LOGOS
LOGOS is a rational appeal. Aristotle divides it into four categories: syllogism*, maxim*, example*, and *enthymeme (B,H 171). Enthymeme, syllogism, and maxim deal with proofs derived from premises and example deals with proofs derived from occurances.
The syllogism is based upon deductive logic. It is based on an initial premise, which, when true, eliminates the need for further reasoning. The following are examples of syllogisms:
All citizens must pay taxes; Becky is a citizen, therefore Becky must pay taxes.
All men need water; John is a man, therfore John needs water.
"All men are mortal; Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is mortal" (qtd. in Bizzell, Herzberg 172).
A maxim is also based on deductive logic. It usually gives credit to a higher-up or perhaps a premise from an ethymeme or syllogism (B, H 172). The following are examples of maxims:
"Haste makes waste" (qtd. B,H 172)
An example is based upon iductive logic. It begins with a premise, however, that in itself is not sufficient and further reasoning is neccessary to prove the point.
For instance, one might argue the following:
"Men who do not exerise have a heightened risk for a heart attack. Alex does not exerise, therefore, he is at a greater risk for a heart attack." Perhaps the original premise is not yet a commonly accepted proof, then it becomes neccessary to supply more evidence, namely examples which support the claim.
The enthymeme is based upon probable truth, which makes it easy for the average person, without expertise, to understand. Take the following example: Human beings need love, Alice is human so she needs love. What separates this from the syllogism is the initial premise. It is probable though not certain that human beings need love. Because the first premise is not 100% certain, the deductive reasoning becomes truncated.
Logos is often valued above pathos and ethos because of the subject knowledge and research that go into constructing a logical appeal.
A Recap of Logos
- Syllogism: Deductive logic based upon a premise
- Maxim: Deductive logice based upon an enthymeme.
- Example: Inductive logic supporting a premise
- Enthymeme: A truncated form of reasoning based upon a logical, though not certain premise
How does this relate to Bush's Outline of Iraqi Threat?
Click here to see how Bush uses logos
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