, P. K.
(1991). Status of the Snow Leopard Panthera uncia
in Northwest India. Biol. Conserv. 55, pp
283-298.
Jackson,
P. (1987). Symposium on the Snow Leopard. Cat News
6: 14-17.
Schaller,
G. B. (1988). The Snow Leopard in China. Cat News
9: 29 pp.
IUCN
(1978). Snow Leopard Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.
Wharton,
D. (1991). Glasnost among zoos. p N5 in: Wildlife
Conservation. March / April 1991.
Family
Mustelidae
ORIENTAL
SMALL-CLAWED OTTER
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Aonyx cinerea (Illiger, 1815)CITES: Appendix II
HB
41-64cm; T 25-35cm (Macdonald)
The Asian
Small-clawed Otter is the smallest of the world's
otters, rarely weighing more than 5 kg. The coat is
coloured shades of brown, the throat being lighter
(white or grey). Asian Small-clawed Otters have
unusual hand-like front paws with increased tactile
sensitivity and reduced webbing, which they use to
forage for their prey of crustaceans, molluscs and
small fish. A gregarious species, it is often seen in
large groups of up to 15 animals, and captive studies
suggest that these groups are composed of a dominant
breeding pair and their offspring from successive
litters. The species is found from Palawan
(Philippines) through Indonesia, southeast Asia,
southern China, and westwards through the Himalayan
foothills of Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal. A disjunct
population occurs in southern India. This species is
widespread and common in parts of its range, but its
distribution is poorly known or unknown in several
countries. Threats include illegal hunting for
domestic markets, fish traps also catch and drown
otters. Special management practices are required to
ensure the survival of the species in particular
habitats, for example paddyfields, where it plays a
valuable role in the control of pests. There is need
to develop new protected areas for the species,
especially in the mangrove areas of Peninsular
Malaysia. It has been kept in captivity. A
reintroduction programme for the species should be
considered in Hong Kong.
Sources:
Foster-Turley,
P., Macdonald, S. and Mason, C. (Eds.) (1990). Otters,
An Action Plan for their Conservation. IUCN/SSC
Otter Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland. 126
pp.
Macdonald,
D.W. (1984). The Encyclopaedia of Mammals.
Unwin Hyman, London, UK. 895 pp.
SMOOTH-COATED
OTTER
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Lutra perspicillata I. Geoffroy, 1826CITES:
Appendix II
HB
65-75cm; T 40-45cm; W 7-11kg (Burton and Pearson,
1987)
Smooth
otters are so-named for their shorter, smoother coats,
as compared to the similar sized sympatric Lutra
species. From captive studies this otter appears to be
monogamous and is usually seen year-round in small
family groups. Although little is known of the ecology
of the species, it is known to occur in a variety of
Asian habitats, from mangroves to freshwater wetlands
and large forested rivers. The smooth-coated otter is
distributed throughout southern Asia from Indonesia
through southeast Asia, and westwards through southern
China and India, with an isolated population in Iraq (L.
p. maxwelli). In most of its range it is sympatric
with the Asian Small-clawed Otter and sometimes the
other Lutra species. Of all the Asian otters,
this one seems to be the most common through most of
its range.
Sources:
Burton,
J.A. and Pearson, B. (1987). Collins Guide to the
Rare Mammals of the World. Collins, London, UK.
240 pp.
Foster-Turley,
P., Macdonald, S. and Mason, C. (Eds.) (1990). Otters,
An Action Plan for their Conservation. IUCN/SSC
Otter Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland. 126
pp.
NILGIRI
MARTEN
Status: VULNERABLE
Martes gwatkinsi (Horsfield, 1851)CITES:
Appendix III
The
Nilgiri Marten is dark brown with reddish brown
foreparts, it is smaller than M. flavigula, but
its coat is similar. Found in southern India;
specifically the southern parts of Western Ghats, and
associated hill ranges from approximately 13°N, south
to the hills of Travancore. Reports indicate that it
survives in forest patches on mountain summits, mainly
semi-evergreen and evergreen forests, it is sometimes
encountered in coffee and cardamon plantations. The
marten is legally protected, but it is occasionally
persecuted as a pest by bee-keepers. The species is
known to occur in the Eravikalum-Rajamalai National
Park (9,700 ha) in Kerala and in Brahmagiri Wildlife
Sanctuary (18,100) in Karnataka, and possibly in
several others. Field surveys are required to locate
remaining populations of the subspecies and to
determine whether the existing reserves give adequate
protection to M. gwatkinsi and its habitat.
Source:
Schreiber,
A., Wirth, R., Riffel, M. and Van Rompaey, H. (1989). Weasels,
Civets, Mongooses and their Relatives, An Action Plan
for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids.
IUCN/SSC Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group. IUCN:
Gland, Switzerland. 100 pp.
Family
Ursidae
LESSER
OR RED PANDA
Status: VULNERABLE
Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier, 1825CITES: Appendix
II
HB
51-63.5cm; T 28-48.5cm; W 3-4.5kg (Nowak 1991)
The
Lesser or Red Panda resembles a racoon in size and
form, with reddish-brown fur and a ringed tail, and
weighs on average around 5 kg. This mainly nocturnal
species inhabits Himalayan temperate forests with
bamboo thicket understories at relatively high
altitudes (between 2,200 and 4,800 m), distributed
from Nepal to China (Yunnan and Sichuan provinces),
including Burma, Bhutan and India. The large scale
habitat destruction is threatening the species,
especially in the west of its range; forests are cut
for wood and cleared for agriculture. It has been
traded for its fur and the pet trade in the past.
There are taxonomic difficulties in classifying the
species, whether it is a raccoon, bear, or to be
grouped separately with the Giant Panda. The Red Panda
in China is sympatric with the Giant Panda, both
feeding on bamboo (although a variety of other foods
are eaten including some animals and fruits); if the
habitat of the popular Giant Panda is conserved, this
will also aid the conservation of the Red Panda (the
Chinese government has created 12 reserves for the
Giant Panda). It is protected in India and Nepal. In
response to the scarcity of the species, an
international breeding programme was initially
established in more than 30 zoos; it is now a popular
exhibit in zoos.
Sources:
Anon.
(1991). Cut cheese production to save pandas. Oryx
Vol. 25 (4), p 190. (refers to Conservation Biol.
(1991) Vol. 5, pp. 196 - 202).
Johnson,
K. G. (1990). Mystery of the Other Panda. In: International
Wildlife. Vol.20, No.6. Nov/Dec 1990: 30-33.
Nowak,
R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th edn.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London. 1629 pp.
Roberts,
M. S. (1984). Ailurus fulgens. Mammalian
Species. No. 222, Nov 1984: 1-8.
SUN
BEAR
Status: VULNERABLE
Helarctos malayanus (Raffles, 1821)CITES:
Appendix I
HB
1-1.4m; T 3-7cm; WT 27-65kg (Burton and Pearson, 1987)
The Sun
Bear was formerly widespread in the lowland forests of
South-East Asia from India eastward through Myanmar,
southern China, Laos, Viet Nam, Thailand, Malaysia,
and Indonesia. The species may now be extinct in
India, Bangladesh and China, and the range is
shrinking in most areas. Sun Bears inhabit protected
areas in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and possibly
the Siju Sanctuary in India. In Thailand the species
is called the "dog bear" because of its
small size and short hair; it is the smallest of the
eight bear species. It is mainly nocturnal, inhabits
forest, preferring high branches and diet includes
termites and honey. The Sun Bear is threatened by
trade both for pets and to provide various products;
bears are in demand for their meat and gallbladders to
supply the expanding illegal trade market. Habitat
destruction is another major threat, often caused by
conversion of lowland areas to plantations. The Sun
Bear is protected by law in China (a "first class
conserved animal"), Thailand, and Indonesia.
Legislation to conserve the species is poorly
enforced, if at all, in most countries of its range.
The Sun Bear is the least well-known of all bears,
with a very bleak future due to the lack of management
and understanding, coupled with habitat destruction
and poaching (Servheen, 1990 and Mills, 1991). The Sun
Bear is currently being studied in Sabah, Malaysia,
involving officials in Sabah (Servheen, 1991).
Sources:
Burton,
J.A. and Pearson, B. (1987). Collins Guide to the
Rare Mammals of the World. Collins, London, UK.
240 pp.
Mills, J.
(1991). "I want to eat Sun Bear". International
Wildlife. Vol.21, No.1. Jan/Feb 1991: 39-43.
Servheen,
C. (1990). The status and conservation of bears of
the world. International Conference on Bear
Research and Management Monograph Series No. 2. 32pp.
Servheen,
C. (1991). Update on Ongoing Projects Worldwide. IUCN/SSC
Bear Specialist Group Newsletter. No.2, Feb. 1991.
9 pp.
SLOTH
BEAR
Status: VULNERABLE
Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791)CITES: Appendix I
HB
140-170cm; SH 65-85cm; WT 125-145kg
The Sloth
Bear has long dark fur highlighted with white on the
muzzle, the tips of the paws and in a V-shaped breast
patch. It is nocturnal except in the remoter areas
when it may be active on cooler days. At night it
searches for fruits and insects and will also take
carrion. It is found throughout forested areas south
of the Himalayas, in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Nepal and Bhutan. It predominantly inhabits low
elevations, its optimum habitat being the dry
deciduous forests of central India. The species was
common in most forested areas of India up until the
1950s. In 1975 the population of Sloth Bears in India
and Sri Lanka was estimated at fewer than 10,000 and
declining (Jaffesson, 1975). Major threats include
forest cutting and intrusion of settlements into bear
habitat, which can lead to crop raiding incidents. It
has a low reproductive and recruitment rate in the
wild, and is therefore extremely vulnerable to
hunting. Bear species in India are killed for the sale
of parts to Bangladesh, and the Sloth Bear is no
exception; illegal hunting is also a problem in Sri
Lanka. The gall bladder is traded for its reputed
medicinal value. In 1990 the 62 kg of gall bladders
imported into Japan from China was estimated to have a
retail value in Japan of 3.9 million U.S. dollars
(Anon, 1990). The Sloth Bear is classified as
endangered by the Indian government; the species is
protected and sale of parts and exportation is
illegal. Sloth Bears have been reported from 13
protected areas in India; 3 sanctuaries have been
specifically created for the species. It is protected
in Sri Lanka, where it occurs in the low country dry
zone, including protected areas such as Rhuna National
Park. In Nepal it is partially protected by law and
occurs in protected areas such as the Chitawan
National Park (Santiapillai, 1989). There is little
information available on the species and further
research is required (Servheen, 1990). A two-year
radio-telemetry research study in the Chitawan
National Park began in 1990 to examine bear movements,
habitat use and food habits (Servheen, 1991). The
long-term survival of the species can only be certain
in the few larger, more remote protected areas.
Surveys are required to determine areas where
additional protection is needed urgently.
Subspecies:
Melursus ursinus inornatus Pucheran, 1855Sri
Lanka
Melursus ursinus ursinus Shaw, 1791India
Sources:
Anon
(1990). IUCN/SSC Bear Specialist Group Newsletter.
No.1, January 1990: 2.
Jaffesson,
R.C. (1975). Melursus ursinus: Survival Status
and Conditions. Ms. No.3. Washington D.C., USA.
15 pp.
Prater,
S.H. (1971). The Book of Indian Mammals. Bombay
Natural History Society. pp. 139-140.
Santiapillai,
A. and Santiapillai, C. (1989). Status, Distribution
and Conservation of the Sloth Bear (Melursus
ursinus) in Sri Lanka. WWF-Indonesia Programme:
Bogor, Indonesia. 6 pp.
Servheen,
C. (1990). The status and conservation of bears of
the world. International Conference on Bear
Research and Management Monograph Series No. 2. 32pp.
Servheen,
C. (1991). Update on Ongoing Projects Worldwide. IUCN/SSC
Bear Specialist Group Newsletter. No.2, Feb. 1991.
9 pp.
ASIATIC
BLACK BEAR
Status: VULNERABLE
Selenarctos thibetanus (G. Cuvier, 1823)CITES:
Appendix I (= Ursus thibetanus)
HB
1.2-1.8m; T 6.5-10cm; WT 90-180kg (Prater, 1971;
Burton and Pearson, 1987)
The
Asiatic Black Bear has a coat of smooth black fur
except for the distinct 'V' shape of white fur on the
chest. Its black claws easily distinguish it from the
Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), which has white
claws. It feeds upon a wide variety of vegetation,
fruits, insects and sometimes small mammals. It
inhabits forested uplands, mountains and tropical
moist forest below alpine elevations in much of
southern Asia. The former range extended from
Afghanistan and Pakistan in the west, across northern
India, Indochina and southern China, and to
northeastern China, eastern Russia, the Korean
Peninsula and Japan. The species may now be extinct in
Afghanistan, and is very close to extinction in South
Korea and Bangladesh. It is threatened by poaching,
opportunistic killing and agricultural expansion
throughout its range. The species is in demand in
Thailand as pets and for products; for example, in
1989 single servings of bear paw soup sold for several
hundred U.S. dollars. The export of bear gall bladders
has been a major problem in China, the trade provides
a large source of foreign capital as gall bladders can
fetch high prices. Japan continues to trade in Asiatic
Black Bear products through an alteration of their
CITES agreement. Specific legislation and efficient
implementation is needed to protect bears from
hunting. The species could become extinct throughout
most of its range in the near future unless there are
stricter controls on the trade in bear products.
Asiatic Black Bears are protected by legislation in
South Korea (although bears are imported for
traditional medicinal products), and in eastern
Russia. The species is marginally protected by law in
Thailand and China. They are known to inhabit Indian
protected areas, and hunting has been regulated in
India since 1972 (Servheen, 1990). There are plans to
study the natural history of the species in reserves
in Taiwan, and a primary census is planned for
Sichuan, China in 1991 (Servheen, 1991).
Sources:
Burton,
J.A. and Pearson, B. (1987). Collins Guide to the
Rare Mammals of the World. Collins, London, UK.
240 pp.
Prater,
S.H. (1971). The Book of Indian Mammals. Bombay
Natural History Society.
Servheen,
C. (1990). The status and conservation of bears of
the world. International Conference on Bear
Research and Management. Monograph Series No. 2. 32pp.
Servheen,
C. (1991). Update on Ongoing Projects Worldwide. IUCN/SSC
Bear Specialist Group Newsletter. No.2, Feb. 1991.
9 pp.
Family
Viverridae
JERDON'S
PALM CIVET
Status: VULNERABLE
Paradoxurus jerdoni Blanford, 1885CITES: Not
Listed
HB 59cm;
T 52cm; WT 3.6kg (Macdonald)
Jerdon's
Palm Civet is endemic to the evergreen rain forest
belt of southwest India, distributed in Western Ghats
and associated hill ranges, possibly as far north as
Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka. The species is
known to inhabit humid forest and coffee plantations.
The coat is dark brown to black with grey speckling.
The species has been kept in captivity (1969). The
occurrence in several protected areas is confirmed,
and considered likely in several others. Protection of
the remaining forests throughout the Western Ghats is
required to conserve the species. A field survey in
the Western Ghats to identify areas where populations
of the species still survive and what their
conservation needs are is required.
Sources:
Macdonald,
D.W. (1984). The Encyclopaedia of Mammals.
Unwin Hyman, London, UK. 895 pp.
Schreiber,
A., Wirth, R., Riffel, M. and Van Rompaey, H. (1989). Weasels,
Civets, Mongooses and their Relatives, An Action Plan
for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids.
IUCN/SSC Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group. IUCN:
Gland, Switzerland. 100 pp.
Order
CETACEA
Family
Delphinidae
IRRAWADDY
DOLPHIN
Status: INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN
Orcaella brevirostris (Gray, 1866)CITES:
Appendix II
The
Irrawaddy Dolphin is a warm-water species found only
in the tropics and subtropics, mostly in shallow
coastal waters. Nevertheless some animals probably
live all their life in freshwater and they occur in
many major river systems, reputedly as far as 1,300 km
from the sea. This species is restricted to the coasts
and rivers of Southeast Asia and northern Australia,
from the Bay of Bengal to north Australia. Population
figures are scarce but there is no indication that
this species is currently under threat, although its
habitat is vulnerable to dams and other human
disturbance. Because of their coastal and riverine
habitat, Irrawaddy dolphins often come in contact with
man. They are killed for food in only a small part of
their range, but often become accidentally entangled
in fishing nets and even in anti-shark nets in
northern Australia. Fishermen in Cambodia and Vietnam
are said to regard them as sacred and use them to
drive fish into nets. These dolphins have been kept in
several captive facilities in Southeast Asia, where
breeding has been successful.
Source:
Martin,
A.R. (1990). Whales and Dolphins. Salamander
Books Ltd.: London.
Family
Platanistidae
GANGES
RIVER DOLPHIN
Status: VULNERABLE
Platanista gangeticaCITES: Appendix I
The
Ganges River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Karnaphuli and Meghana Rivers and their tributaries in
India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The species
prefers deep water and migrates seasonally upstream as
the water level rises. It feeds mainly on fish,
shrimps and molluscs, relying heavily on echolocation
and touch to find its prey due to its poor eyesight.
Formerly abundant, but now reduced to approximately
5,000 individuals (3-4,000 in India), the species is
threatened by pollution, dams, mining and directed and
incidental catch. The dolphins of the Ganges system
are now divided into small isolated subpopulations.
The Ganges River Dolphin is protected by nature
conservation laws in Nepal and India. Creation of
protected areas could prove effective in conserving
the dolphin and suggestions have been made for
specific sites. Surveys of populations would also
assist conservation efforts, as would campaigns
promoting awareness of the species amongst the local
people.
Source:
Perrin,
W., Brownell, J., Kaiya, Z. and Jiankang, L. (1989). Biology
and Conservation of the River Dolphins.
Proceedings of the Workshop on Biology and
Conservation of the Platanistoid Dolphins, at Wuhan,
P.R. of China. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.
Order
PERISSODACTYLA
Family
Equidae
ASIATIC
WILD ASS
Status: VULNERABLE
Equus hemionus (Pallas, 1775)CITES: Appendices
I & II
Also
known generically as the Kulan or Onager, the Asiatic
Wild Ass was once abundant over a large part of arid
and semi-arid E. Europe and Asia from Bulgaria and
Roumania in the west to Manchuria in the east. Five
subspecies are recognised. The Syrian Wild Ass (E.
h. hemippus) is believed to be Extinct and the
Indian Wild Ass or Khar (E. h. khur) is listed
as Endangered. These two subspecies are dealt with
separately. The whole species is collectively classed
as Vulnerable and listed on CITES Appendix II. The
Dzigettai or Mongolian Wild Ass (E. h. hemionus)
is now mainly restricted to high semi-desert
grassland, river margins and gorges in southern
Mongolia, where there is a population in the Great
Gobi National Park. It ranges eastwards to 106oE
and is also be found in Sinkiang, China, where the
population was estimated at approximately 1,000 in
1988 (Clark 1991). Dzigettai weigh approximately 290
kg, are grazers, and feed mainly on cereal species and
wormwood. Females and young live in breeding herds
with a single adult male: other males form bachelor
groups. Herds may aggregate on good pastures or during
winter. The ecology of the other subspecies of Asiatic
Wild Ass is believed to be similar. The Dzigettai is
fully protected by law in China and Mongolia and is
listed on Appendix I of CITES. Scattered populations
of the Kiang (E. h. kiang) occur in similar
semi-desert habitats on the high Tibetan plateau and
in Protected Areas in adjacent parts of both India and
Pakistan. The Kiang is fully protected under Chinese
law. The Onager (E. h. onager) persists only in
and around Protected Areas in northern Iran and
Turkmenistan in the USSR, possibly migrating into
Afghanistan. It is fully protected by law in both Iran
and the USSR, and is the only subspecies to be
breeding well in captivity. The Asiatic Wild Ass has
been in decline for over 2000 years, mainly due to
exclusion from forage and water supplies by human
settlement and domestic stock grazing, although
hunting and disease have also contributed. Provided
Protected Areas continue to be policed effectively,
the Asiatic Wild Ass may easily be saved, since it now
occupies habitats that are sub-optimal for humans and
their livestock.
Sources:
IUCN
(1979). Asiatic Wild Ass Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Clark, B.
(1991). Wild Assumptions. BBC Wildlife, Vol. 9
No. 10, p 737, August 1991.
INDIAN
WILD ASS
Status: ENDANGERED
Equus hemionus khur (Lesson, 1827)CITES:
Appendix I
The
Indian Wild Ass, Khar or Gorkhar, inhabits remote
parts of the Little Rann of Kutch, a 259,000 ha. salt
plain along the Indian / Pakistan border. The Asses
that live in the Qatruaye Basin, a restricted area
about 160 km east of Shiraz in Iran may also belong to
this subspecies. The Khar inhabits hills during the
monsoon, and in the dry season descends and forages
along the edge of the Little Rann, where it frequently
raids cultivated fields during darkness. The main
threats to the Khar are overgrazing by livestock;
persecution by farmers in retaliation for
crop-raiding; and contraction of diseases from
domestic horses. The Khar was given full legal
protection in 1952, and the entire Little Rann of
Kutch was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1973. The
last known census indicated that the population had
increased from 700 in 1976 to 2,000 in 1983 (D'Souza
1983). Conservation measures necessary include the
prohibition of firearms, salt extraction and grazing
of domestic stock in the Sanctuary, and a more
strictly enforced campaign of vaccination against
horse sickness in the surrounding settlements.
Sources:
D'Souza,
E. (1983). In litt. to WCMC
IUCN
(1979). Asiatic Wild Ass Red Data Sheet. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Family
Rhinocerotidae
SUMATRAN
RHINOCEROS
Status: ENDANGERED
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) CITES:
Appendix I
At 800 kg
the smallest member of the family, the Sumatran or
Asian Two-horned Rhinoceros inhabits montane rain
forest in South East Asia. A solitary species, it is
primarily a browser, feeding on fruit, leaves, twigs
and bark. Its sparse covering of long hair - in sharp
contrast to the other hairless species of rhinoceros -
has earned it the soubriquet of Woolly Rhinoceros. The
original distribution stretched from Bhutan and
eastern India through Burma, southern China, Thailand,
and Malaysia to Sumatra and the island of Borneo (with
unconfirmed reports of its presence in northern Laos,
Cambodia and western central Vietnam). Only 500 - 900
Sumatran Rhinoceros are believed to remain, mostly in
scattered inviable populations in Burma, Thailand, the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo (Khan 1989). The
decline has been caused mainly by hunting to provide
horns and other parts of the carcase for traditional
Oriental medicines. In 1990 Asian rhino horn was
reaching a wholesale value of up to US$54,000 per kg
in Taiwan, partly because wealthy individuals were
buying it not only to cure ailments but as an
investment, since as wild stocks decline the price is
expected to leap still higher (Bradley Martin and
Bradley Martin 1991). Habitat destruction due to
logging and agricultural development is however
increasingly affecting the species - particularly in
Sumatra which harbours the bulk of the remaining wild
population and is under intensive development by
Indonesia's transmigration programme. The Sumatran
Rhinoceros is extremely sensitive to human presence,
and readily abandons areas in which it has been
disturbed. Conservation measures proposed include the
capture of "doomed" animals from the wild to
further develop the small captive population (24 were
held in collections in the U.K., the U.S.A., Malaysia,
Thailand and Indonesia in mid-1991 (Foose, 1991)); the
concentration of in situ conservation efforts
on the 7 - 9 wild subpopulations considered to be
reasonably viable in the long-term out of the known
total of 35; gazetting of new Protected Areas (e.g.
Kerinci Seblat in Sumatra may now (5/5/92) have
been gazetted - check) to supplement those already
containing the species; improved enforcement of
existing legislation against poaching and trade in
rhinoceros products; and the financing of surveys in
Kalimintan (Indonesia), Thailand and northern Burma to
determine whether appreciable populations of Sumatran
Rhinoceros survive there.
Sources:
Bradley
Martin, C. and Bradley Martin, E. (1991). Profligate
spending exploits wildlife in Taiwan. Oryx Vol
25 No. 1: 18 - 20.
Foose, T.
(1991). Summary of Sumatran Rhino Captive Programs -
1984 to 1991. Around the Horn, Vol. 2, No. 1:
9.
Khan, M.
K. M. (1989). Asian Rhinos An Action Plan for their
Conservation. IUCN/SSC Asian Rhino Specialist
Group. IUCN/WWF Gland.
INDIAN
RHINOCEROS
Status: ENDANGERED
Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758 CITES:
Appendix I
Also
known as the Great or Greater One-horned Rhinoceros,
the Indian Rhinoceros once ranged across the entire
northern part of the Indian sub-continent from
Pakistan through parts of Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh
to the Indo-Burmese border. It may also have existed
in Burma, southern China and Indochina. A large (2,000
- 4,000 kg) solitary species which mainly inhabits
floodplain grasslands alongside rivers and lakes but
is also found in drier forest areas in Nepal, the
Indian Rhinoceros is primarily a grazer. The species
has been eliminated in most areas by hunting for its
horn, and habitat loss to agriculture and stock
grazing. It is now confined to isolated pockets of its
original range in north-eastern India, Nepal, and
Pakistan, and the bulk of the surviving animals occur
in Protected Areas. Under strict protection by the
Indian and Nepalese wildlife authorities numbers have
increased from an estimated 1,000 - 1,100 in 1977 (WCMC
1978) to 1,700 in 1987 (Khan 1989) and an estimated
1,950 in 1991 (Bradley Martin and Vigne 1991). The
majority of these - 1,510 - inhabit the Indian state
of Assam, where approximately 1,250 are found in the
Kaziranga National Park (Vigne and Bradley Martin,
1991). Animals have successfully been translocated to
re-establish populations in areas where they had been
exterminated. Although the Indian Rhinoceros is the
least threatened of the Asian species, poaching
pressure has recently intensified: 58 were killed in
Assam in 1990, including at least 7 which were
electrocuted by poachers using high voltage wires that
run through the Kaziranga and Pobitara sanctuaries
(Anon. 1991). Encroachment by agriculturists on
Protected Areas continues; and invasion by the exotic
plants Mikania scandens and Eichhornia
crassipes is causing problems in Assam and West
Bengal by smothering and preventing growth of native
grasses, producing serious loss of rhino food
resources. Conservation measures proposed include the
maintenance of a wild population of at least 2,000
rhinos; concentration of field efforts on the six
sanctuaries which contain reasonably viable wild
populations (i.e. > 100 animals), namely Kaziranga,
Manas, Orang and Dudhwa in India, and Chitawan and
Bardia in Nepal; clampdown on illegal trade in rhino
products; and an increase in the size of the current
captive world herd from 75 to 150 (Khan, 1989).
Sources:
Anon.
(1991). Rhinos electrocuted. Oryx 25: 65.
Bradley
Martin, E. and Vigne, L. (1991). The horn quintet. BBC
Wildlife, Vol. 9. No. 5. pp 356-357.
Khan, M.
K. M. (1989). Asian Rhinos An Action Plan for their
Conservation. IUCN/SSC Asian Rhino Specialist
Group. IUCN/WWF Gland.
Vigne, L.
and Bradley Martin, E. (1991). Assam's rhinos face new
poaching threats. Oryx, Vol. 25 (4): 215 - 221.
Order
PROBOSCIDEA
Family
Elephantidae
INDIAN
ELEPHANT
Status: ENDANGERED
Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758CITES: Appendix I
The
Indian, Asiatic or Asian Elephant once occurred in a
variety of lowland and montane forest and savanna
habitats up to 3,600 m from the Tigris and Euphrates
basin in Syria and Iraq, through Asia south of the
Himalayas and north into China. Today it occupies
scattered fragments of its former range in 13
countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Thailand and Vietnam. Only between 34,000 and 54,000 -
one tenth of the number of African elephant - survive
in a land area of just 500,000 km2 (Santiapillai
& Jackson 1990). The population is concentrated in
India (17 - 22,000 head) and Burma (3,000 - 10,000
head). Indian Elephants weigh 4 - 5 tonnes and eat up
to 150 kg of vegetation each day. Grass forms the
principal component of the diet, and its availability
determines seasonal elephant movements. The species is
gregarious: females and young live in matriarchal
family units of approximately 6 animals, while adult
males live singly or in small groups and have no
permanent ties with the females. The Indian Elephant
adapts well to domesticity, and has been used for
centuries as a draught animal in forest industries,
warfare, and ceremonials. It breeds well in captivity,
and there are currently approximately 16,000 tame
elephants, mostly employed in the timber industry in
Burma, India, Indo-China and Thailand. Most of these
have been captured from the wild. The Indian Elephant
is legally protected in most countries of its range
and occurs in numerous Protected Areas, but poaching
for ivory (and in Burma for hides which are exported
to Thailand) continues. Although since Roman times
exploitation for ivory was the main factor in the
Indian Elephant's gradual decline, the species is not
currently greatly threatened by the international
ivory trade. Unlike the African Elephant, only males
have tusks, and many males are tuskless, so even
intensive poaching for ivory leaves a nucleus of
breeding females. Instead the major problem faced by
the Indian Elephant in the 20th century is habitat
destruction and fragmentation of populations. It is
now almost totally excluded from lowland habitats by
human occupation, and in hilly areas where it is
compressed into small pockets of remnant forest,
conflict with surrounding agriculturists occurs.
Crop-raiding is frequent and there are often human
deaths. In India alone about 200 people are killed
every year. Proposed conservation measures include the
stricter enforcement of national laws and CITES
regulations; creation of new Protected Areas and the
establishment of large Managed Elephant Reserves where
human activities compatible with conservation would
continue, but elephants would have priority in
management decisions; maintenance of forest corridors
to facilitate migration between Protected Areas;
establishment of compensation schemes for crop losses
and measures to counteract and prevent crop-raiding,
including the planting of barriers of crops
unattractive to elephants such as tea and oilseeds,
and the construction of non-lethal electric fencing;
translocation of elephants, both away from nuisance
areas and to maintain genetic variability of small
populations; and ecological research and public
education programmes. In India Project Elephant (along
the lines of Project Tiger) was scheduled to be
launched in 1990-1991.
Source:
Santiapillai,
C. & Jackson, P. (1990). The Asian Elephant: An
Action Plan for its Conservation. IUCN/SSC Asian
Elephant Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
