1. How are the materials that ultimately reach the surface, and erupt from a volcano strongly modified from the original material that melted?

2. So, melting occurs inside the crust and mantle. How do we know not everywhere is molten?

3. Why is the Earth hot inside to begin with?

4. How hot is it inside the earth?

5. Differentiate between conduction and convection.

6. At the base of the mantle the temperature again increases rapidly with depth, in the thermal boundary layer between the core and the mantle. Why does this boundary layer involve heat transport by conduction?

7. What is the temperature right at the base of the mantle?

8. What is the temperature within the outer core, which is vigorously convecting?

9. One of the key tie points that we try to determine experimentally is the melting temperature of iron at pressures corresponding to the inner core-outer core boundary. How is the problem complicated

10. What are the 3 regions in the interior where melting probably occurs?

11. What are the tectonic regions with volcanoes?

12. Where are the best known volcanoes?

13. Where does most of the volcanic activity of the world occur?

14. Name a famous volcano.

15. The subduction zone volcanoes include many of the famous names. How are these volcanoes distinct?

16. When did Mt. Fuji last erupt

17. Is Mt. Fuji an active volcano?

18. Where is Mt Fuji located?

19. Subduction zones along continental margins also result in dramatic strato-volcanoes, such as in the Cascades and the Andes. But, why are there volcanoes in these regions where subducting oceanic lithosphere in a subduction zone is well below the melting temperature for basaltic rocks that make up the oceanic crust?

20. What is the most common rock type in island arc volcanoes?

21. Why is this rock very sticky?

22. Why does arc volcanism tend to be explosive?

23. Arc volcanoes tend to have long periods of repose, with eruption intervals of what time frame?

24. In what way are arc eruptions are an important part of the process of continental growth?

25. The violent 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens gave off energy equivalent to how many nuclear bombs like that dropped on Hiroshima.

26. What is a caldera?

27. Why do arc volcanoes tend to get most of the public recognition?

28. How important are they in the Earth's overall volcanic budget?

29. Which regions are the major component in the Earth's overall volcanic budget?

30. Why do volcanoes in rifts, or spreading regions occurs with little fanfare?

31. Thousands of kilometers long, the mid-ocean ridge volcanic system accounts for what percentage of annual volcanic activity.

32. The great volume of rift volcanism is in the Mid-Ocean ridge system. How much new seafloor area is being produced each year?

33. What is the average spreading rates of most ocean rifts?

34. Why do mid-ocean ridge system eruptions tend not to be explosive, and involve "effusive" eruptions of runny magma?

35. In most cases, it is believed that sea-floor spreading is actually a rather passive process, meaning that the plates are not forced apart by the upwellings, but rather the upwelling occurs because?

36. The ridges themselves are defined as ridges because?

37. Why is there a systematic increase in ocean depth with distance from the mid-ocean ridges?

38. What happens at the point where the lithosphere is cold enough to become gravitationally unstable?

39. How do we know about the deep structure of mid-ocean ridges?

40. There are a few places where old oceanic crust is found exposed on the continents, in formations that are called ________________ .

41. If we go out to any oceanic crust and pick up a rock, it will be made of ___________.

42. Basalt is a type of rock that is about ____ % silica, with relatively enriched magnesium, iron and calcium compared to most continental rocks.

43. Typically a fresh (unweathered) basalt is pretty dark or black, due to the presence of?

44. What is the most common rock found on the surface of the Earth?

45. Molten basalt is a low viscosity, runny magma type. This is because basalt is relatively low in silica. As a result, basalt builds up very broad volcanoes called?

46. How is the runny nature of basalt magmas also a factor in preventing rift volcanoes from building up large pressures for explosive eruptions.

47. Water in the ocean can seep down into cracks and interact with the rocks, leaching minerals and elements out of the rock. The hot water increases in temperature and then rises, carrying this bounty of leached elements with it, and jets out onto the ocean floor in vents. Some of these vents are so enriched in heavy materials such as copper, zinc, lead and sulfides that the hot steam and water produces vents of darkened hot water and steam 'erupting' at the base of the ocean which are also called?

48. Much of the material leached from the rocks settles out onto the ocean floor but some is mixed into the ocean, controlling what?

49. In addition to the vast upwelling regions along ocean ridge systems, there are other major volcanic centers that are removed from plate boundaries. It is believed that many of the island chains have been produced by the northwesterly motion of the Pacific plate over several relatively fixed locations of melting below the plate called?

50. What is the most famous hot spot island chain?

51. Name the three volcanoes on Hawaii.

52. Are the three volcanoes on Hawaii dormant or active?

53. What is the main rock types of hotspots found in the oceans?

54. The basalt flows on Hawaii have two distinct types. The Hawaiian names are Pahoehoe and Aa. Distinguish between the two.

55. Up-welling plumes produce some hotspots below continents as well. What is the best example in North America?

56. Why have some hotspot regions on continents had massive explosive eruptions, unlike the effusive flows founds on Hawaii.

57. What island is actually a hotspot volcano located right on the mid-ocean rift in the northern Atlantic? (The combined volcanism of the hotspot and sea-floor spreading have built up this island to above sea-level.)

58. Describe the composition of the current atmosphere.

59. Nitrogen is being released at many volcanoes today, and fortunately the Earth is warm enough that nitrogen has not combined with hydrogen in the Earth's atmosphere to condense out as what substance?

60. While free oxygen is not coming out of volcanoes, carbon dioxide does, what process is responsible for the conversion to an oxygen atmosphere?

61. Volcanic gas samples reveal large amounts of what three substances?

62. Volcanic gas samples reveal smaller amounts of what six substances?

63. If we take the current rate at which theses gases are emerging, and calculate the cumulative volumes over the history of the planet, we can only account for about 25% of the total water, chlorine, and nitrogen at the surface. What does this imply?

64. Some materials, such as sulfur are less abundant on the surface than would be expected based on the sulfur expulsion rate. What does this imply?

65. For strong vertical eruptions, dust can be propelled up into the stratosphere, above 17 kilometers. What effect does this have on temperature?

66. What is hydrothermal energy?

67. With a bounty of heat energy in the molten rock ready below us that we might be able to directly tap, why do we still use fossil fuels?

68. A few areas around the world are producing significant power from hydrothermal systems. Iceland is one of the most advanced nations in this respect. What percentage of the power for the capital city of Reykjavik is being produced by hydrothermal power?

69. The Geysers in northern California produces 500 megawatts of power per year, with 240 degree steam. This is enough power to meet the needs of what area?

70. What are the primary earthquake hazards?

71. What are the secondary earthquake hazards?

72. What are the four main Earthquake Hazard Mitigation Approaches:

73. What is the key to making decisions regerding earthquake mitigation?

74. When seismologists discuss earthquake prediction, there is a very specific connotation of the term: an earthquake prediction must specify what three parameters?

75. Why is earthquake forecasting significantly more complex than weather forecasting?

76. We subdivide earthquake prediction efforts into what two broad categories?

77. What general understanding does long term forecasting exploit?

78. What is a seismic gap

79. Long-term forecasts try to identify which faults are 'mature' in terms of approaching their average recurrence delay since the last event. When are they useful?

80. Long-term forecasts try to identify which faults are 'mature' in terms of approaching their average recurrence delay since the last event. When are they not useful?

81. What notion is short-term prediction based on?

82. What are the seismicity patterns that are observed prior to some earthquakes?

83. Other effects that are sought include strain effects that result in anomalous behavior just before an earthquake. What are some of the things that are measured?

84. Do all events seem to be preceded by strain like effects?

85. What are some of the more exotic approaches to predicting earthquakes?

86. What is the Tsunami warning system for the Pacific?

87. How fast do tsunamis move?

88. Aside from the scientific issues of earthquake prediction there are major socioeconomic considerations that influence the process. Name several?

89. Why are there also dilemmas about whether a prediction is actually beneficial in some cases?

90. What are some of the primary major volcanic hazards

91. What are some of the secondary major volcanic hazards

92. What are Nuee Ardente?

93. What caused the loss of life in the 1986 Lake Nios, Cameroon event?

94. What are Lahars?

95. What are Tsunamis?

96. Why is the emphasis prediction of volcanoes?

97. Which events are easier to predict, earthquakes or volcanoes?

98. What is the major difficulty in predicting volcanoes?

99. Most volcanic predictions are based on what phenomena?

100. What has the U.S. set up as a hierarchy of volcano warning levels?