PROGRESSIVE ERA, 1900-1917, LECTURE NOTES

Part 1: The Progressives

I would recommend you get in the mood by going to the Main Progressive Page> and listen to some of the music. Let me know what you think of early 20th century music.

The Progressive Era is named after the reformers who referred to themselves as "progressives." Progressive means favoring or advocating progress, change, improvement, or reform, as opposed to wishing to maintain things as they are. You get to be the judge if they were really progressive. The era of reform actually began in the late 19th century with laws like the Dawes Act, Interstate Commerce Act, Sherman Anti-Trust Act, Chinese Exclusion Act, and reforms demanded by the Populists.

The 20th century continued the fight against laissez-faire. The progressives will eventually redefine the role of government and redefine American life. Everyday you are affected by Progressive Era laws. But, who were these people who wanted change?

They had no one philosophy. They belonged to all political parties. They were ethnically diverse. They were both men and women. The one characteristic they shared was being middle-class, college educated, and professionals or identified with their values. They also shared a fear of both the very wealthy and the very poor. Are you afraid of wealthy people? Are you afraid of poor people? Why would the progressives fear them?

Progressives feared the wealthy (meaning big business leaders) took advantage of them as consumers while making impure products. They feared unfair competition, in particular, because the middle-class represented small business. Think of a small town where "Mom and Pop" stores dominate until Walmart comes to town. What happens to the small business owned by the middle-class? Progressives felt they were being squeezed out. Progressives also feared the wealthy had too much influence on politicians. They worried that mistreating laborers led to tensions and and it might push the poor toward violence and radicalism.

The poor created fear because they might become violent. The progressives saw the poor as ignorant. They did not understand democracy. They might try to get what the middle-class had. They elected corrupt politicians, did not know how to raise their kids, and were immoral.

Progressives wanted to preserve their status and enhance their power and control the excesses of both the very rich and the very poor. They felt pressured from both sides. Like today they used media to publicize the evils of society to get public support for their causes. Especially important were the so-called MUCKRAKERS. This was a term created by Theodore Roosevelt meaning looking for dirt. Muckrakers were writers who exposed the evils of society.

Part 2: Politics and Foreign Policy

There were three Presidents who referred to themselves as progressives. Theodore Roosevelt (or T.R.) was the Republican Vice President when McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in 1901. Roosevelt (not to be confused with Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s/they were distant cousins) became our youngest President up to that time and was re-elected in 1904. Next, was William Taft, another Republican and Roosevelt's Secretary of War (now called the Department of Defense). The third progressive President was Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, elected in 1912 when a third party led by Roosevelt (Bull Moose party) split the Republican vote.

Theodore Roosevelt had the biggest impact on the role of the U.S. President especially in foreign policy. He was a different kind of President. He was young (42), an outdoorsman, virile, skillful, shrewd, colorful, an author, birdwatcher, and hunter. He saw the presidency as a "bully pulpit" meaning a good way to lead people in a secular (non-religious) manner. He believed he should tell Americans what to do as their leader, and they should follow his advice.

By the age of 42, T.R. had been the Civil Service Commissioner, New York Police Commissioner, Governor of New York, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Vice President, and President. He had also led the "Rough Riders," volunteer troops who served in Cuba during the Spanish-American War in 1898. He also had fun being President. he annoyed Republican conservatives because he wanted change and informality. Being the center of attention drove him.

He did have competition in the form of his daughter, Alice. She rebelled as a "Gibson Girl." Alice had been named after her mother who died in childbirth. On the same day Alice Roosevelt died, Roosevelt's mother died also. He was a strong man obviously to survive all that. Roosevelt seemed proud of how his daughter turned out as a teenager in the White House. Even when his aides complained about her wild behavior he responded that he could do one thing. He could be President or control Alice but not both. He focused on the presidency and in the end all was well and Alice married in the White House. He probably understood Alice came by her character naturally through him. Both were almost hyperactive.

Theodore Roosevelt was a complex man. On the one hand, he could be considered to be liberal. He was the first President to devote attention to the environment. His administration created 150 National Forests, 51 Federal Bird Reservations, 4 National Game Preserves, 5 National Parks, 18 National Monuments, and 24 Reclamation Projects. That a lot of that land had been taken from Hispanics and American Indians was not an issue at the time.

In addition, Roosevelt used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to curb the worst abuses of big businesses by selectively attacking monopolies. He believed in "bad monopolies" and "good monopolies." He defined bad as businesses who clearly took advantage of the public, abused their positions, and mistreated laborers. That led to Roosevelt being the first President to side with labor in a dispute in the Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902. In this dispute, Roosevelt ordered mine owners negotiate with the laborers. He felt the demands of the union were reasonable. Of course, the mine owners refused. But, this was Theodore Roosevelt who did not accept rejecting his orders. So, Roosevelt told the mine owners the government would take control of the mines and resume operation. The mine owners agreed to negotiate with the laborers, the strike ended, and Roosevelt made history by his support of the laborers.

Theodore Roosevelt also endorsed the idea of woman's suffrage (vote) although he did not really act on that. But he was the first American to win a Nobel Peace Prize (1906) because he had negotiated an end to the Russo-Japanese War in the Treaty of Portsmouth.

T.R. had another side, though. He loved war. He found it romantic. It stimulated good qualities in men. Peace was dull and effeminate. He also believed that any action by the the U.S. was just. The U.S. could not be wrong. He believed the "white man's burden" that it was the duty of Anglo-Saxons to uplift our little brown brothers throughout the world. His foreign policy was known as the "Big Stick policy" taken from an African saying to speak or walk softly and carry a big stick. What does that mean?

Roosevelt reserved his lowest of opinions for the Chinese. He believed immigration by the Chinese would be "ruinous to the white race." His favorite insult was to call someone "Chinese" meaning incompetent. That attitude applied to the Hawaiians, too, only he favored annexation of the Hawaiian Islands "in interest of the white race." In addition, he supported English colonialism saying it benefited India, South Africa, Egypt, and others. He did object to English control of Canada because he thought it should belong to the U.S.

Roosevelt had a huge impact on U.S. foreign policy even before his presidency as he served as both the Assistant Secretary of the Navy and Vice President. This was clear in both the Filipino-American War (or Filipino insurrection) and Boxer Rebellion.

The Filipino insurrection was a conflict over U.S. occupation of the Philippine Islands that had resulted from the Spanish-American War. After the U.S. takeover of the Philippines, the Filipinos had been happy believing the U.S. would grant them independence. "Americanization" began instead. The Filipinos resisted and guerrilla war erupted that in many ways resembled the Vietnam War many years later. But, Roosevelt and President McKinley wanted to "uplift" them. As McKinley said, they should be "Christianized." There was a problem with that, however. Most Filipinos had already been converted to Catholicism by the Spanish occupiers but McKinley did not seem to understand they were Christians already.

Meanwhile, Roosevelt referred to the Filipinos as "Chinese Half Breeds." He said subduing the Filipinos was a matter of "national honor." He said "we are going to civilize the Filipinos...and give them peace, order and individual liberty." He blamed the Filipinos for the bloodshed by saying "We are killing Filipinos because they are killing our soldiers." The insurrection lasted over three years (1898-1902) and 4300 Americans were killed. The Filipinos waited until 1946 before independence was granted by the U.S.

Roosevelt held similar thoughts in 1900 regarding the Boxer Rebellion, a student uprising against foreign influences in China. U.S. leaders had been irritated about European and Japanese control to China's markets and, therefore, having more influence that the U.S. American missionaries had made their entry into China but were seen as part of the problem by the "Boxers." When the Boxer Rebellion erupted, it revealed the anti-foreign feeling there. The Society of Harmonious Fists (or "Boxers" named after their signal of the raised fist) began attacking foreigners. They demanded all "foreign devils" leave. They attacked missionaries and diplomats. The "Boxers" were determined to protect Chinese culture, religion, and self-sufficiency.

To protect European and Japanese interests including a lucrative Opium trade controlled by England, a multi-national coalition formed. The U.S. received an invitation to join with the promise of access to China's market it the insurrection was ended. 2,500 American troops were among 20,000 troops sent to China. Theodore Roosevelt said that we must make the Chinese understand they could not have a rebellion, kill foreigners, or refuse to buy products produced by the "great powers." He added that we had to teach the Chinese to behave and lift them out of savagery. Do you have any issues with this philosophy?

He did become critical of atrocities committed by coalition troops including rapes, murders, and looting. He even declared the U.S. would not have been involved if he knew this would be allowed to happen. He also oversaw the issue of the Second Door note which that preserved territorial integrity and wholeness of China and the U.S. would protect that. The second was much stronger because it preserved China's sovereignty. He opposed permanent occupation or colonization. Only Britain acknowledged receiving the note while the other powers did not and continued with their traditional policy in China taking reparations (payments to the winner of a war) from China instead. The Second Door note will become significant as the world moves toward World War II.

Unlike Presidents who followed, Roosevelt's main interest in foreign policy was not to benefit the U.S. economically. He liked power for its own sake. If economic benefits came that was good but not his main concern. Again, this love of power can be seen when T.R. reasserted the Monroe Doctrine. How many know what that was from 1823?

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 by President James Monroe demanded that Europeans stay out of the Americas. They were to stop colonization. They should refrain from intervention in the affairs of the Americas suggesting the U.S. would take care of the Americas. Theodore Roosevelt modified that to fit his era but it basically demanded the same thing, do not interfere in the Americas. The U.S. would take care of any problems that developed. He said the U.S. will intervene on behalf of Europe of "civilized states." He endorsed international police powers to end corruption and lack of order in other countries. This led to constant intervention in the Americas. Troops were sent to the Dominican Republic in 1905 due to threats by Germans over debts. The U.S. intervened in Cuba in 1906 and the list goes on long after Roosevelt left office and will continue until the 1930s.

The most dramatic action by Roosevelt was in regard to Colombia and the Panama Canal. The idea of a canal through Central American had been an old one and it makes a lot of sense in terms of defense and trade. In 1882, it was France that actually began building a can through Panama. France was consider the premier canal builder after they built the Suez Canal in Egypt. The French quickly realized they had made some miscalculations. How does the geography of Panama differ from Egypt? It would be easier to answer what is alike. The Suez Canal is in a desert. Panama averages 10 feet of rain a year and 98% humidity. There are mountains, rain forests, diseases, poisonous snakes, earthquakes, and mudslides. In six years, 20,000 workers died mostly Jamaicans who also began rioting over conditions. In 1888, the French effort declared bankruptcy and left everything behind.

The U.S. did not do much until T.R. came along. He favored a Nicaraguan route. Then in May of 1902 Mt. Pelee erupted on Martinique killing 30,000 people. Although 1500 miles from Nicaragua, volcanoes there began rumbling. So, Roosevelt looked to Panama which at that time was part of Columbia. (a map would be helpful if you have one available.) Roosevelt was surprised when the French offered to sell its interests for less than expected at $40 million when T.R. expected over $100 million. Roosevelt accepted the offer. Then, he began working with Colombia but they wanted more than T.R. expected at $25 million. T.R. offered $10 million.

The Colombians had just broken Roosevelt's sacred rule. If the U.S. does it, it is correct. The Colombian government had challenged Roosevelt. He was furious. He wrote "We may have to give a lesson to those jack rabbits." He called them "contemptible creatures. T.R. could not conceive of questioning the U.S. So, it occurred to T.R. that many people in the area we call Panama today wanted independence from Colombia. So, he suggested if the Panamanians had a revolution that the U.S. might be of assistance. With that suggestion, Panamanians organized a revolution, Roosevelt sent the U.S. Navy to protect the coastline from Colombian intervention, and recognized Panama's independence. Then, he ordered to beginning of the Panama Canal without any approval of the new Panamanian people or government. This angered Latin Americas who called it the "rape of Panama." For many years, Latin Americans felt anger over this operation. What do you think? Did the U.S. "steal" the Panama Canal? Eventually the U.S. gave Colombia the $25 million asked for in the beginning and, of course, turned the canal over to the Panamanians in 2000.

The actual building of the Panama Canal was one of the greatest technological accomplishments in history. The doctors the U.S. brought in conquered yellow fever and malaria by establishing mosquitoes were to blame. With that effort were made to eliminate mosquitoes by eliminating pools of standing water and the use of netting. The U.S. also invented the famous lock system that raises and lowers ships through the different levels of the Chagres River and through the lakes. Go to the Main Progressive Era Page. Check out the trip through the canal under Youtube at the top of the page. It a great journey! The Canal opened in 1914, ahead of time, on budget, and scandal-free. When Theodore Roosevelt visited the Canal in 1906, it was the first time a President left the U.S. while in office.

Both William Taft and Woodrow Wilson continued the aggressive foreign policy established by Roosevelt. William Taft (R) won the 1908 election with T.R.'s approval. He had decided not to run for the office although he could have. Taft made an impressive image at 325 pounds, our heaviest President. He was frequently referred to as a bison or battleship. A special bathtub had to be install at the White House. He also was the last President with facial hair. (How's that for trivia?) He had been a judge, Governor of the Philippines (1901-1904), and Secretary of War. After his presidency he will be appointed as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1921-1930).

His foreign policy has been labeled "dollar diplomacy." Unlike Roosevelt, Taft believed foreign policy should lead to economic benefits for the U.S. He especially wanted to promote the nation's business interests abroad in Latin America and Asia. He encouraged U.S. investment to increase U.S. influence in other countries and to cure the problems of poverty in other nations. His policy worked best in Latin America and the Caribbean.

U.S. companies will come to have enormous influence in many nations. The United Fruit Company and American Sugar Refining Company were just two examples. They created the so-called "Banana Republics" or Latin American countries that the U.S. government and business had enormous influences. While you may like the clothing with the "Banana Republic" brand, it is an insult in Central and South America so don't wear that t-shirt if you travel there.

To accomplish this, the U.S. needed cooperative governments to protect U.S. interests. Nicaragua was an example. In 1909 a revolution ousted dictator Jose' Zelaya. An election brought Adolfo Diaz into power in 1911 with the help of the U.S Marine. Taft and the U.S. refused to recognize him as the leader until he accepted U.S.bankers' loans to pay foreign debts and consented to U.S. supervision. Since the U.S. Marines had been sent to Nicaragua to help him, he had little choice.

Then problems developed in Mexico. In 1876, Porfirio Diaz took control of the Mexican government in a coup overthrowing President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. Diaz relinquished his presidency in 1880 due to the Mexican Constitution that allowed no consecutive terms. Diaz was re-elected in 1884, got the Constitution changed and became a dictator until 1911. During his regime there was economic development in Mexico. Most important in the development was U.S. and other nations' capital. He used the money to develop the infrastructure. Trade increased with the U.S. by 300% although most of the profits did not benefit the Mexican people. Poverty and illiteracy were widespread and worsening.

Porfirio Diaz turned many of his own people into virtual slaves. Ancestral land was turned over to a few landowners leaving many Mexicans landless peasants like sharecroppers. Communities became like company towns. Discontent grew. President Taft described Diaz as a "great statesman."

Despite this endorsement, the Mexican Revolution erupted in November, 1910. By 1911, Francisco Madero took control as a provisional President until an election could be held. He was a hero to many Mexicans because he endured imprisonment for criticizing Diaz. Diaz was forced to resign and leave the country. In 1911, elections were held and Madero was elected. The U.S. was not happy. He favored agrarian (land) reform. The U.S. feared he might nationalize the companies owned by the U.S. and the U.S. would loose its interests.

Madero made one big mistake. He left most of the Diaz Congress and military intact. Why was that a mistake? The answer came in February, 1913, when the Commander in Chief of the Army, General Victoriano Huerta organized a coup and overthrew Madero and assumed the presidency. Madero was killed while awaiting trial for treason for "attempting to escape" in 1913.

At the same time, the U.S. had undergone a more peaceful change in power in the election of 1912. Woodrow Wilson (D) became U.S. President in 1913. Theodore Roosevelt, dissatisfied with Taft's performance, decided to run for President again. Failing to get the Republican nomination, he formed a third party, the Bull Moose party. This split the Republican vote and Wilson won. Wilson might be described as an intellectual President. He had a PhD in political science and taught at Bryn Mawr, Wesleyan and Princeton. He became the president of Princeton when he was 46 years old. He also served as the Governor of New Jersey in 1910. The problems in Mexico became issues that Wilson had to address.

At first, the U.S. supported Huerta. Soon that changed as the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, Henry Wilson, described Huerta as "a man of disordered intellect." Major problems developed in 1914 in Tampica and Veracruz. In 1914, eight U.S. sailors were arrested in what became known as the Tampico Affair. The arrest was unfounded. It was simply harassment as they were forced to march through the streets of the city. Quickly, Huerta realized the seriousness of the situation and the sailors were released and an apology offered. But the U.S. was not satisfied. The U.S. representative in the incident demanded a 21 gun salute to the U.S. flag but Huerta refused. Meanwhile, President has to deal with the situation and Mexico deserved to be punished. Congress authorized military action which led to an attack on Veracruz, Mexico. The U.S. also blockaded the coast to prevent Mexico's friend, Germany, from assisting. In the end, 19 Americans and 126 were killed in the attack and attempted occupation of Veracruz. South American mediators managed to get a cease fire and and international committee was established to investigate the incident. The U.S. was found guilty of acting illegally with the blockade and required to apologize. The government issued an apology and the incident ended but left tension and suspicion between the two countries.

Meanwhile, though, the Revolution had begun again in Mexico with another coup. While Hueta's party was ousted,, it was unclear who would be the leader of Mexico. Two men competed for that position, Venustian Carranza who had been a Mexican rebel. Doroteo Arango or Pancho (Francisco) Villa, another Mexican rebel, wanted to lead Mexico, also. He had negotiated with U.S. representatives and believed he had gotten support from the U.S. Then, in 1914, Carranza declared himself President of Mexico and Wilson, anxious to resolve the issue, recognized his as the President in 1915. He would serve from 1914-1920, forced Huerta to resign and exiled him to Europe and the U.S. Huerta did not give up quickly, though. He was arrest twice in the U.S. for conspiring to incite revolution in Mexico and died in El Paso while in custody.

Pancho Villa thought he should be President of Mexico. Many Mexicans considered him a hero. He had served in the military in support of Madero and actively opposed Huerta. Villa was even arrested by Huerta and sentenced to death for insubordination. Villa escaped to the U.S. Then, he returned to Mexico to join the opposition under Carranza. They soon became enemies and Villas began organizing a rebellion against Carranza. After U.S. recognition of Carranza, Villa decided to get revenge.

In January of 1916, Villistas (Villa's followers) derailed a train with American businessmen aboard who had been invited to return to Mexico to get mines running near San Isabel. Sixteen Americans were killed. Then in March of 1916 they attacked Columbus, New Mexico, just across the northern border. Seventeen more Americans were killed. President Wilson responded by ordering the American Expeditionary Forces (U.S. Army) under the command of General John "Black Jack" Pershing to pursue Pancho Villa and the Villistas. This became knows as the PUNITIVE EXPEDITION. At first Carranza approved the troops into Mexico but being shocked at the number of troops he sent the Mexican Army to pursue Pershing's men. The U.S. never found Pancho Villa so before major bloodshed, Wilson order withdrawal. The U.S. had been distracted by the war erupting in Europe. But, the distrust between the U.S. and Mexico remained and will be one of the reasons the U.S. entered the Great War (World War II).

Other foreign policy issues during Wilson's presidency included the beginning of a 19 year occupation of Haiti when economic and political problems developed there. Most Haitians did not approve of this intervention so the day the U.S. left is now a national holiday. President Wilson also supported the purchase from Denmark and annexation of part of the Virgin Islands in 1917. But, President Wilson had much bigger issues to face as the war in Europe began to consume his attention.

Part 3: Progressive Reformers

While all of that was going on abroad, at home the reformers were busy trying to purify the U.S. But before we go there, let's dance. Go to the Progressive Era Main Page under the Youtube section. Try "Ballin the Jack," a popular dance of the period. Also look at the other Youtube links especially the Galveston Hurricane of 1900, the worst natural disaster in terms of loss of life in U.S. History. There are some other cool Youtube links, too. There are Youtube, Film, Song, and Dance Analysis Worksheets for Project(s).

The progressive reformers affected almost every aspect of American life and many of these changes remain today. In live class, I usually show a list of areas of American life and let them choose what to discuss. That's rather difficult online so you might pick and choose the areas that interest. Over the years I've discovered a pattern in selected topics so have arranged them in that order. This is not meant to reflect your values and is not a scientific study.

Drugs:
Many of the concerns of progressive dealt with morality. Drug use was one of them. In general, progressives saw drug use as an example of the immorality of the "lesser sorts" or poor people who needed controls and protection. Progressive attacked the drug use on three fronts. First, they attacked the so-called "patent medicines" or what we call "over-the-counter drugs." The second issue related to the use of alcohol as we move into the period of the radical Prohibition Movement to eradicate the use of all alcohol. Then, the progressives went after what we call "controlled substances" and they will be the ones who brought about these controls.

First, let's examine the progressives and "patent medicines." It is important to remember that medical care was still very primitive. Most Americans had no access to health care due to either cost or lack of accessibility in rural areas. Most Americans depended on "home remedies" and self-medication. There were no regulations on ingredients, labeling or advertising claims. As a result, many patent medicines included narcotics and alcohol. Coca-Cola, for examples, had cocaine in it and was advertised as a medication to give people, especially the elderly, energy. I guess that might work. It did not occur to consumers that there was anything wrong with using these medications.

The progressives saw a lot wrong with patent medicines. They wanted government controls. One example of an unacceptable patent medicine in the opinion of progressives was Lydia Pinkham's Vegetable Compound for "female complaints." Advertisements claimed it cured everything from cramps to infertility. One advertisement claimed there was "a baby in every bottle." That's possible, I guess, since it was 40 proof or 19% alcohol. Progressives took aim with the help of the muckrakers.

Using the Comstock Law (the anti-obscenity law), the progressives attacked Lydia Pinkham's. Since obscenity had been defined as anything to do with reproduction especially female reproduction, the progressives believed it was illegal. They convinced law enforcement to go after distributors and arrests of salesmen began. Meanwhile, progressives demanded federal controls that led to the passage of the PURE FOOD AND DRUG ACT (1906). This law required labeling drugs for ingredients and banned false advertising.

Progressives were pleased when this led to the removal of narcotics from patent medicines including Coca-Cola. But, the law was vague and had many loopholes. It had no impact on alcohol in medications. Progressives were disturbed to discover that the sales of products like Lydia Pinkham's actually increased. The public assumed they must be safe because of the Pure Food and Drug Act. The government approved. It became obvious to the progressives that they had to get rid of alcohol.

The effort to eradicate alcohol became the progressives' most energetic battle. Again, to progressives alcohol abuse was associated with the "lesser sort" especially immigrants such as the Germans, Italians, and Irish. The moderate approach, the Temperance Movement to moderate the use of alcohol, had radicalized into the Prohibition Movement to eradicate the use of alcohol. Progressives believe if it was against the law, people would stop using alcohol. I think the progressives were a bit naive.

Progressives experienced their first successes on the state level. By 1914, half of the states had voted themselves "dry" or outlawed the sales of alcohol. 3/4 of the states had outlawed saloons, bars, or taverns. The big success came in 1919 with the ratification of the 18th AMENDMENT. This outlawed the manufacturing, selling, or transporting alcohol including imports. As you can see the law did not specifically outlaw the use of alcohol. Nonetheless, it went into effect in 1920. Progressives called in the "Noble Experiment." They believed Americans would obey the law. Prohibition lasted 13 years and Americans did everything imaginable to get around the law. gangsters had a field day. As we will see when we get to the 1920s, prohibitions will be a dramatic failure even though total consumption of alcohol did decrease among men. The problem was there was a dramatic increase in the use of alcohol among women. At the time, however, the progressives did not know that.

While the Prohibition Movement was active so was the effort to control other drugs such as morphine, cocaine, and marijuana. The progressives launch the "war on drugs" that continues today.

I have a question for you. What percentage of the U.S. population today do you think is addicted to drugs other than alcohol? You might want to look that up for yourself because no one ever believes me. At any rate, in the early 20th century about 1-2% were addicted to drugs other than alcohol. The typical addict was poor, rural, and often a veteran. The army used morphine liberally for every malady so many men left the military addicted to morphine. Morphine withdrawal was referred to as the "army disease." To doctors, morphine was a panacea or solution to all their problems.

Progressives did not address the drug use among their college aged children. "Huffing" was very popular. They used chloroform.

Most of the attacks by progressives were racist, sexist, and classist. Perhaps you have heard the "Urban Myth" that drug laws were related to race. This is one myth that is true. Progressives and muckrakers would associate a particular drug with a certain ethnic group. This fed into the rampant racism of the period. Hysteria followed. The way the argument went was something like this. Chinese men use opium. They loose their inhibitions and want to have sex with white women. African-American men use cocaine, loose their inhibitions, and want to have sex with a white woman. Hispanic men smoke weed, loose their inhibitions and want to have sex with an Anglo woman. Basically this said white/Anglo women will have sex with any man who has drugs so it was a sexist attack, also.

The precedent had been established in 1875 when San Francisco of all places passed a city ordinance banning the use and possession of opium. In 1876, Virginia City, Nevada, passed a similar law. Why did they go after opium? The reason was white women and children were being threatened and learning to use opium because of the Chinese. The overlooked the fact that the opium trade was controlled by the English.

Progressives, however, wanted federal intervention into drug use. Theodore Roosevelt responded with an international conference to deal with the opium issue and to encourage China to eradicate its use and be rewarded with improved relations. The real reason was to end a Chinese embargo on U.S. manufactured goods to protest the Chinese Exclusion Act. The conference was not successful. Participants accused the U.S. of hypocrisy because the U.S. had no federal laws to control opium.

In 1910, Congress quickly enacted a law making it illegal to buy, sell or use opium. In 1911, another conference was held to encourage England, Persia and Turkey to stop opium production but profits were enormous and those countries showed little interest. The U.S. delegate, Hamilton Wright, became determined to show the world we were sincere about outlawing all drugs. So Wright, the progressives, and muckrakers moved into high gear. Associating drugs with minorities and emphasizing the perceived vulnerability white women led to the passage of the HARRISON ACT (1914).

The Harrison Act, though, might surprise you. It did not outlaw drugs. What the law did was place all drugs under the control of doctors who could prescribe as they saw fit. The law was not intended to deprive the addict but to monitor the use and keep records. The drugs were taxed through pharmacists. The Narcotics Division of the Internal Revenue Service of the Treasury Department was created to monitor and supervise collection of the tax, not to enforce the law. Marijuana was exempt from the Harrison Act as result of strong lobbying by pharmacists who used it medicinally to cure corns on peoples' feet.

Soon, bureaucrats saw opportunity to expand roles and enhance power. Bureaucrats were usually middle-class and related to the progressive demands. The muckrakers began a media blitz suggesting the U.S. was on the verge of collapse. Children were being victimized and women raped they claimed. Eventually, the case ends up in the Supreme Court in 1919 with the case U.S. vs. Web. The court ruled doctors could not prescribe drugs just because someone was addicted or to prevent withdrawal. With that the Treasury Department assumed a new responsibility of watching doctors and taking then to court. So really the Supreme Court made drugs illegal.

Today countries deal with the drug issue in different ways. The U.S. continues to punish the user. Some countries prefer to offer rehabilitative services if wanted but do not treat the use as a crime. Which is better: punish the addict or offer rehabilitation and let it go?

Actually, the progressives were disappointed with the results of their efforts. Addiction did not decreased and has not decreased during the long "war on drugs." Prices of drugs on street skyrocketed with the restrictions. Criminals took over the trade creating a drug subculture. Addicts became defined as criminals. And, each year the bureaucracy grew. Between 1915 and 1932 the budget for federal control increased 400%.

The anti-drug message expanded. Next, progressives went after tobacco and a few states banned it but that was short-lived. They went after dancing and jazz as "mental drunkenness" and "sex on the dance floor." Then states went after marijuana especially in the Southwest where it was associated with Hispanics even though relatively unknown among most Americans at that time. It should not surprise you that the two first states to outlaw marijuana were California (1915) and Texas (1919).

In 1933 Americans gave up on banning alcohol but the effort to eradicate other drugs increased over the years with more restrictions and harsher penalties, but the rates of addiction have been stable.

Prostitution:
Prostitution was another morality issue that progressives wanted to eradicate. To many of them, prostitution was the symbol of all evil in society. Already, it was an old issue.

Before the Progressive Era, most Americans condemned prostitution but there was no move to criminalize it. Opposition consisted of unorganized harassment, zoning laws to segregate them, and local bans. Prostitutes could be arrested for lewd behavior or vagrancy but the main focus was to keep it hidden in so-called "red light districts" to curtail rather than eradicate prostitution. The term "red light district" came from railroad workers who would leave their red lights outside the brothels or bordellos while they visited.

Prostitutes were seen more as victims of male lust rather than criminals. They were encouraged to find other employment and reformers lobbied for jobs, unions and high pay for women. But, in the Progressive Era the mood changed. Prostitutes were definitely the "lesser sorts." Muckrakers got to work again especially relating to "white slavery." This referred to European women who were lured to the U.S. with the promise of a job. When they got here, the job was prostitution. This led to a progressive hysteria despite the fact that the number of prostitutes was actually declining as other options opened to women.

The progressive approach was to outlaw prostitution. Again, progressives believed if it was against the law, it would go away. With that expectation in place, progressives conducted studies in 43 cities about the problem between 1910 and 1917. They gathered data through testing that had been developed in the new behavioral sciences. Basically, it was a multiple choice quiz. Prostitutes were one of the first groups to be mass tested for genetic defects and mental competence.

The results confirmed what the progressives expected. (Do you have a problem with this approach?) Prostitutes had insufficient education. Most were illiterate. 1/4 were immigrants. The conclusion was that prostitution was a genetic defect that they inherited. They were also "feeble-minded."

The solutions included forced sterilization of prostitutes and other "feeble-minded" Americans including criminals, epileptics, rapists, and those with Sexually Transmitted Diseases. by 1916, 47 cities outlawed prostitution with the first in Iowa in 1909. Prostitution, in general, became a local issue rather that federal. There was only one Federal Laws passed and that was the MANN ACT (1910). Every man today needs to know this law that is still in effect. The Mann Act made it illegal to transport a woman across state lines for immoral purposes. "Immoral" can be defined in many ways.

The example I use for guys today is say you and your girlfriend drive to from Dallas to Shreveport, LA, to do some gambling and other activities (use your imagination). Then, you drive back to Dallas. Men are vulnerable. This law has been used traditionally to hassle mixed race couples so it is particular significant to African-American men who date non-African-American women. Remember it's Louisiana and Texas. In addition, the woman may become angry for some reason like the guy never calls back after the "whoopee." She may file Mann Act charges. Although rare, these are the possibilities that men need to know. My suggestion is if you drive with a woman out of state, let her drive over the border. There is no law against women transporting men across state lines. Hey, I'm just trying to help!

Progressives also promoted rehabilitation in "reform schools" similar to Indian Boarding Schools. Rehabilitation consisted of religious training and vocational training usually as domestic servants. Other progressives promoted censorship of films and more recreational opportunities for young women as well as higher wages for women. But, the main emphasis continued to be criminalize and eradicate prostitution.

The results of this were unexpected to progressives. Criminalization created streetwalkers (a moving target is hard to get) and pimps (allegedly their protectors on the streets and someone to bail them out of jail). Criminalization also made it harder to escape prostitution because the women usually had criminal records that deterred other employment. Not surprising to use, organized crime moved into prostitution and violence increased. City budgets had to be increased to enforce the laws.

Only Nevada went another direction. Two communities in Nevada (not Las Vegas) have legalized prostitution. They have some advantages over streetwalkers and even higher status "call girls." Nevada's legal prostitutes have medical care, are required to use condoms, and have protection from violence. So should prostitution be legalized or not?

Food:
Another area of reform did not have the morality issues seen above. Food quality concerned progressives. It had become obvious during the Spanish-American War that the U.S. had problems. Thousands of soldiers suffered from tainted food during the war. Europe even refused to buy american meat because it was so filthy. A book actually inspired the effort for regulations. The Jungle by muckraker Upton Sinclair was published in 1905. Sinclair explained the purpose of the book had been to expose the horrible working conditions and living conditions of immigrants working in the meat industry. The story, about Lithuanian immigrants, showed how they faced one catastrophe after another. Of 308 pages, 12 dealt with the meat product and meat packing industry. But that was what inspired the progressives. As Sinclair said later, "I aimed at their hearts but hit their stomachs."

This led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act a year later in 1906. The law established federal inspection by the Department of Agriculture. The Pure Food and Drug Act added to regulations. The laws had little impact at the time but were strengthened in the 1930's and the quality of food did gradually improve. Do we still need inspection of our food?

Film:
Another morality issue that concerned the progressives had to do with the content of movies. Between 1890 and 1910 movies became popular mass entertainment. Located mostly in cities, they were built in almost exclusively working-class neighborhoods. The audiences were the "lesser sorts" like laborers, immigrants, and poor people. Progressives worried. The movie houses were dark so what were people really doing? What values did the movies endorse? In general, progressives saw people wasting time and money in unsavory environments while learning the wrong lessons. So, the reform movement began but progressives did not want to eradicate movies like drugs and prostitution. They just wanted to control the movies.

Progressives demanded regulations on the theaters including those little lights along the aisle. They worked to prevent unescorted children from attending, demanded fire standards, and licensing. Progressives even managed to convince the government of New York City to close down all theaters during Christmas week in 1908. The progressives also wanted censorship of films with them doing the censoring.

They got the attention of Hollywood producers. This was the time that Hollywood was becoming the center of the movie industry. The producers agreed to set up a censorship board to review content for the entire country. Ten people controlled what all American saw and the censors did not like about 20% of the content. Obscenity, still undefined, was the main target but they also went after gruesome crimes and "how to" crime stories.

The progressives actually saw a positive potential in films. They saw a way to "uplift" the "lesser sorts." Films could educate immigrants. Movie producers had another idea.

Producers decided they would convert the middle-class into customers. They began building elaborate theaters in 1913. And, they began making movies to attract the middle-class with longer, more complex plots. The turning-point came in 1915 and D. W Griffith's Birth of a Nation. This film brought the middle-class to the theaters for the first time. It was a huge hit. Now progressives saw movies as art.

There are clips from Birth of a Nation under Youtube on the main Progressive Era page. Let me warn you. The story covers the Civil War and Reconstruction Era from a 1915 white point of view. The Progressive Era was one of the most racist periods in our history as we shall see in a later section. In the segments on Youtube, you will see the stereotypical pure and virtuous white woman being tormented by a mulatto (although it's hard to tell). The African-Americans in the film look funny since most are white. Audiences cheered as the Ku Klux Klan rode to the rescue. The end of the film shows the happy virtuous woman with her new KKK husband as Jesus overseas the new peace on earth. Okay...whatever. I guarantee you will be offended but it is history and considered a break-through in film technology. At least I'm not asking you to watch the whole thing like I had to in grad school. It's three hours long.

The cries for censorship faded as the progressives became movie fans too. Cries for censorship have come and gone ever since. But for the progressives they felt their mission had been accomplished.

Education:
Progressives were very interested in education. They tended to see it as a panacea or solution to all their problems. During the Progressive Era there were all sorts of experimental programs and techniques in both child and adult education. Much of the experimentation occurred in the Settlement Houses. They had resulted from a movement to provide community centers in poor, urban neighborhoods. College students lived in them and provided services to the poor. One of the first in the U.S. had been founded by JANE ADDAMS. Hull House was in Chicago. The work of Addams led her to be the most admired woman in the U.S. during the Progressive Era. Later, in 1931, she won the Nobel Peace Prize after being accused of being a "dangerous threat" during World War I for protesting against the war.

Addams was one of those late 19th century female college graduates who could not find a job. Nor, did she have a husband. Because of that, as an "old maid" she was expected to take care of relatives. It is important to note that approximately half of all women who graduated from college in the late 19th/early 20th century never married. Part of this was choice, of course, but the belief was they were unable to reproduce. Jane Addams rebelled and escaped to Europe.

She found little satisfaction in her travels until she ended up in England and discovered the Settlement Houses. She found an answer to what to do with her life and a way to help the poor. So, in 1889 she returned to the U.S. and got her friend, Ellen Starr, to join her in founding Hull House. By 1910, 400 Settlement Houses could be found in the U.S.

At first, however, the Settlement Houses tried to "reform" the poor and "Americanize" immigrants. Something I learned as a social worker was never tell people what they need. Ask them what they need. Addams like many other progressives realized traditional education was too restrictive. She wanted to extend the advantages of college education to working people. She and others began offering classes, lectures, reading groups, philosophy clubs, social science clubs and home economics programs. The community showed little interest.

Finally, the Settlement Houses reflected what the poor wanted and needed. They needed basic city services, child care, places for union meetings, adult education, and cultural opportunities. They needed practical education. With this, the Settlement Houses began to have success offering the new kindergartens, music classes, art programs/displays, English classes, and citizenship classes. Settlement Houses developed innovated programs like programs for school "drop-outs" and vocational guidance including for the disabled. Many of these programs appear in public schools.

Public schools were embroiled in a debate about how best to educate children. By 1900, public schools were well established but still not available to all. Progressives promoted the compulsory education laws and they spread bringing more and more children into the system. Schools had never had to educate ALL children. Traditionally, schools had offered well-defined "bodies of information" and developed good conduct, morality and conformity. Students received rewards for obedience. Textbooks provided wisdom while teachers were like preachers as intermediaries between books and students while being conduct enforcers.

Then, in the Progressive Era JOHN DEWEY (not related to the decimal system) began offering suggestions of how education needed to change. He was a philosopher and educator and promoted the idea that students should participate in the educational process. He wanted them to have discussions, do experiments, probably sing and dance but I'm not sure about that. He did have a big influence on my philosophy of teaching. Dewey also believed that education was a continuous process throughout a person's life. I'm lucky. Everyday I learn something new just because of my job. It helps keep my brain active and young.

As a result of Dewey, some changes did appear in schools. Diversification of the curriculum and extra-curricular activities appeared in schools. There was also a push for more parental involvement. The P.T.A. became a national organization in 1901. Other services such as school lunches and school nurses developed.

Whether or not these changes made education better is hard to evaluate. What do you think of schools today? Are they good/bad or what? Do changes need to be made? And is education a panacea for our social problems? If everyone had the equivalent of a college education would social problems improve?

Children:
Related to education, progressives were interested in children's issues. Underlying their concern, however, was a basic distrust of the parenting abilities of working-class and poor parents. The dominant issue relating to children in the Progressive Era was child labor. In 1900, close to 20% of children under 15 were employed. Many of them, especially little girls, worked in textile factories especially in the South where conditions and pay was miserable. Others labored in coal mines, stores, and street trades. The largest number worked on the family farm.

Some states did have minimum age and maximum hour regulations for children, but they did not apply to interstate trade so were easily avoided. Parents often lied about their children's ages so they could work and no documentation was required. Why would parents want children as young as 6 to work?

Child labor provided 28-32% of family income for native born citizens. For immigrants, children provided 33-46% of the family income. Progressives said they exploited children. This became a major social issue because of progressive agitation. And the muckrakers went to work. Between 1897 and 1901, there were only four articles in magazines about child labor. Between 1905 and 1909, there were 300 articles.

Numerous leaders and organizations entered the debate including Socialists and the American Federation of Labor. Labor organizer Mary "Mother" Jones even led a march of children in 1903. In 1903, upset about the lax enforcement of the child labor laws in the Pennsylvania mines and silk mills, she organized a Children's March from Philadelphia to the home of then president Theodore Roosevelt in New York. She was labeled "the most dangerous woman in America" for her success in organizing mine workers and their families against the mine owners. If men were reluctant to fight for their rights she would embarrass them to action. "I have been in jail more than once and I expect to go again. If you are too cowardly to fight, I will fight," she told them. Mother Jones magazine, established in 1970, is named for her.

Other organizations that represented the progressive point of view also appeared. The National Child Labor Committee, the National Consumer League, and General Federation of Women's Clubs got involved. They wanted to redefine childhood. They argued children were not simply producers. A new vision of childhood was created. They were now "precious" and "priceless." Childhood should be a special carefree time. Opponents of child labor reform argued they kept families from starving. No work spoiled the child.

Nonetheless, progressives did have some successes. President Taft created the Children's Bureau and appoint Julia Lathrop as bureau chief, the first woman to serve at that level. Many states also passed laws to regulate child labor but again they were hard to enforce and ineffective.

Failing here, the progressives began to agitate for a constitutional amendment to ban child labor. It was an emotional battle, but the threat of federal intervention served to solidify the opposition. Despite this, In 1916, the first federal law dealing with child labor was passed, the Keating-Owen Act. It banned products of child labor in interstate and foreign commerce. It was found to be unconstitutional. The law passed again in 1919 and was again found unconstitutional. In 1924, Congress passed the constitutional amendment but it was never ratified and only four states passed it. It will be 1938 before child labor is regulated at a federal labor with the Fair Labor Standards Act.

The main result of the anti-child labor movement was redefining childhood and redefining appropriate jobs for children. Factory work, mining, and piece work at home were bad. Cashiers, street work, domestic service, and farming were good. Most state regulation dealt with the bad ones. Also, hiring children in industries met with resentment by other laborers because children held down wages. Gradually, immigrants replaced many of the children in those occupations.

Another result of the movement included the agitation for compulsory education laws. If children had to go to school, they could not work. Progressives saw this as a way to get children out of the labor force. Are compulsory school laws effective today? Should some students be allowed to leave school to develop skills outside the school? Is the only reason for school to get a job?

Race and Ethnic Issues:
Progressive attitudes toward race and ethnic issues provides a challenge to sort it out. It is important to remember that there were African-American, Hispanic, and other ethnic progressives. The common thread was they were middle-class. But, the majority of progressives were not minorities and, in general, feared minorities. They were the "lesser sorts." To a great extent the philosophy of the day was Plessy vs. Ferguson that ruled in favor of separate but equal. Progressives seemed more interested in separate than equal. At the same time, there were significant exceptions. So there was good news and bad news for most ethnic groups in the U.S.

For American Indians, there was mostly bad news. They reached their low point in population and some believed that would cease to exist as an identifiable ethnic group. "Americanization" and Dawes Act were in full implementation with total assimilation the goal. While there were occasional violent conflicts, resistance was crumbling.

There was one happy note for American Indians. His name was JIM THORPE. He won the gold medals in the decathlon and pentathlon in the 1912 Olympics. Some have suggested he was the greatest athlete in U.S. history. He was a Sac and Fox Indian born in Oklahoma in 1888. In 1904, he enrolled in Carlisle Indian School and developed his athletic abilities under Coach Pop Warner who said Thorpe was a superstar in track and field, football (All American halfback, 1911-12), baseball, La Crosse, basketball, hockey, swimming, boxing tennis and archery. In 1912, he proved his abilities by winning the 10 event decathlon and 5 even pentathlon. He also came in 4th in high jump and 7th in long jump.

In 1913, however, the Amateur Athletic Union deprived him of his gold medals determining he had not been an amateur athlete during the Olympics. He had played exhibition baseball games in 1909-1910 and had been paid a small amount of money. Eventually, the medals were returned to his family but Thorpe had been dead for 20 years when that occurred.

For Hispanics, the Progressive Era was not much better. Immigration, especially from Mexico, was increasing for two reasons. Both the political turmoil in Mexico and the energetic efforts by U.S. businessmen to get them to seek employment in the U.S. as a cheap labor resource led to 2,000 Mexicans arriving each month by 1910.

This led to growing antagonism toward Hispanics both native born and immigrants since Anglos could not tell the difference. Hispanics were stereotyped as inferior, lacking ambition, slow to learn English, and a threat to democracy. Hispanics did not passively accept this prejudice. They began to organize to help themselves first in labor unions and later activist organizations.

Labor unions became an integral part of the Hispanic community during this period. La Resistencia (cigar makers) were the first Knights of Labor union in the South while led to the first all Hispanic strike in 1900. They paid a heavy price for this activism. Not only could they lose their jobs like other union activists, but they were threatened with deportation regardless of citizenship. But, they continued and my the end of the Progressive Era union activities had become part of Hispanic culture. Why do you think unions appealed to Hispanics during this period?

Organizing also spread to the political arena. Hispanics had many problems to address. Tejanos were segregated and violence toward them continued despite having lost 80% of their land. Texas Rangers were still acted as judges, juries, and executioners regarding Hispanics in Texas. Laws were passed to restrict Hispanic voting in Texas, also. Texas banned interpreters in voting stations and any assistance to voters unless they had been citizens at least 21 years. The poll tax implemented in 1903 affected Hispanic voters as they had to pay to vote and many could not afford that. Democrats excluded most of them from party involvement. Hispanics often risked arrest to vote. As a result, during the Progressive Era, Hispanic voting dwindled to almost none. What did Anglos give as the reason for all of this? One newspaper article explained that it was to prevent "corruption, ignorance and protect the purity of Anglo women."

Hispanics began to organize. In 1911, the Congreso Mexcanista formed as a moderate group and called for the end of discrimination, killing and urged Hispanics to not sell any lands. But, violence increased. Hundreds of Hispanics were killed during the Progressive Era. This radicalized some Tejanos. This led to the so-called TEXAS MEXICAN INSURRECTION. Organized by the Plan de San Diego, the goal was independence from "Yankee tyranny." It called for an uprising including Hispanics, African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and American Indians. They wanted to create an independent republic out of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and California. They organized a para-military group similar to the Texas Rangers and conducted raids, derailed trains, and burned bridges.

The Texas Rangers and other vigilante groups retaliated by burning houses, disarming Hispanics, and forcing them to leave. By 1917, things calmed down with U.S. business and agriculture leaders encouraging peace due to developing labor shortages. President Carranza also began discouraging the use of his country to organize attacks on the U.S. In addition, the U.S. entered World War I and implemented the draft. Draft boards were all Anglo and used the draft to get rid of "troublemakers." Hispanics were the most over-drafted ethnic group in World War I and World War II.

There was a bit of good news. The first Hispanic Governor to be elected was Ezequiel de Vaca when New Mexico became a state in 1916.

African-Americans also had some good news in the Progressive era, but there was a lot of bad news, too. Court decisions weakened the 14th and 15th Amendment and an 1875 law banning discrimination in accommodations was found unconstitutional. Plessy vs. Ferguson had legalized segregation and economic problems hindered improvements. The number of skilled African-American workers was only 5% and declining. More African-American women were forced to work outside the home. Most of them worked as domestic servants and paid as little as $5 per month when the average page was %50 (1900). Overall, discrimination in hiring and organizing into labor unions was common.

Discrimination against African-Americans in all areas in almost incomprehensible today. When Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House, it created an uproar. T.R. responded by acknowledging the inferiority of African-Americans but explained Washington was an exception to the rule.

African-Americans vanished from political offices especially during the Wilson presidency as he and other politicians catered to the demands of white southerners. Those who kept their government jobs, found themselves segregated even when eating lunch. Public activities also segregated such as baseball. Poll taxes, literacy tests, the White Man's primaries disfranchised African-Americans. Race riots were common with the worst in Atlanta (1906), but there were others in Brownsville, TX, and Springfield, IL, the home of Abraham Lincoln. The U.S. averaged one lynching every three days with 80% of the victims being African-American. 1,110 were lynched between 1900 and 1917 and although most occurred in the South, lynching also became common in the Midwest. The states worst for lynchings were Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas. And, progressives, in general, ignored or even participated. Of those African-American lynched, 215 were accused of rape of a white woman and 500 of murder of whites.

If that was not bad enough, the Ku Klux Klan was revived in 1915. The Klan was different than during the Reconstruction version. Hatred of African-Americans but the Klan had evolved into an "equal opportunity hate group." They added Jews, immigrants, Catholics, feminists, unions, Hispanics, and those who opposed prohibition to their list of people who they hated. They also adopted a Christian facade saying they were "patriotic Christians." They also began the cross-burning ritual.

African-Americans were not ready to give up. They began organizing like Hispanics, but there were deep divisions in the African-American community. What should they do? Should they accept segregation and develop self-sufficiency? Should they agitate for integration and equal rights? Should they go to Africa? Should they move slow or move fast toward civil rights? Leaders emerged representing the different approaches.

Booker T. Washington described himself as a progressive. He had been a slave but ended up graduating from Hampton College. He went on to be the founder and President of Tuckegee College in Alabama in 1881. His beliefs emphasized learning practical skills with practical education, hard work, self-improvement, slow progress, patience, opposition to militancy including labor unions and even encouraged African-Americans to be scabs. He accepted voter restrictions. He believed these actions would eventually lead to acceptance by whites. This became known as "gradualism." He was the most influential African-American of his era.

He had major opposition from W. E. B. DuBois who had a very different background. Born in 1868 after slavery ended, he lived in Massachusetts where he became the first African-American to receive a PhD (1895) from Harvard in political science and history. His main interest was sociology but there was no such degree then. He went on to teach at Atlanta University. He also wrote and created a foundation based on his beliefs called the Niagara Movement. That evolved into the NAACP in 1909-1910 in which he served on the board of directors and edited their newspaper The Crisis.

His beliefs differed from those of Booker T. Washington. DuBois demanded equal rights and rejected gradualism. Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois did not like one another. DuBois also African-Americans did not have to prove they deserved rights. He added African-Americans should seek the best possible education not just vocational education. He also emphasized integration as embodied in the ideas of the NAACP. After the death of Washington in 1915, he became the most powerful African-American in the U.S. Eventually, however, DuBois will give up. He became a Socialist and immigrated to Africa where he died in 1963 (Ghana).

There would be a third African-American leader who agreed with DuBois' immigration to Africa. Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican who came to the U.S. in 1915 to promote "black nationalism." He rejected integration. He believed in Pan-Africanism or unite all African peoples. He encouraged immigration to Africa so all people of African ancestry could live together and govern themselves. He also began a passenger liner service to take African-Americans to Africa. The Ku Klux Klan really liked Garvet. They agreed blacks and whites could never live together peacefully. Eventually, Garvey was arrested and convicted of mail fraud and deported.

So who was right? Washington, DuBois, or Garvey?

While the problems facing African-Americans was overwhelming, there were signs of change and some good news. Numerous organizations formed other than the NAACP including African-American women who agitated for an anti-lynching federal law and were also part of the suffrage movement to obtain the vote for women.

In addition, an African-American middle-class grew. Land and business ownership increased with over $700 million in wealth. Illiteracy declined while college education increased. There was also Texan Jack Johnson who was the first African-American to win the heavyweight boxing championship (1908-10). He was controversial, though, because he hung out with white women. That will cause him problems.

Meanwhile, immigrants faced discrimination in the Progressive Era. Progressives wanted further restrictions. Immigrants were still arriving in huge numbers. 19 million came between 1900 ad 1930. Asians were still the most hated and the Chinese Exclusion Act was still in effect. Theodore Roosevelt added to the anti-Asian attitude in 1907-8 when he arranged the so-called "gentlemen's agreement" with Japan whose leader agreed to stop immigration to the U.S. In 1917, Woodrow Wilson signed legislation to add literacy requirements for immigrants.

Not all Americans hated immigrants. Some tried to help like Texas rancher who tried to protect Hispanics who worked for them. This was also the period when the philosophy of the "Social Gospel" appeared Some religious organizations moved into the slum with the idea to help first and convert later. The most famous was the Salvation Army that came to the U.S. from England in 1879. But, in general, the progressives feared and resented immigrants and minorities.

Women:
Progressives were concerned about the status of women, in particular the status of middle-class women. Economic class and ethnic differences tended to fragment the movement. There was on one woman's rights movement.

During the Progressive era there were three main issues: Political rights (vote, jury duty, holding office), Economic rights both in regard to property rights and employment rights, and Reproductive rights (birth control).

The progressives focused on political rights first. By the Progressive Era, only six states allowed women to vote, all in the West. The movement lacked unity, though. Some like Susan B. Anthony demanded a constitution amendment for the vote. Her followers tended to be more militant. They held marches, protest and hunger strikes. They tended to see it as a "women only" movement. Eventually, Susan B. Anthony was arrested for trying to vote and fined $100, but she never paid it.

Other Suffragettes were moderate like Lucy Stone. Her followers included men and they concentrated on state reforms. They avoided controversy.

Regardless of approach, they met with great opposition including the liquor industry that spent a fortune trying to prevent their vote due to the Prohibition movement even though it was men that had voted some states dry and will eventually be responsible for the 18th Amendment before women could vote.

To combat opposition, suffragettes used every imaginable argument. They said the Declaration of Independence statement that "all men are created equal" included women as part of mankind.. They argued women were morally superior and could purify the political parties. They said voting would make women better mothers and wives. Some even suggested it was an insult that African-American men could vote and middle-class white women could not. Others suggested only white women should get the right to vote.

Most women in the U.S. were apathetic. Nonetheless, over the years there were successes. By 1916, twelve states allowed women to vote but at that point the movement stalled. A major step came with the endorsement of both former Presidents Roosevelt and President Wilson. But, in the long run it was World War I that brought success. More radical women continued the protests and were arrested that led to hunger strikes and being force fed. One women committed suicide by jumping in front of a horse race. This did not look good when Wilson was trying to "Make the world safe for democracy" in World War I. As a result, in 1918 the 19th Amendment was introduced in congress giving all women the right to vote. Jeannette Rankin had been allowed to introduce the Amendment as the first woman to be elected to Congress (Montana). It was ratified in 1919 and went into effect in 1920. Still women did not get the right to serve on juries. In Texas in was 1953 before women could serve. But slowly the political rights of women expanded

In the area of economics, there were fewer successes. The progressives really were not that interest since white married middle-class women rarely worked outside the home. By 1900 , 1/6 the workforce was female (approximately 5 million). 40% of the women who worked were minority and immigrant women. Their average pay was half that of men and they were excluded from most unions. Sexual harassment was not even a term in those day and was rampant. They also received little support from men who saw them as competitors in the job market. The belief was still they belonged at home. This did not deter working-class women from trying to better their circumstances. Their most dramatic actions came on picket lines as they formed their own unions.

In 1909, the most dramatic labor action occurred. Some call it the "Great Uprising." It was a strike by women workers in the textile industries. They form the International Ladies Garment Workers Union and went on strike in New York. Employers began firing them. But the union demanded better wages and better working conditions. The strikers were beaten on the picket lines but the strike spread to about 30,000 women on strike. Finally, it landed in court and the judged ordered the women back to work calling it a "strike against God." The strike lasted 13 weeks before defeated. But it proved women could organize and disproved the attitude of many men that women could not organize because they would be too busy backstabbing and quarreling with each other.

It took a tragedy to get anyone's attention that often happens in the U.S. In 1911 the Triangle Shirtwaist Company caught fire. (The Shirtwaist was the common dress women wore at home.) As the fire erupted the cotton fibers in the air exploded. Women could not escape their work stations because they had been locked in so they would not go anywhere. The fire escapes were also inoperable for the same reason. Fire hoses were inoperative also. In the end, 146 young single women and little girls died some of them from jumping to their deaths on the pavement below the factory. This led to the first state and city regulations and required regular inspection of conditions. But that was of the few successes for working-class women, but they will benefit from the third area of progressive concern, reproductive rights.

Due to the Comstock Law, contraceptive were illegal in the U.S. MARGARET SANGER will be determined to change that. She became the leader of the birth control movement in the U.S. As a New York City visiting nurse, the problems of poor urban women appalled her. Women had "unwanted children," inescapable poverty, and "coat hanger" abortions that killed thousands of women each year when women tried to perform an abortion on themselves. The result was usually a deadly infection or bleeding to death. Sanger believed that if contraceptives were legal that this would not happen. Women would not have "unwanted pregnancies." We have since learned that is not true. But Sanger, like other progressives, was somewhat naive. At the same time, she made history and changed laws.

In 1915, Sanger went to the Netherlands to study available contraceptives. Both the condom and diaphragm (a barrier method use by women) were available. Sanger chose the diaphragm so women had control over their decisions and bodies. She returned to New York City and with her sister opened a clinic and began distributing diaphragms. She was arrested and released and arrested again.

Ironically, all the publicity about Sanger educated women that there was a contraceptive. Sanger had started a movement that no law could stop. American women wanted it. Doctors continued to condemn contraceptives and urged abstinence.

By the end of the 1920s, 90% of middle-class women and 50% of working-class women used contraceptives. I wonder how Sanger felt that the people she was most interested used less contraceptives. Working-class women lagged behind the progressive women from the middle-class. What might explain that? At the same time, contraceptives continued to be illegal until 1936 when Eleanor Roosevelt and Margaret Sanger worked for this result, but not until after an example of massive civil disobedience by women.

I can't leave it alone until I give you the bad news about Margaret Sanger. She believed in eugenics. Eugenics is the philosophy that only the fittest, smartest, most attractive people should be allowed to reproduce. This was a popular idea of the day and gained support in the 1930's during the Great Depression. The obvious issue with eugenics is who picks the fit? In my mind of I have vision similar to the recent congressional hearing about women's reproductive rights and all the people on the committee were white men. If only rich white men choose who may reproduce, who do you think they would choose?

Some would be shocked at other activities of women during this period. During the early 1900's, a trend swept American girls' schools and women's colleges. An intense form of courtship and friendship between girls known as "smashing" became a fad. In smashing, a girl would choose to devote herself to another girl, sending tokens of affection and performing small tasks for the object of her affection. When the pursued girl finally returned this affect, she was officially "smashed." These relationships, which were often extremely intense, would often continue after school and college in the form of romantic friendships, otherwise known as "Boston Marriages." Middle- and Upper-class women could live together as unmarried companions, arousing relatively little suspicion from their neighbors.

Politics:
Progressives wanted to purify politics. They also wanted to increase their power and decrease the power of the wealthy and the poor. They passed many reforms that changed our political system. These included the founding of the "professional city governments" with a city manager as the most powerful member of the city government. And, that person was not elected but selected by the mayor and city council. Dallas adopted this system in 1907. The progressives also established obstacles to voting including literacy tests, poll taxes, but also the grandfather clause to protect those whites who did not qualify but their grandfathers had voted. Since African-Americans either had slave fathers who could not vote or white fathers but it was against the law to name that father. Therefore, it was difficult for African-Americans to avoid the restrictions. The Primary System was established as a function of political parties nominating process. In Texas, it was called the "White Man's Primary." The Democrats had the only viable political party and did not allow African-Americans to participate. Democrats made it difficult for any other party to get on the ballot.

Progressives favored ideas to get more voter participation to decrease power of politicians. They introduced initiative (citizens petition to vote on an issue), referendum (politicians submit and issue for the vote), and recall (a system to remove elected officials.) They also got passage of the 17th Amendment to the Constitution. Up until then the state governments chose U.S. Senators. The 17th Amendment put it in the hands of the voters. Progressives also tried to weaken "voting blocks" with the elimination of single member districts in cities to decrease ethnic voting strength. The "at large" system diluted their power. Progressives also introduced the Australian ballot or secret voting. Up until then, everyone knew for whom you voted.

But, overall the result was declining voter turnout. In Dallas County, there was a 70% turnout in the 1896 election. By 1900, that had dropped to 53%. By 1904, it was 24%. One of the problems was the trend to have many different elections for each type of government. Progressives favored this because voters had to be educated and informed to vote all the time, but it really just led to declining participation.

Economics/Business/Monetary Policy:
No surprise that progressives were interested in the economy. They had two main concerns: regulation of monopolies and creating a federal monetary policy. Despite the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, the growth of monopolies continued. Progressives believed that hampered competition and hurt the small businesses run by the middle-class. So, progressives agitated for laws to strengthen Sherman and the Interstate Commerce Act. In addition, Presidents Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson cooperated with dozens of anti-trust cases. Taft had the record with 90 anti-trust cases.

Other legislation supported and passed by progressives included the Mann-Elkins Act (1903) with more restrictions on railroads, the telegraph, and telephones that were placed under the Interstate Commerce Commission. The Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) established a commission to watch for monopolies, unfair trade, and false advertising. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914) legalized unions and agricultural organizations and added to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act regarding specific trade practices, but this law was found to be unconstitutional. States also passed regulations on insurance and utilities while Texas was a leader in the anti-trust fight when in 1907 a lawsuit was filed against Standard Oil (Rockefeller) because the corporations controlled the pipelines and transportation of oil in Texas. Texas won and $80 million settlement and broke the monopoly. The Supreme Court eventually broke up the entire corporation as a monopoly.

After another economic depression, the Panic of 1907, progressives agitated for monetary reform. That led to passage of the Aldrich-Vreeland Act (1908) that authorized national banks to issue emergency currency. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) was very significant in creating the district reserve system and the power to issue money like the system we have today. Also important was passage of the 16th Amendment (1913) that authorized Congress to establish a graduated income tax to redistribute the wealth and generate income to replace tariffs. Did Americans get what they expected from the income tax?

Conservation:
Conservation of the environment became a popular progressive issue as Theodore Roosevelt set the pace. As an outdoorsman, he was upset by the disappearance of U.S. forests. Only 1/4 our virgin forests were left. T.R. worried about future generations and said it was out patriotic duty to save the environment. He even went to so far as to ban cut Christmas trees in the White House. His other actions are summarized in the notes relating to his Presidency.

A key part of his policy was the "multi-use" theory that combined recreating, logging and grazing. Roosevelt worked with big business to get cooperation, but it did not work. The virgin forests continued to decrease. Other weaknesses in conservation policy included no understanding of non-forest environments especially deserts that were seen as without environment value. They did not understand the ecosystem. The Newlands Act (1902) provided funds for irrigation of deserts but led to depletion of the water table like happening in Texas today. It also led to overproduction of agricultural prices that had the affect of lowering prices for farmers' products. The Roosevelt Dam (1911) in Arizona and similar projects destroyed habitat and scenic beauty.

The progressives again produced unexpected results. Conservation became the major issue that split the Republican party in 1912. President Taft fired Gifford Pinchot who was a strong conservationist left over from the Roosevelt presidency. Conservationists were furious and this and differences over tariffs and monopolies led to the split and the creation of Roosevelt's Bull Moose party.

President Wilson was not that interested in conservation issues. He established another National Park (Rock Mountain) but continued the "multi-use" theory. Conservation was not Wilson's thing.

Farmers:
Concern for farmers also became part of the Progressive Era. The concern related more to the progressives that to the farmers, though. The progressives worried that too many people were moving into their cities. Many of these people were farmers who were no longer needed with the advances in agricultural technology. But, studies were begun in 1908 to figure out to keep the farmers at home. They discovered erosion of the soil, poor roads, scarcity of farm labor, inadequate sanitation, poor mail service, and deprivations suffered by women encouraged them to leave the farms. The progressives were short on remedies so more and more studies were conducted.

There were some reforms. One was an experiment to move urban poor to planned rural communities. This failed since the city folks were unprepared and experienced farmers resented them. The Warehouse Act (1916) provided loans for some crops. The Federal farm Loan Act (1916) provided low interest loans. Rural highways were improved and Agricultural colleges funded.

All this did not accomplish what progressives wanted. The rural to urban shift of the American population continued. Farmers also resented the effort to uplift them without their input. Mainly they need price supports to protect their livelihood.

Organized Labor:
The progressives divided over the issue of labor. Some favored unions to balance the power of business. Some opposed any interference in competition. One thing they did find agreement was that laborers brought radicalism including socialism, communism, and anarchism. Progressives tended to support improved working conditions to prevent radicalism. Roosevelt had set the precedent in the Coal Strike of 1902. T.R. also established the Department of Commerce and Labor (1903).

But, American workers had many other problems. The economic depression cycle left workers without any sense of security. Then, there was Taylorism, a popular theory of labor of the day that promoted a system of scientific management advocated by Fred W. Taylor. In Taylor’s view, the task of factory management was to determine the best way for the worker to do the job, to provide the proper tools and training, and to provide incentives for good performance. He broke each job down into its individual motions, analyzed these to determine which were essential, and timed the workers with a stopwatch. With unnecessary motion eliminated, the worker, following a machinelike routine, became far more productive.

Still, there were no regulations on conditions, hours, wages, and child labor. Unions and collective bargaining were still seen as illegal under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Company towns were everywhere. Still, progressives mostly feared radical unions like the "Wobblies" or International Workers of the World (IWW). They were unskilled, inclusive, socialistic, and rejected non-violence. They said they would fight if attacked. They vowed to take a life for every worker killed. There were never more than 10,000 members but a huge propaganda campaign created hysteria. Cities passed laws to outlaw their speaking in public. Progressives also desiged legislation to reward conservative labor unions like the American Federation of Labor as the lesser of two evils and to prevent the spread of radicalism.

Most of the reforms to help labor were on a state level and varied. 35 states adopted workman's compensation and 38 states passed maximum hour and minimum wages. Most of the federal legislation relating to labor came during the Wilson's presidency and as a result the AF of L endorsed his elections and they were rewarded for the support. This was the beginning of the association of organized labor and the Democrats.

President Wilson pledged not to seek injunctions during strikes and to revise the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to exclude unions. Wages were increased and conditions improved for Merchant Seamen in the Lafollette Seaman's Act in 1915. The Adamson act (1916) created the 8 hour workday and overtime for railroad workers. Many of their efforts were found to be unconstitutional, though, including restricting child labor and outlawing discrimination against union members.

Conditions did improve for some workers but it was uneven. Laws helped skilled workers more than unskilled. 1/5 of all workers experienced periodic layoffs and the gap between the rich and poor grew.

Overall, do you think the progressives were really progressive? Did they help the U.S. or hurt the U.S.? Do you agree with their reforms?

Be sure and check out the links on the Progressive Ear main page before moving the the next topic: The Great War (World War I).