Beginnings to AD 2000:
A Comprehensive Chronology of
Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran

by
Iraj Bashiri

copyright 2001

The AD Era to 1900

AD

Dates

Events

2

 

Parthian king since 2BC, Phraateces marries his own mother, Musa, an act that terrifies the Romans and the Greeks.

3

9 Sept.

The Parthian stronghold of Artagira falls to the Romans.

4

 

Parthian king Phraataces is either killed or driven into Syria where he passes away.

12

 

Artabanus defeats the Parthian Vonones and forces him to flee to Seleucia.

16

 

Parthian king Artabanus forces Vonones to surrender the rulership of Armenia which he has made his own. .

21

Dec.

A letter sent by Artabanus to Susa validates a contested election.

38

 

Artabanus, the ruler of Parthia, passes away.

42

 

On his way to India, the sage Apollonius of Tyana passes through Babylonia.

50

 

Kujula Kadphises establishes the Kushan Empire. The Kushans rule over Persia, the upper Oxus, and Transoxiana until they are overthrown by the Sassanids in the third century.

51

 

Vologases I becomes king.

52

 

Vologases I advances into Armenia without any resistance.

53

 

For the next ten years Parthia and Rome fight for the control of Armenia.

63

 

Vologases I and Corbulo make Armenia a buffer between Parthia and Rome.

63

 

Legions in Spain and Dalmatia are recalled and assigned to the Roman army of the east.

115

 

Trajan conquers Mesopotamia.

117

 

Hadrian abandons Mesopotamia to Parthia.

118

 

Roman armies advance in Mesopotamia.

165

 

Avidius Cassius, a Roman general, destroys Seleucia.

198

 

Septimus Severus captures Ctesiphon.

200

 

Arabic kingdom of Hira is established.

226

 

Ardashir I takes Ctesiphon; overthrows Parthian rule.

241

 

Shapur I; spread of Manicheism.

260

 

Sassanians caapture Emperor Valerian forcing Rome to relax its hold on Mesopotamia.

274

 

Imprisonment and death of Mani.

280

 

Valerian is taken prisoner at Edessa; Roman fortresses in Mesopotamia are reduced.

297

 

Emperor Galerius defeats Narsah. captured fortresses are returned to Rome.

303

 

Armenia accepts Christianity.

309

 

Shapur II becomes ruler of Iran at birth.

313

 

Constantine the Great adopts Christianity.

337

 

Shapur II begins his conquests in the west.

362

 

The death of Emperor Julian causes Rome to flood the eastern marches with many western units.

370

 

The Hephthalites establish themselves in Bactria, defeat the Sassanians and expand their hegemony over Kabul and Gandhara.

372

 

Hans invade the Western steppes.

399

 

Yadagird I is sympathetic to Christianity at first.

400

 

Altai Mountain Turks attack the Usun, a Turkic-speaking Mongolian nomadic people.

410

 

Rome's Western provinces are overrun by Germanic tribes.

420

 

Bahram V (Gur) becomes king.

429

 

Eastern Armenia (Parsarmenia) is restored to Iran.

438

 

Yadagird II persecutes Christians.

440

 

The Hephthalites, or White Huns, capture Transoxiana and much of the eastern provinces of the Sassanids.

440

 

Hephthalites defeat the Kushans and terrorize their Iranian neighbors.

457

 

Firuz becomes king.

484

 

Hephthalites kill Firuz, throw Iranian affairs into chaos.

488

 

Qubads' first rule.

499

 

Qubad's second rule.

500

 

During the 6th century, the Turkic Tue-Chue overthrow the Hephthalites and establish themselves in Central Asia; the Kazakh-Kirghiz move south from Siberia.

501

 

Qubad restores stability; Mazdak appears.

531

 

Mazdakite movement ends; Khusrau I (531-579) welcomes Athenian philosophers to his court, reforms the state.

545

 

The Prophet Muhammad's father, Abdullah, is born.

549

 

Athenian philosophers return to Greece.

550

 

Merchant Sughdians populate the Chu and Talas river valleys and serve as a solid link in the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean.

550

 

An alliance between the Western Turks and the Sassanids brings Hephthalite rule to an end.

552

 

Bumin Kaghan establishes the first Turkic empire in Mongolia and, in the process displaces the traditional inhabitants of the region, the Sakas.

552

 

Western Turks defeat the Juan Juan on the Altain plains.

552

 

The Turkish leader, Bumin, forms an alliance with the Chinese and overthrows the Juan Juan dynasty.

553

 

An alliance of Western Turks and the Sassanian Khusrau I ends the Empire of the Hephthalites. The Oxus river divides the realm of the Western Turks from the land of the Iranians.

553

 

Bumin, having created an alliance among the Turks of the Altai Mountains passes away. Bumin's Empire is divided between his son, Mu-han (553-572), and his brother Ishtemi (553-573). The former bacomes the Khaqan of the Eastern Turks while the latter bacomes the Khaqan of the Western Turks; Ishtemi's empire reaches the Ili and Chu Rivers.

570

 

Prophet Muhammad is born in Mecca, a center of the Spice Route that connected the West to the East.

574

 

Persians capture Yemen by expelling the Abyssinians who had held sway there for 52 years.

579

 

Rule of Hormuzd IV (579-590).

590

 

Within the next 3 decades, Khusrau II (d. AD 628) captures Hira and Jerusalem; takes the True Cross to Ctesiphon; lays siege to Constantinople.

590

 

Bahram Chubin (590-591) usurps the throne.

591

 

Khusrau II (591-628) returns and expands the Empire.

594

 

Prophet Muhammad becomes the overseer of Khadija's business.

595

 

Muhammad (25) marries the widow Khadija (41). Of their 2 sons and four daughters, Fatimah becomes of lasting importance due to her marriage to Ali, the Prophet's cousin and first in the line of Shi'ite imams.

600

 

Khusrau II flees to Byzantium.

601

 

Bahram Chubin rules Iran as a usurper; Byzantine Emperor Maurice restores the young prince to the throne of Iran. In return, Iran gives up Iberia and much of Armenia.

603

 

The Turkic empire established by Bumin is divided into an eastern and a western kingdom. Centered on Tokmak in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the Western Turks gradually dominate Central Asia.

605

 

Prophet Muhammad determines the placement of the Black Stone in Mecca.

607

 

Khusrau II captures Hira and Jerusalem, takes the True Cross to Ctesiphon, and lays siege to Constantinople.

610

 

Muhammad receives dispensation through Gabriel. Khadija and Ali (10 at the time), Abu Bakir and Zayd are the first converts. The economic situation in Mecca, tied to Pagan beliefs, is not conducive to growth for the fledgling religion. Followers of the Prophet are persecuted.

613

 

At Mt. Sara, the Prophet invites the public to join Islam.

615

 

Muslims are persecuted by the Quraish; some leave for Abyssinia.

616

 

Sassanians occupy Egypt.

619

 

Muhammad is taken from Mecca to Jerusalem and to the 7th heaven, where he receives prescription for the rituals, especially for prayers.

620

 

The Prophet ascends to the heavens on the back of the Buraq. This is usually referred to as the mi'raj.

622

 

The untenable situation in Mecca forces the Prophet to move to Medina where he is welcomed by the Jews of the city; beginning of the Hijri or Islamic calendar; Heraclius defeats theSassanids.

623

 

Aided by Khazar mercenaries, Byzantines attack Persia.

628

 

Emperor Heraclius defeats Khusrau II near Ctesiphon.

629

 

Prophet Muhammad performs the pilgrimage at Mecca.

630

 

The rebellion of the Karluk Turks brings about the division of the western Turks into the Dulu and the Nushibi confederations.

630

 

The Chinese traveler Hsuan-tsang visits Kabul, Balkh, Bamiyan, Kunduz, and Gandhara documenting Buddhist life in medival times.

630

 

Between 630 and 640, the cities of Kucha, Khotan, Kashghar, Yarkand, and Turfan, i.e., present-day Xinjiang, fall to the Chinese.

630

 

Between 630 and 682 Eastern Turks fall to the Chinese.

632

 

Prophet Muhammad's message arrives at the Sassanid court; Prophet Muhammad passes away.

637

 

Yazdagird III (633-651) accedes the Sassanian throne; Iranians are defeated at al-Qadisiyya; Rome is reduced to Byzantium.

637

 

Between 637 and 691 a United Turkish Khanate is established by Elterish.

640

 

The Sassanid Empire falls to the Muslim armies. Zoroastrianism, eclipsed by Islam, never recovers. Large numbers of Zoroastrian faithfuls leave Iran for India where they are known as Parsees.

642

 

Iranians are defeated at Nihavand and later at Rayy.

643

 

Azerbaijan and Tabaristan fall to the Muslims.

644

 

Fars, Kirman, Sistan, and Makran fall to the Muslims.

646

 

Arab conquest of Khurasan begins.

649

 

All of Sassanian Iran is controlled by Muslim Arabs.

650

 

A commission is formed by the Caliph Uthman to finalize the preparation of the text of the Qur'an started under Caliph Umar; Arab frontiers in the east extend into Khurasan.

651

 

Yazdagird III is assassinated at Merv; Sassanian empire ends.

655

 

Tang dynasty of China captures the territories belonging to the Western Turks in eastern Turkistan.

656

 

Ali, the Prophet's cousin, becomes the 4th rightly-guided Caliph. A year later, he moves the seat of the Caliphate from Medina to Kufa in present-day Iraq.

657

 

Imam Ali moves the seat of the Caliphate from Medina to Kufa.

659

 

The West Turkic Khanate, a loose Turkic confederation, is overrun by the Chinese.

659

 

Western Turks fall to the Chinese.

660

 

The Caliphate is split. Ali controls Iraq and Persia (i.e., the domain of the former Sassanian dynasty. Mu'awiyya controls Syria and Egypt.

661

 

Ali is murdered. His son, Hassan abdicates. The seat of the Caliphate is moved to Damascus, Syria. Kharijite Ibn-I Muljim's assassination of Ali results in the Sunni-Shi'I split.

670

 

To decrease tension in Iraq, 50,000 bedouin families are relocated in Khurasan.

674

 

Muslims cross the Oxus river and Bukhara becomes a Muslim vassal state.

677

 

Samarqand is occupied by the Muslims.

683

 

Mongolia is recaptured by the Turks.

686

 

Mukhtar declares himself Caliph at Kufa.

687

 

Mukhtar is killed in a battle between him and Abdullah Zubair.

692

 

Elterish's brother, Qapaqan (692-716) forces the eastern and western khanates to recognize him as the Khaqan.

695

 

Muslims advance in Transoxiana as far as Kish.

696

 

Arabic becomes the official language of the Islamic Empire, displacing Persian that in the eastern regions had been serving as language of administration. Similarly, dinar and dirham replace the old Sassanid coinage.

699

 

Uch-Elig Kaghan forms the Turgesh Kaghanate centered on the river Siyab in present-day Kyrgyzstan.

700

 

Manichaeism, which synthesizes Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Gnosticism vies with Buddhism for the control of what is present-day Kyrgyzstan.

700

 

The word Tatar is encountered for the first time in the Kultigin tablets erected close to the river Orkhon.

709

 

Bukhara and Samarqand fall to the Arab forces.

711

 

Khiva falls to the Arab forces.

711

 

Islamic rule is expanded as far as the Indus Valley.

712

 

Khwarazm falls to the Arab forces.

712

 

Muslim armies capture the Ferghana Valley and Shash (present-day Tashkent).

713

 

Arab armies sack Kashghar.

715

 

Qutaiba ibn Muslim, the Governor of Khurasan, is assassinated by his own forces.

716

 

The Turgesh Kaghanate uses the earliest Runic alphabet used by the Turkic inhabitants of Central Asia.

716

 

Muslims invade Constantiople.

716

 

Areas of present-day Turkmenistan are captured by the Umayyids.

716

 

Qapaqan Khan is poisoned. Bilge (716-734), is established as ruler.

725

 

Muslims occupy Nimes, France.

728

 

Arab power is consolidated in Transoxiana; establishment of the Islamic faith among the populace, however, remains a major task to be accomplished.

728

 

Economic discrimination by Arabs against the new Persian and Turkish converts sets the scene for a revolution in Khurasan.

733

 

Muslims are defeated at Avignon, France.

734

 

Bilge Khan is poisoned by one of his own officials.

735

 

Arab armies cross the Syr Dariya and threaten the Turkic states to their north and east.

738

 

Sughdiana falls to the Arab armies.

738

 

Arab armies quell the Perso-Turkish revolution started 10 years earlier on the question of unfair taxation.

738

 

The Arab ruler of Khurasan and the main support of the Samanid House in Balkh, Asad inb Abdallah, passes away.

740

 

The Shi'a revolt under Zaid ibn Ali.

743

 

Abu Muslim organizes a multi-faceted revolt against the Ummayids. For this, he draws on almost all facets of life that deemed discriminatory to the Khurasanians.

744

 

The Turgesh Kaghanate is overrun by Arabs and Blue Turks.

745

 

Kufa and Mosul are occupied by the Khwarijites.

745

 

Mongolia is controlled by the Uighurs.

745

 

The Uighurs break away from the Turkish alliance and set up their own empire.

747

 

The Umayyad governor of Khurasan is overthrown. This, however, was not a shi'ite revolt as Iranians who had participated in it had thought, but a revamping of the Sunni rule.

749

Sept.

Kufa falls to the Abbasid armies; The Umayyi dynasty is on the defensive.

750

 

The Abbasids overthrow the Umayyids in the Battle at the Zob River.

751

 

The defeat of a Chinese army by Muslim warriors results in the capture of Chinese artisans familiar with the technique of paper making.

751

 

The Arabs armies are defeated by the Chinese at the Battle of the Talas River; Transoxiana is divided so that the Semirechye region and the eastern parts of the Syr Darya are ruled by the Qarluqs Turks and the western region is ruled by the Oghuz or Ghuzz tribes. After the Battle of Talas, Muslim invaders decide to replace expansionism with consolidation of their Empire. In this they draw on the resources of the conquered Iranians, especially on the contributions of Greek scholars to ancient Iranian medicine, mathematics, philosophy, and law. By establishing translation centers, they transfer Greek knowledge to the Muslim centers of the east.

751

Jul.

The Arab armies defeat the Chinese on the Talas River and capture the Ferghana Valley. The Islamic faith enteres the region and remains in full strength.

754

 

Abu Muslim, the cause of the fall of the Umayyid dynasty, is murdered.

762

 

Isma'il, son of Ja'far al-Sadiq, passes away; Iranian dualist religions penetrate Islam, resulting in the rise of the Isma'ilis or Seveners.

765

 

Jaífar al-Sadiq, scholar and sixth Shiíite Imam, passes away.

766

 

Karluk Turks establish themselves in the region of present-day eastern Kazakhstan.

767

 

Jurisconsult Imam Hanifa, the founders of the most tolerant of the four schools, the Hanafi school of jurisprudence followed in Central Asia, passes away in prison in Baghdad.

776

 

Al-Muqanna' (the Veiled One) conquers Khurasan.

780

 

End of the revolt of al-Muqanna'.

780

 

Conversion of the Uighurs to Manichaeism begins under Kahn Mei-yu (759-780)

780

 

The Bukharan wars with the armies of al-Muqanna' which had started in 775, end in the defeat of the "White Garment Warriors."

786

 

Harun al-Rashid (22), the most well-known of all Arab Caliphs, ascends the throne in Baghdad. A protégé of the Barmakid Yahya, Harun is well-versed in the Persian language and in Persian culture. During his rule, Yahya rises to the peak of administrative power.

792

 

Muslims invade the southern regions of France.

800

 

Arab and Islamic influence permeate the region known today as eastern Kazakhistan.

800

 

During the 9th century, many Oghuz tribes migrate to Central Asia and gradually consolidate their political and military might.

803

 

The Baramakids fall from grace amid Caliphal distrust. Ja'far Barmaki is executed.

808

 

Al-Ma'mun, born of an Iranian mother, is appointed governor of Khurasan.

809

 

Harun al-Rashid passes away. Civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, his sons, begins.

813

 

Al-Ma'mun kills his brother al-Amin and becomes caliph; flowering of scholarship and translation of Greek works into Arabic.

815

 

Tahir Zulyaminain's father, Hussein ibn Mus'ab, passes away.

817

 

Ma'mun nominates Imam Ali al-Riza as heir apparent to the Caliphate.

818

 

Caliph al-Ma'mun divides the rulership of Transoxania into four and assigns it to the four sons of Asad ibn Samankhudat as follows: Ilyas is given Herat; Yahya is assigned to Ushrusana and Chach; Ahmad is appointed to Ferghana; and Nuh is given the governorship of Samarqand.

819

 

Ma'mun comes to Baghdad.

820

 

Caliph al-Ma'mun appoints Tahir ibn Hussein to the overlordship of Khurasan and Transoxania. Tohir arrives in Khurasan the following year.

821

 

Taherids, awarded the eastern lands, pay nominal allegiance to Baghdad. The Tahirid Emirate includes Transoxiana.

821

Apr.

The arrival of the Tughuzghuz Turks in Ushrusana.

822

Oct.

Tahir ibn Hussein passes away. Caliph al-Ma'mun appoints Talha ibn Tahir in his place.

827

 

Ma'mun adopts the doctrine of the Mu'tazalites as state religion and proclaims that the Qur'an is created.

828

14 Jun.

Talha ibn Tohir passes away. His son, Ali, who succeeds him is killed in the same year.

829

 

Byzantine territories in the east are restored.

830

 

The House of Wisdom is established by al-Ma'mun in Baghdad.

833

10 Aug.

Caliph al-Ma'mun passes away and is succeeded by Caliph al-Mu'tasim.

835

 

Caliph al-Mu'tasim orders Imam Hanbal to be lashed.

840

 

The Kirghiz defeat the Uighurs in Mongolia and force them to move to Turfan where they reestablish themselves. The Kirghiz come closer to the Altai, their eventual homeland.

840

 

Mongolia is controlled by the Kirghiz.

840

 

The Uighurs are defeated by the Kyrgyz.

844

Dec.

Abdullah ibn Tahir passes away.

849

May

Isma'il Samani is born in Ferghana.

850

 

Al-Khwarazmi passes away.

850

 

Pushed out of Mongolia by the Kirghiz, the Uighurs move to the Tarim Basin.

858

14 May

Ya'qub Lais rises against the government of Sistan.

867

 

The Shi'ite Saffarid dynasty is established by Ya'qub Lais of Sistan.

867

Aug.

Ya'qub Lais defeats the Samanid ruler of Pushang and Herat and annexes those regions to his domain centered on Sistan.

869

 

Shiraz falls to Ya'qub Lais

870

 

Hadith collector Imam al-Bukhari passes away.

870

 

Ya'qub ibn Lais captures cabul and converts the populace to Islam.

871

 

Kabul falls to Ya'qub Lais.

873

 

The 12th Shi'ite imam goes into Lesser Occultation (873-940).

873

Jul.

The Tahirids are defeated by Ya'qub Lais who enters Nishapur.

874

Jun.

The Caliph appoints Nasr ibn Ahmad the governor of Transoxania. In Bukhara, the Khutba is read in the name of Nasr ibn Ahmad Samani. At age 25, Isma'il Samani enters Bukhara and takes over its rulership.

879

May

Ya'qub Lais passes away.

880

 

In the summer of 880, Al-Muvaffaq becomes Caliph in Baghdad.

883

 

Nasr ibn Ahmad Samani replaces Amr Lais, Ya'qub Lais's brother, as the ruler of Kerman and Fars.

885

 

Consolidation of Samanid forces under Nasr ibn Ahmad against Isma'il Samani.

888

25 Oct.

Victory of Isma'il Samani over Nasr near the village of Vazbadin.

892

 

Isma'il Samani (r. 892-907) sets himself the task of reviving the Tajiks' ancient Iranian culture. This means a revival of the exact sciences and fine arts as well as an overhaul of administrative practices. In this context, Rudaki revives Persian literature and Firdowsi promotes the Persian language and Iranian nationalism. Similar contributions are made by the Shu'ubis, who use the Arabic language to defend Iranian culture against Arab domination. Samanid scholars contribute to our understanding of mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine while Samanid artists enlighten us on the finer points of calligraphy, painting, and music.

892

21 Aug.

Nasr ibn Ahmad Samani passes away. Isma'il Samani ascends the throne.

893

 

The Samanids defeat the Karluk Turks whose empire begins its decline.

893

Mar.

Caliph al-Mu'tamad appoints Isma'il Samani the ruler of Transoxania.

898

Nov.

Isma'il Samani defeats Amr Lais's army.

900

 

Amr Lais passes away. The Samanids capture Jurjan and Tabaristan.

907

Nov.

Isma'il Samani passes away at the age of 58. He is succeeded by his son Ahmad.

913

24 May

Sistan falls to the Samanids.

914

Jan.

Ahmad ibn Isma'il is mudered in the hunting grounds by his slaves. His son, Nasr, succeeds him.

922

 

Celebrated Sufi al-Hallaj (b. ca. 858), is executed by orthodox religious authorities. Al-Hallaj undergoes moments of extreme ecstasy during one of which he utters ana al-Haqq (I am the Truth).

923

 

Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Muslim historian and commentator also famous for his Annals of Apostles and Kings, passes away.

924

 

The Kirghiz are defeated by the Mongol Khitans

925

 

Outstanding Muslim physician al-Razi (b. ca. 841) passes away. An encyclopedic scholar interested in philosophy, alchemy, mathematics, and medicine, al-Razi recognizes smallpox and measles as two distinct diseases that plague children.

932

 

Karakhanid Turks entering the area from the east form their own state and accept Islam.

932

 

Buyid ruler, Muíizz al-Dawlah, assumes control of northern Iran.

932

 

The Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty, centered on the city of Kashghar, is established.

934

 

Under Abdukerim Saltuk Bughra Khan, the ruler of Kashghar, the Uighurs are converted to Islam.

940

 

The Fourth representative of the Hidden Imam refuses to name a successor; Great Occultation begins and will last until the coming of the Mahdi.

941

 

Abu 'Abd Allah Ja'far Rudaki (b. 858), Central Asia's celebrated bard, passes away. Born in the district of Rudak near the city of Samarqand, he memorizes the entire text of the Qur'an by the time that he is eight years old. A special ward of Nasr ibn Ahmad (r. 913-942), he becomes both rich and famous. Rudaki is known mostly for his "Ju-yi-Muliyan" (The Muliyan Brook) ode and his simple style which reflects the charm of the pre-Islamic literature of Iran.

943

Apr.

Ascesion of Nuh-i Samani to the throne of Bukhara.

945

 

The Buyids occupy Baghdad and make the Caliph a figurehead.

949

Jan.

A peace treary is signed between Nuh-i Samani and the Dylamite Abu Ali in Hissar, in present-day Tajikistan.

950

 

The Karakhanid dynasty becomes the first Turkic state in Central Asia to convert to Islam. The Karakhanid state was centered on the town of Balasaghun in present-day republic of Kyrgyzstan.

952

 

Nuh-i Samani appoints Abu Ali to the rulership of Khurasan.

954

Aug.

Nuh-i Samani passes away. He is succeeded by Abdul Malik Samani, his son.

955

 

Satuq Bughra Khan, under whom the Qarakhanids and the Uighurs passed from Buddhism to Islam, passes away.

955

Jun.

Isfahan is separated from the realm of the Samanids.

960

 

Abu Ali Bal'ami is appointed Prime Minister.

961

 

Mansur ibn Nuh (r. 961-976) oversees the inevitable decline of the might of the Samanids. The Turks, who grow in prominence in the ranks of the Samanids, overthrow the latter and establish their own dynasty (999). The decline of Samanid power also bespeaks the decline of Tajik political power. Tajiks become a constituent people, populating the empires of the Turks and the Mongols.

961

Feb.

Alptekin is appointed Commander-in-Chief of Khurasan.

961

20 Nov.

Abdul Malik Samani is killed. His brother Mansur succeeds him to the throne.

962

 

Buyids institute the ritual of public mourning for al-Hussein and his followers to be held on the 10th of Muharram.

962

 

The Ghaznavid dynasty, the members of which had been slave commanders of the Samanids of Bukhara, is established in Afghanistan.

962

 

Alptekin rebels against Samanid rule and establishes himself at Ghazna, the center of the Ghaznavid dynasty in Afghanistan.

963

 

In Baghdad, the victorious Buyids initiate the ritual cursing of the first three caliphs who had succeeded the Prophet. This is followed by public mourning and other Shi'ite rituals related to the Karbala event.

971

 

Mahmud of Ghazna is born.

971

 

During Sviatoslav's reign, the 4th prince, the new Russian state is invaded by the Pechenegs. The Polovtsians, another tribe, manage to cut Russia off from the Black Sea.

974

Mar.

Abu Ali Bal'ami, capable Samanid Prime Minister, passes away.

975

 

Alptekin passes away.

976

13 Jun.

Mansur Samani is succeeded by Nuh II Samani.

979

 

Sebuktekin becomes the Amir of Ghazna.

982

Mar.

The Samanid army is defeated in a battle in Jurjan.

985

 

Seljuq Turks migrate to the areas around Bukhara.

985

 

The Seljuqs, a Turkish ruling tribe of the Oghuz, move to the river valleys around Bukhara.

988

 

Vladimir I of Kiev adopts Byzantine Christianity. Kiev becomes one of the largest and finest cities in Europe.

990

 

The Karakhanid expand their domain along the Syr Dariya and establish an administrative center in the Ferghana Valley at Uzgen.

990

 

The Shi'ite Buyids seize the control of the Caliphate in Baghdad.

990

 

Outbreak of plague in Jurjan.

992

May

Between May and June of 992, the Samanids are defeated at the hand of the Turkish commander Bughra Khan. Samarqand and Bukhara are captured by the Turks. Amir Nuh II flees the capital of Bukhara.

992

Aug.

Nuh II returns to Bukhara and resumes his rulership of the realm. Samanids who had supported Bughra Khan are punished.

994

 

Nuh II fights Abu Ali Simjur near Herat and defeats him.

995

 

Manas, the national hero of the Kyrgyz, unites the Kyrgyz people and establishes an exemplary elected government.

997

23 Jul.

Nuh II passes away. Mansur II ascends the throne.

997

Aug.

Sabuktekin passes away.

998

 

Mahmud of Ghazna becomes sultan.

999

 

The Karakhanids seize the Ferghana Valley and later defeat the Samanids and capture Bukhara.

999

3 Feb.

Boiq and Bektazun blind Mansur II and support his brother Abdul Malik II.

999

23 Oct.

The Turkish commander Ilak Khan enters Bukhara, arrests Abdul Malik II, and imprisons him.

1000

 

Between 1000 and 1100 the Turkmen tribes migrate from the east to the regions of the Caspian Sea.

1005

Dec.

Muntasir Samani, after many military attempts at restoring rulership to the Samanid house, is killed.

1020

 

Firdowsi (b. 935), author of the Shahname (Book of Kings), passes away. Firdowsi, born to a family of landed gentry in the town of Tus, grows up in a rural culture suffused with the words and deeds of heroes long gone. At the age of forty, he sets himself the task of collecting, organizing, and versifying the most cherished stories and myths about his homeland. His epic, 60,000 couplets in length, constitutes the foundation of Iranian national identity.

1030

 

Mahmud of Ghazna passes away.

1037

 

Physician and philosopher Ibn-I Sina (b. 980) passes away. Usually cited alongside Hippocrates and Galenus, Ibn-I Sina is known in the East as "Shaykh al-Ra'is" and "Hujat al-Haqq" and in the West as the "Prince of the Physicians." He has left between 276 and 456 manuscripts and has contributed to many branches of the sciences and the arts including medicine, phenomenology, philosophy, alchemy, mineralogy, mathematics, literature, astronomy, and music. Of these contributions, between 44 to 59 books and articles are devoted to medicine. The contents of nine of these books, written in Arabic and Perso-Tajik languages, are in poetry; the rest are in prose.

1040

 

At the Battle of Dandanqan, near Merv, the Seljuq armies defeat the Ghaznavids.

1047

 

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (b. 973), scientist, philosopher, and scholar, passes away. Born in the village of Birun, near Bukhara, Biruni studies mathematics and the theory of numbers and leaves a copious amount of publications, including al-Tafhim. This most important work, authored in both Arabic and Persian, deals with astronomy, mathematics, geometry, and geography. His most remarkable work, however, is his calculation of the circumference of the earth; his calculations are some twelve miles short of the present-day calculations.

1055

 

Seljuq Turks seize Baghdad and control the caliphate.

1055

 

The Buyids are defeated at the hand of the Selquq Tughrul Bek who captures Baghdad. The Seljuq sultanate becomes the protector of the Caliphate.

1060

 

The Oghuz Turks, known to the Byzantines as the Cumans, move into the Kipchak steppe.

1069

 

The court scholar Yusuf of Balasaghun writes Katagdu Bilig a book of advice to kings, similar to Nizam al-Mulk's Siyasatnameh or Book of Government.

1070

 

The Saljuqs of Rum defeat the Byzantines at Manzikert; gain eastern and central Anatolia.

1072

 

Mahmud Kashghari writes Divan-I Lughat-I Turk, the first such Turkish dictionary ever written for a Turkish language.

1090

 

Hassan Sabbah seizes Alamut; Nizari branch of the Isma'ili da'wa begins.

1092

 

Great Prime Minister of the Seljuq dynasty and author of Siyasatnama (Book of Government), Nizam al-Mulk, passes away.

1992

 

Malik shah of the Seljuq dynasty of Persia passes away.

1095

 

The First Crusade.

1100

 

The city of Osh in present-day Kyrgyzstan becomes the center of Islamic learning.

1111

 

Philosopher and mystic al-Ghazzali passes away.

1120

 

The Uzgen minaret is built in present-day Kyrgyzstan by the Karakhanids.

1122

 

Omar Khayyam (born 1021), Persian philosopher, mathematician, and poet, passes away. Known through the translation of his Quatrains by Edward Fitzgerald, Omar Khayyam casts a realistic glance at life and finds it at once bitter and sweet. Bitter because of the depth of the vacuum in which it is presented; sweet because nothing reaches its delight embodied in plants, animals, and man. Khayyam's Jalali Calendar, completed at the behest of Seljuq Malik Shah, in 1079, bespeaks the depth of his knowledge in mathematics and astronomy.

1124

 

The leader of the Assassins of Iran, Hassan ibn al-Sabbah, passes away.

1128

 

The Karakhitais capture the city of Kashghar.

1137

 

At Khujand, the Qarakhitai defeat the Qarakhanids, a vassal of the Seljuqs.

1141

 

The Karakhitais expel the Karakhanid governors of Bukhara, Samarqand, and Balasaghun.

1147

 

The town of Moscow becomes a prominent center.

1148

 

The Ghurid dynasty of Afghanistan is established.

1151

 

Ghanna falls to the Ghurids who proceed to conquer the rest of the country.

1162

 

Temuchin, the later Chingiz Khan, is born on the Onon River. He unifies the tribes around Lake Baikal into a formidable force, punishes the Tatars who had killed his father, adapts a written language for the Mongols from the defeated Uighurs, and is tolerant towards religions of the conquered people.

1162

 

(Time approximate) Temuchin, later known as Chingiz Khan, is born near Burhan Kaldun on the shores of Lake Baikal.

1169

 

The capital of the collection of rival principalities, including Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod, is transferred from Kiev to Vladimir.

1175

 

Temuchin becomes betrothed to Borte. Yesugei Bahador, Temuchin's father, is murdered by the Tatars.

1179

 

Bo'urcu assists Temuchin and later on becomes one of his Great Warriors.

1182

 

Temuchin marries Borte. The Keriat chief, Tughrul Khan offers Temuchin protection.

1183

 

Borte is abducted by the Merkits. While in Merkit captivity, Borte becomes pregnant with Jochi. Helped by Tughrul Khan and his blood brother (anda) Jamuqa, Temuchin rescues Borte.

1185

 

Temuchin's clan, the Borjigin, elect Temuchin their khan.

1196

 

The Tatars are defeated by Temuchin.

1197

 

Tughrul Khan receives the title of Wang-Khan from the Chinese.

1201

 

There is a fall out between Temuchin and Jamuqa.

1202

 

There is a fallout between Temuchin and Wang-Khan.

1203

 

Persian poet Nizami passes away.

1203

 

Wang-Khan of the Keriat tribe is killed by Temuchin.

1204

 

The Naiman tribe is defeated by Temuchin.

1205

 

Temuchin captures and executes Jamuqa.

1206

 

The Mongol tribes that have submitted to Temuchin's rule award their overlord the title of "Genghiz Khan" or Universal Ruler.

1206

 

Having reduced all the tribes north of the Chin, Temuchin is elected khan of the Mongols. He assumes a new title: Chingiz Khan.

1207

 

The Kirghiz join the Mongol confederation. Chingiz Khan attacks northern China (Chin).

1209

 

On their march west, the Mongols defeat the Kirghiz and force them to leave their home on the shores of the Yenise River and flee south to the Tien Shan. Continuing the march west, the Mongols bring the Uighurs under submission to their rule.

1209

 

The Uighurs join the Mongol confederation.

1210

 

Genghiz Khan defeats the Tanguts on the Yellow River in present-day northern China.

1210

 

Jalal al-Din, Master of Alamut and Chief of the Assassins, becomes a Sunni believer.

1210

 

Khwarezmshah defeats the Qarakhitais.

1210

 

Battle between the Ghurids and the Khwarazmshahis results in the latter's defeat.

1214

 

The kingdom of the Ghurids is annexed to the empire of the Khwarazmshah.

1215

 

The capital city of Karakorum on the Orhon River is built.

1215

 

As a test of their strenght, the Mongols sack Peking.

1215

 

With the fall of Peking, Yehlu Ch'uts'ai, sage, astrologer, and Chinese official is sent off with a caravan of loot to the oasis camp of Dolon-nor where Genghis Khan is examining the new arrivals.

1218

 

25-year-old Chin administrator Yehlu Chu'ts'ai joins the army of Chingiz Kahn as the Khan's personal astrologer. Later he becomes the Khan's adviser and principle minister.

1218

 

Semirechye, the Tarim Basin, and Kashgar fall to the Mongols.

1219

 

A four-prong assault of Central Asia is executed by Chingiz Khan, his four sons, and a number of his able commaders including Subadai and Jebe Noyan.

1219

 

The Kyrgyz were defeated by the Mongols.

1219

22 Apr.

The invasion of Jand by the armies of Chigiz Khan.

1220

 

At the time of the Mongol invasion the urban population of Central Asia is still primarily Tajik. Tajiks are the population that is most affected by the atrocities of Chingiz Khan, his sons, and grandsons. After the invasion, Samarqand, Bukhara, Khujand, and many other centers lose their importance.

1220

 

Sultan Ala al-din Muhammad Khwarazmshah paeese away. His son, Jalal al-din Manguberni continues the war with the Mongols.

1220

May

The fall of Samarqand to the armies of Chingiz Khan; the Mongol contingent dispatched to capture the Khwarazmshah arrives in Nishapur.

1220

 

During the summer, Tirmidh falls to the invading army of Chingiz Khan.

1220

Nov.

Mongol armies capture Sabzawar and Tus.

1220

 

Alexander Nevsky, son of Yaroslav II, grand prince of Vladimir is born.

1221

 

Persian poet Attar (b. 1142) passes away. Son of a prosperous pharmacist, Attar has an excellent education, especially in medicine, Arabic, and theosophy. His major poetic works include Asrar Nameh (Book of Secrets), about Sufi ideas; Elahi Nameh (Divine Book), about asceticism; and most importantly Manteq al-Tayr (The Conference of the Birds) in which he crosses the seven valleys of love.

1221

Feb.

The city of Merv is captured by the Mongols. The population is put to the sword. The city is razed.

1221

Apr.

Tuli Khan captures Nishapur, puts the population to the sword, razes the city and turns it into pastureland.

1221

 

During the spring and summer, Tuli Khan captures Herat and puts 12,000 of its inhabitants to the sword.

1221

 

During the spring. Chingiz Khan captures Bamian and puts its population to the sword in retaliation for the death of his grandson.

1221

 

The Khwarazmshah Muhammad dies on the Abskun Island in the Caspian Sea. Subadai and Jebe Nuyan conquer their way through Russia.

1221

 

Near Mamiyan, Chinese Taoist monk Changchun is brought to Chingiz Khan who questions him about the Fountain of Youth.

1221

 

The Mongols dislocate the Oghuz Turks from around the present-day Syr Dariya and push them south to the Kara Kum and the shores of the Caspian Sea.

1222

Jul.

Herat falls to the Mongols and is destroyed.

1222

 

Firuzkuh falls to the Mongols.

1223

 

The first quiriltai--Mongol family reunion--occurrs in the Valley of the Chirchik River.

1223

Aug.

Chingiz Khan battles Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah. The latter crosses the Sind River to the safety of India.

1224

 

Mongol commander Subadai, in pursuit of the Khwarezmian shah, encounters the Russians on the river Kalka, defeats them.

1227

 

Chingiz Khan passes away. From his deathbed he orders Ogodei, his successor, to destroy His Hsia, leaving no one or thing standing.

1227

 

Batu Khan, called Sain Khan or "good prince" by the Mongols, receives half of the army of Jochi and assumes the rulership of Jochi's ulus.

1227

00 Feb.

Chingiz Khan's oldest son, Jochi, passes away.

1227

00 Feb.

Jochi Khan, the oldest son and second child of Chingiz Khan passes away. Jochi Khan's legitimacy was in question because his mother, Borte, had been abducted by the Merkids and could have been married to one of the Merkid chiefs.

1227

00 Sept.

Chingiz Khan passes away. His empire is divided among his heirs, including Batu (the Kipchak Khanate, on the Russian steppe) and Chagatai (The Chagataid Khanate, in Transoxiana, the Tarim Basin, and Semirechye).Tuli receives the heartland of the Mongols.

1229

Aug.

Ogadai accepts his father's wishes and establishes himself as the Grand Khan at Qamqorum.

1229

 

I is suggested to Ogodai Khan that the population of the conquered lands in northern China should be eradicated, the towns should be razed, and the land should be used as pasture. Yehlu Ch'uts'ai points out to Ogodai that large amounts of silver, grain, and silk would not reach the Khan's treasury each year if the populace was wiped out. Ogodai agrees with Yehlu Ch'uts'ai.

1230

 

The Khwarazmshahi dynasty comes to an end.

1233

 

Ogodei captures northern China.

1235

 

The Song Dynasty of southern China falls to the Mongols.

1236

 

The second Mongol westward thrust begins by order of Ogadai Khan. It is led by Batu Khan accompanied by Prince Guyuk, Prince Monke, and Commnder Subadai.

1236

 

Batu Khan's orda, along with Batu's brothers as well as princes Monke, his brother prince Bochek, Prince Guyuk, and Subedai set out to conquer the Qipchak plain, Grand Bulgar, and Rus.

1236

 

Alexander Nevsky is elected Prince of Novgorod.

1237

 

Riyazan falls to the Mongols.

1240

 

Ogadai Khan suddenly recalls the ordas of Monke and Guyuk.

1240

 

With the fall of Kiev, Russia falls under the Mongol yoke.

1240

 

Alexander Nevsky defeats the invading Swedes on the Neva.

1240

6 Dec.

Kiev falls to the Mongols.

1241

11 Dec.

Ogodei Khan dies in Mongolia. His widow, Toregene, becomes regent.

1242

 

Chaghatai, the meticulous and strict executioner of Chingiz Khan's yasaq, passes away.

1242

 

The sudden death of Ogodai Khan causes the Mongols to stop their westward advance at the gates of Vienna.

1242

 

Upon Ogadei Khan's death, died, Batu Khan becomes the most senior member of the Chigizid line. He refuses to participate in the quiriltai and delays the election of the new Khan for the next 3 years.

1242

 

Chaghatai Khan, Chingiz Khan's second son and the ruler of the Chaghatai Khanate since 1227, passes away. Hew was known to the Mongols as the executor of Chingiz Khan's Yasaq or Mongol law.

1242

 

Alexander Nevsky defeats the German Teutonic Knights thus preventing "Christianization" of Russia.

1243

Jun.

Yehlu Ch'uts'ai, sage, astrologer, and adviser to Chingiz Khan and Ogadai Khan passes away.

1246

 

Chingiz Khan's favorite commander, Subadai Bahador, dies at the age of 70. Guyuk, Ogodei's son from Toregene becomes Grand Khan.

1246

 

Batu Khan attends the quiriltai and supports Guyuk Khan.

1246

 

Yaroslav, who had agreed to serve the Mongols as their agent among the Russians passes away. He was returning from Qaragurum. It is suggested that he was poisoned by Guyuk's prompting. Andrew and Alexander, sons of Yarolsav's are sent to Qaragurum for a decision to be made by the Khaghan. Andrew becomes Prince of Vladimir. Alexander becomes Prince of Kiev. By disclosing his brother's plot against the Mongols to Batu Khan, Alexander is made Grand Prince. As Grand Prince, Alexander Nevsky helps the Mongols collect taxes, build cities, promote trade, and become the absentee rulers of Russia.

1253

 

Batu Khan passes away in Serai at the age of 48.

1256

 

Hulagu Khan, Chingiz Khan's grandson from the House of Tuli Khan, defeats the Assassins, captures the stronghold of Alamut and establishes the Il-Khanid Mongols of Iran.

1257

 

Berke Khan, Batu's younger brother becomes ruler after Sartuq and Ulaqchi. Berke's rule marks the beginning of a trend toward Islam. Berke's contribution to Islam consisted of the building of Berke Serai on the Volga, facilitating Muslims' trade via Utrar, Almaligh, Bashbaligh, and Hami to Peking.

1258

 

Hulagu capture Baghdad, kills the last Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim and brings the Abbasid caliphate to an end. Hulagu Khan's treatment of the Caliph angers the recently-Islamized Khan Berke who pulls his contingent out of Baghdad in protest.

1260

 

At 'Ayn Jalut, the Mamlukes defeat the Mongols and destroy the myth of Mongol invincibility.

1260

 

The Kipchak Khanate, ulus of Jochi Khan, is divided into the White Horde and the Golden Horde.

1260

 

Kublai Khan, a grandson of Chingiz Khan from the house of Tuli Khan, establishes the Yu'an dynasty in China.

1261

 

Between 1261 and 1533 most russian principalities are controlled by the Mongols.

1263

 

Alexander Nevsky passes away.

1269

 

Qaida unites the chaqataids and establishes independent rule.

1271

 

Marco Polo travels in Iran and Central Asia on his way to the court of Kubilai Khan.

1271

 

Marco Polo passes throught the Hazarajat in Afghanistan.

1273

 

Sufi Jalal al-Din Rumi (b. 1207) passes away. Jalal al-Din's father leaves Balkh at the time of the Mongol invasion (1219-1220) and settles in Konya, Turkey. In 1244, Jalal al-Din meets Shams-I Tabrizi, his teacher, whose name he chooses as pseudonym and for whom he writes a divan or collection of poems containing 36,349 distichs and 1, 983 quatrains. His most well-known work, however, is Mathnavi-I Ma'navi (The Mathnavi devoted to the Intrinsic Meaning of all Things). Containing 7,000 couplets the Mathnavi, which begins with "The Song of the Reed," has been suggested to the Shaykh by Attar.

1274

 

Nasir al-Din Tusi passes away.

1284

 

The ulus of Chagatai, the Chaghatai Khanate, subsumes the old empire of the Uighurs.

1292

 

Shaykh Muslih al-Din Sa'di (b. 1213), Iran's cultural icon, passes away. Sa'di travels extensively in the West as far as Mecca and, allegedly, in the East as far as Transoxania and, maybe, India. He is known mostly for his 1257 Bustan (The Garden) and the 1258 Gulistan (The Rose Garden). His Gulistan is the first classical Persian work to be translated into a Western tongue. The major themes of this quintessential Muslim humanist are: justice, love, humility, acceptance, contentment, and repentance.

1293

 

Saljuq rule ends.

1295

 

Ghazan Khan of the Il-Khanid dynasty of Iran converts to Islam.

1299

 

In Anatolia, the Seljuq sultanate breaks up into smaller principalities one of which, under Osmon, forms the core of the future Ottoman Empire.

1300

 

The Chagatai Khanate splits into an eastern (Moghulistan) and a western (Transoxania) branch.

1301

 

The Tien Shan, Kashghar, and the Ferghana Valley unite to create Mughulistan.

1301

 

Osmon Khan, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, is victorious at Baphaeon.

1303

 

The Mamlukes stop the last Mongol invasion of Syria.

1304

 

In Ilkhanid Iran, Ghazan Khan passes away. His brother Khuda Banda Uljaiyu replaces him.

1310

 

Moscow becomes the See of the Orthodox church.

1312

 

Khan Uzbek takes over the rulership of the Golden Horde.

1312

 

Khan Uzbek assumes the rulership of the Golden Horde. He is not a direct descendant of Batu Khan, but Toktu's nephew. Under him the Golden Horde is converted to Islam. Also under him, the Horde begins its century-long decline.

1313

 

Khan Uzbek of the Golden Horde converts to Islam.

1326

 

Tarmashirin, the khan of the Chaghatai Khnate converts to Islam.

1333

 

On his way to China and India, Ibn Batutah visits the cities of Herat and Kabul in present-day Afghanistan.

1336

 

The Il-Khanid dynasty in Iran comes to an end.

1336

9 Apr.

Timur (Tamerlane) of the Turkish Barlas tribe is born.

1340

 

The Golden Horde, under Khan Uzbek (1282-1342) converts to Islam.

1341

 

Khan Uzbek passes away. Janibeg, his son, assumes a more totalitarian Muslim style (cf., the Mamlukes of Egypt). During his reign, Khan Uzbek distances himself from the Chingizid Yasaq and the tolerance that the Mongols exercized towards religion. This makes many Mongol leaders unhappy with him to the point that they plot to assassinate him.

1350

 

Chaqataid Tughluq Timur Khan accepts Islam and requires his followers in the Tien Shan and Semirechye regions to accept Islam as well.

1351

 

Black death which had started in China in 1333 and which had been moving west along the Silk Road reaches Moscovy.

1365

 

Aided by his brother-in-law, Hussein, Tamerlane captures Samarqand. Hussein is installed as the amir.

1369

 

Alliance between Tamerlane and Hussein ends.

1369

 

Tamerlane (r. 1370-1405) conquers Khurasan and Transoxiana.

1370

 

Hussein is killed by Tamerlane at Herat. Tamerlane becomes the ruler of Transoxiana.

1370

 

Tamerlane establishes court at Samarqand and helps Tuqtamish, a Mongol youth, dominate both the White and the Golden Hordes. As Khan of the Hordes, Tuqtamish demands total submission from Russia. When the Russian princes refuse (1381), he burns their cities, massacres the people, and reestablishes strict Mongol rule.

1370

 

The city of Balkh becomes the capital of Timur whose successors between 1370 and 1504 promote Islamic life and learning to new heights.

1375

 

Between 1375 and 1400, the Turfan Uishurs convert to Islam.

1378

 

Toqtamish invades Transoxiana but is defeated by Tamerlane.

1378

 

Aided by Tamerlane, Toqtamish becomes the Khan of the White Horde.

1380

 

Mamay, Khan of the Golden Horde, is defeated by Prince dmitri of Moscow at the Battle of Kulikovo.

1380

 

Toqtamish captures the Golden Horde and becomes the leader of the united Golden and White Hordes.

1382

 

Toqtamish marches on Moscow and brings the Moscow princes back into line.

1382

 

Having sacked and burned Moscow, Tqhtamish extends Tatar rule over Russia for another one hundred years.

1387

 

Tamerlane invades Transoxania, defeats Tuqtamish (1391) and destroys Serai. He then invades Moscow (139?) and captures the Russian principalities. After the death of Tamerlane (1405) and Tuqtamish (1406) and the establishment of the Khanates of the Golden Horde, the first czar of Russia, Ivan IV the Terrible, begins Russia's eastward movement. Russian infringement on Central Asia begins at this time.

1389

 

Persian poet Hafiz passes away.

1390

 

Between 1390 and 1400, the Turfan Uighurs convert to Islam.

1395

 

Turkic conquerer, Timur routes the Golden Horde now led by Tuqtamish.

1398

 

Tamarlane invades and conquers India.

1400

 

The migration of the Kyrgyz of the Altai in the direction of the Tien Shan Mountains, Ferghana, and the pamirs begins.

1400

 

For the next few decades, the Uzbeks separate themselves from the Kazakhs, move south and, under Abu al-Khayr (1413-69), invade Transoxiana.

1401

 

Timur Qutluq of the Golden Horde, Tamerlane's vassal, passes away. Shadi Beg's rule begins.

1402

28 Jul.

Tamerlane defeats the Ottomans at Angora, captures Sultan Bayazid.

1405

 

Tamerlane passes away.

1407

 

King-maker Edigu installs Fulad Khan on the throne of the Golden Horde. Shadi Beg is deposed.

1410

 

Timur of the Golden Horde displaces Fulad Khan.

1413

 

Mehmet I unifies Ottoman territories.

1417

 

Uluq Beg builds the Rigistan Madrasah in Samarqand.

1425

 

In the western regions of Siberia, Uzbek prince Abu al-Khair declares independence.

1430

 

Abu al-Khair occupies Khwarazm.

1430

 

The Khanate of the Crimea (1430-1466) under Hajji Giray is carved out of the muriband Golden Horde.

1434

 

The Oyrat, one of the Mongol tribes that originally lived to the west of Lake Baikal, forms the kingdom of Jungaria.

1439

 

Uluq Muhammad of the Golden Horde withdraws from Sarai and establishes the principality of Kazan. Sarai is ruled by Said Ahmad.

1440

 

The Golden Horde is divided into the four Khanates of Crimea, Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia or Sibir which includes present-day Kazakhstan.

1440

 

Ivan III the Great of Russia is born. At age 12, he commands a military expedition in the far north and, at age 18, he campaigns successfully against the Tartars.

1441

 

Mir Alisher Navai, premier Uzbek poet and national hero, is born.

1441

 

Crimea cecedes from Sarai.

1445

 

The Khanate of Kazan (1445-1552) is founded where the Grand Old Bulghar had existed before.

1445

 

Johann Gutenberg (1400-1467) invents the printing press.

1446

 

Shah Rukh passes away. Ulugh Beg ascends the throne.

1447

 

Astrakhan cecedes from Sarai.

1449

 

Ruler, scholar, mathematician, and poet Ulugh Beg is assassinated by his own son; Abu al-Khair captures Ferghana.

1453

26 May

Constantinople falls to the Ottoman armies.

1460

 

Between 1460 and 1465, Janibek and Kirai split from the white Horde and moved to the present-day Kazakhstan.

1462

 

Ivan III the Great becomes Prince of Moscow.

1466

 

The Khanate of Astarakhan (1466-1556) is carved out of the Golden horde.

1469

 

The Qasimov subdynasty is established.

1470

 

During the 1470's, Ivan III the Great annexed most of the independent Russian principalities, including Novgorod and Tver.

1475

 

Ottoman suzerainty over the Khanate of Crimea.

1477

 

Thomas Moore is born.

1478

 

Prince Ivan III of moscow proclaims himself Czar of Russia and refuses to pay tribute to the Golden Horde.

1480

 

Two competing Turkish rulers, the Qaraquyunlu and the Aqquyunlu rule in the west. In the East, defeated by the Russians, the descendant of Juji, known as the Uzbeks, fill the vacuum in Transoxiana.

1480

 

Proclaiming himself Czar of all Russia, Ivan III throws off the Mongol yoke.

1480

 

Ivan III the Great throws off the Tartar yoke and set off the distintegration of the Golden Horde leading to the consolidation of khanates of Crimea, Astrakhan, and Kazan.

1480

 

Ivan III (the Great) of Moscow renounces the Tartar yoke, annexes the territories of other principalities including Novogorod, and expands his territory against the Tartarts to the south and east. Moscow becomes the centre of this expanding Russian state.

1488

 

Shaibani Khan, Ahmad Khan's nephew, comes to power.

1497

 

Babur captures the city of Samarqand.

1499

 

Safavid Isma'il establishes the Safavid dynasty and serves as its first shah.

1500

 

Muhammad Shaybani Khan (1451-1510) conquers Transoxiana by forcing the descendants of Tamerlane to seek their fortunes in Afghanistan and India. Uzbek state is formed.

1500

 

The Kazakh and the Kara-Kirghiz are divided and form separate ethnic groups.

1501

 

The Portuguese, moving towards India, seek trade relations with Iran.

1502

 

The death of Saiyid Ahmad ends the rule of the Golden Horde.

1502

 

The synthetic value of the marriage of Shahrbanu (daughter of Yazdigird III) and al-Hussein (son of Imam Ali), belief in the Hidden Imam's absolute right to rulership, and a need to rescue Iranian culture from absorption by Arab and Turkish Sunni cultures prompt Isma'il to unite the seven major Qizilbash tribes, defeat the Aqquyunlus, enter Tabriz, and crown himself king. Isma'il adopts Shi'ism as Iran's official religion even though only a quarter of the population is Shi'ite.

1504

 

Kabul is captured by Babur who goes on to become the first Mughal emperor of India.

1504

 

The Khan of Kazan organizes a massacre of all the Russians.

1505

 

Ivan III the Great passes away. During his reign, he consolidated the achievements of his predecessors, strengthened the authority of the monarchy, lay the foundation for a centralized state, and established Moscow as a great power.

1506

 

Bukhara falls to the Uzbeks.

1507

 

Herat, the last stronhold of the Timurids, falls to the Uzbeks.

1507

 

The Portuguese led by d'Albuquerque establish a stronghold in the Persian Guld.

1510

 

Timurid dynasty comes to an end.

1510

 

Herat falls to the Safavids.

1512

 

Uzbek tribes under Shaybanids dominate the Turkic tribes presently known as the Kyrgyz and the Kazakh peoples.

1512

 

Babur withdraws from Central Asia.

1516

 

Sir Thomas Moore's "Utopia" appears in print in two parts.

1519

 

Between 1519 and 1521, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) circumnavigate the globe.

1526

 

Between 1526 and 1747 the territory of present-day Afghanistan is divided among the Safavids of Iran (Herat), Mughals of India (Kabul), and Uzbek rulers to the north (Balkh and Badakhshan).

1530

 

Ivan IV the Terrible (1st Tsar of Russia) is born. He is also referred to with the term Grozni, or "aweinspiring". He is a descendant of Alexander Nevsky through his father. He was the tsar of Russia for 51 years.

1533

 

Although Ivan IV is proclaimed grand prince at age 5, he takes part in formal affairs of state.

1533

 

Between 1533 and 1584 Ivan IV (the Terrible) pushes forward the frontiers of Russia to include Astrakhan and much of Siberia. He institutes a strong centralized autocracy and a secret police force, the oprichnina.

1533

 

Ivan IV becomes the Grand Duke of Moscow.

1535

 

Sir Thomas Moore passes away. The notable humanist and statesman is executed for refusing to recognise Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England. Moore is the first to envisage an equitable society based on the ideas of Socrates and Plato.

1538

 

The Kazakh confederation is divided into three Zhuzes with each having its own dialect.

1547

 

Ivan IV is coronated First Tsar of Russia.

1552

 

Between 1552 and 1582, Ivan IV the Terrible conquers the khanates of Kazan and Asterakhan.

1552

 

Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84) captures the Khanate of Kazan.

1552

 

Ivan IV personally reduces the Khanate of Kazan on the Volga by massacring the male population, enslaving women and children, pulling down all mosques, and annexing the territory.

1556

 

The Khanate of Astrakhan falls to Ivan IV.

1556

 

The Khanate of Astrakhan capitulates to Ivan IV.

1576

 

Jenkinson, a British envoy, arrives in Iran via Moscow.

1578

 

Internal tribal struggles, Uzbek unrest in Khurasan, and the Ottomans' threat to Qazwin define the circumstances under which Shah Abbas I comes to power. The killing of his meddling guardian, reduction of the Qizilbash to ceremonial guards, and involvement of a young cadre of officials in governmental affairs constitute Abbas's initial steps at reform. Helped by Anthony and Robert Shirley, he introduces a new military system, builds cannons and ships, and trains soldiers. A new system of education, a new approach to medicine, a flourishing trade, and a new lifestyle distinguish Abbas' reign.

1581

 

Ivan IV, using warrior cossacks, captures the Khanate of Sibir.

1584

 

Ivan IV the Terrible passes away. He forced Russia into Europe (cf., Peter the Great), arrested Tatar and Turkish incursions into Russian territory, encouraged cultural development, e.g., printing, promoted divine right of the ruler, created a centrally administered Russian state, and created a state that included non-slavsic states.

1584

 

The Mongols who occupy the eastern regions of the Urals are conquered by Russia.

1598

 

Abdullah Khan II (1533-98), the last Shaybanid ruler of Bukhara, passes away.

1598

 

The Astrakhanids takeover the rulership of Bukhara.

1598

 

The period between 1598 and 1613 usually referred to as the "Time of Troubles," Boris Godunov becomes Regent for the feeble-minded surviving son of Ivan IV, Fyodor. When Fyodor passes away, Godunov proclaims himself Tsar. With assistance from the Church, he thought, he could establish a new dynasty.

1600

 

In Iran, the British, unable to satisfy the nobles and the clergy, close their silk textile and armament factories and leave.

1600

 

The principal and exclusive partners of the British East India Company included ports all the way from Aden and Bandar Abbas to Culcatta and Madras all the way to Bantum.

1602

 

Aided by the British navy, Iranians expel the Portuguese from the Persian Gulf.

1603

 

Persians defeat the Turks in the Battle of Urmiyah and occupy Tabriz, Mosul, and Diyarbakr.

1613

 

Building on the old Moscovite Empire, Peter the Great of the Romanov dynasty launches the industrialization of Russia which includes building of factories in northern Kazakhstan.

1613

 

Power in Russia is restored with the election of Mikhail Romanov and Moscow becomes the undisputed capital.

1619

 

First diplomatic contacts between Moscow and Bukhara take place.

1622

 

Afghanistan is ruled by Safavid Persia.

1626

 

Amir Nasrullah consolidates state power in Bukhara.

1628

 

The reign of Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty ends.

1629

 

Shah Abbas I passes away. His son, Safi, succeeds him.

1630

 

vIn Afghanistan, the Rowshaniyah movement initiated by Bayazid Ansari (1525-1581) in the Sulayman mountains is crushed. Khushhal Khan Khattak (1613-1689) revives the struggle for independence along nationalistic lines. He, too, fails.

1639

 

The treaty of Zunab establishes a vague boundary between the Ottoman and the Persian Empires.

1640

 

Mullah Sadra, Persian theologian and philosopher, passes away.

1642

 

Safavid Shah Safi passes away. Shah Abbas II asdends the throne.

1649

 

It is decreed that peasants are forbidden to move from the estates of their lords. The Orthodox Church is divided between the 'Old Believers' who opposed religious reform and those who supported new reforms.

1658

 

The Kalmyks become the dominant power in Central Asia ruling over large populations of Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyzes. Unrelenting pressure by the Kalmyks forces the Kyrgyz to migrate from the Tien Shan to the Ferghana Valley.

1667

 

Shah Abbas II passes away. Shah Sulaiman succeeds him.

1694

 

Shah Hussein ascends the throne of Iran.

1703

 

Peter the Great (1682-1725) founds St. Petersburg to replace Moscow as the capital of Russia. Peter the Great's reign is notable for his ruthless program of modernization, his conquests along the Baltic coast, and his creation of the 'window on the west."

1707

 

Mir Wais Qilzai makes Qandahar independent of Safavid Persia.

1710

 

Abdarrahman Biy establishes the Khanate of Kokand in the Ferghana Valley.

1715

 

Peter the Great sends Russia's first Russian military expedition to the Kazakh Steppe.

1717

 

Peter the Great invades Khiva, is defeated.

1717

 

Russia's first military expedition to Khiva is massacred.

1722

 

Peter the Great captures Derbend on the Caspian Sea.

1722

 

Mahmud, Mir Wais's son, captures the city of Isfahan and initiates Afghan rule on southern and eastern provinces of Iran. Durranis terminate Safavid occupation of Herat and form an independent state of their own.

1723

 

Iranian army is defeated by Peter the Great.

1723

 

Mahmud puts Soltan Hussein Safavid to death; Safavid rule moves to the northern provinces of Mazandaran and Gilan. Ashraf becomes the Afghan king of Iran.

1725

 

Peter the Great passes away.

1729

 

Afghans are driven out of Iran by Nadir Qoli Beg, the future Nadir Shah.

1730

 

Nader Shah Afshar defeats Ashraf and leads the Iranian army into Afghanistan, Central Asia and, later, India.

1731

 

The Kazakh Lesser Horde seeks Russian protection.

1732

 

Herat falls to Nadir Qoli.

1734

 

Orenburg becomes the first of a series of fortifications built by the Russians to protect their interests in Central Asia.

1736

 

Nadirquli (1736-47) drives the Afghans out; establishes the Afsharid dynasty.

1739

 

Nadir Shah conquers lands to the east of Iran as far as Delhi.

1740

 

Bukhara falls to Nadir Shah.

1740

 

Following the Lesser Horde, the Kazakh Middle Horde seeks Russian protection.

1741

 

Turkmens join the army of Nadir Shah.

1745

 

The Wahhabi da'wa is established in Arabia.

1747

 

The Manghit dynasty of Bukhara is established.

1747

 

Nader Shah is murdered. Ahmad Durrani, a commander of Nadir Shah, returns to Qandahar. Durranis who had returned to Qandahar with Ahmad choose him as their Amir--Ahmad Shah Durrani, king of Afghanistan, rules for 26 years from his capital of Qandahar.

1747

Oct.

An assembly of Pashtuns pronounces Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) king and thereby establishes Afghanistan an independent state.

1750

 

The Zand dynasty is established under Karim khan.

1753

 

Rahimbi (r. 1753-1785), the eponymous ancestor of the Manghits, establishes the Emirate of Bukhara. As a first step, he annexes Hissar Shadman and the Kuhistan region to Bukhara. Before long, Samarqand, Shahr-I Sabz, Khujand, and Tashkent are also added. A brave, courageous, and generous ruler, Rahimbi is prompt in making decisions and takeing drastic measures to resolve problems.

1755

 

Moscow university is founded.

1760

 

Henri de Saint-Simon is born.

1762

 

Between 1762 and 1796, Catherine the Great expands Peter the Great's policies of westernisation to include the cultural and educational fields.

1770

 

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is born in Stuttgart, Germany.

1773

 

In Afghanistan, Teymur Shah rules for 20 years. He moves the capital to Kabul.

1773

 

In Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Durrani passes away.

1775

 

Britain acquire Madras, Northern Circars, Bengal, and Bihar in India.

1780

 

Russian immigrants begin to flood Central Asia and take over fields and grazing lands.

1783

 

Crimea is annexed br Russia.

1785

 

Russian and Tatar merchants try to convince the Kyrgyz to submit to Russia.

1785

 

Amir Shah Murad (r. 1785-1800) introduces a series of reforms. Rather than confiscating the land and property of the non-Manghit tribal chiefs, he sets a precedent by allowing the chiefs to keep not only their land but the peasants who work on the land. In time, this practice allows the non-Manghit chiefs to institute fiefdoms with powerful armies of their own.

1789

 

Between 1789 and 1792, a revolutionary zeal in France overthrows the monarchy and institutes a republic.

1792

 

In Iran, Vahid Behbahani, who forces the Akhbari school of Shiíism out of Persia and establishes the ascendancy of the Usuli school, passes away.

1793

 

In Afghanistan, Zaman Shah rules for 6 years. Britain, fearful of Afghan designs on India, incites Iran against Afghanistan (1798).

1795

 

The zand dynasty comes to an end; beginning of the Qajar dynasty.

1797

 

Muhammad Shah Qajar passes away; Russia captures Daghistan.

1799

 

In Afghanistan, Prince Mahmud dismisses Zaman Shah. Zaman Shah goes to India.

1799

 

Kokand declares itself an independent Islamic state.

1800

 

In Central Asia, Amir Haidar (r. 1800-1826) loses most of the territories captured by Rahimbi to Kokand, Khiva, and other Central Asian powers. After two years, however, he restores the kingdom to its former strength. Haidar's main mistake, however, is in commercializing education, an act that leads to the expulsion of the poor from the schools, erosion of the quality of instruction, and disestablishment of Bukhara's precious medieval library system.

1801

 

Between 1801 and 1825, under Alexander I plans for political reforms along western liess are debated but not carried through. Russia's success against Napoleon, however, makes her a major force in European diplomacy. Despite all this, the division between social groups, i.e., the high officials and the landowners and those who worked the land went on.

1802

 

Wahhabis raid Karbala in present-day Iraq.

1803

 

In Afghanistan, Shah Shoja' dismisses Shah Mahmud.

1804

 

Wahhabis capture Mecca and medina.

1805

 

Iran makes an unsuccessful attempt at capturing Herat.

1806

 

Britain captures Delhi and Lucknow as well as most of southern parts of India except for Mysore.

1807

 

The Tsar of Russia (Alexander II) and Napoleon plann to capture India via Iran.

1809

 

Shah Mahmud succeeds to the throne of Afghanistan.

1809

 

Britain captures Maharashtra, Chuttack, and Assam.

1809

7 Jun.

British Mountstuart Elphinstone signs a treaty of friendship with Shah Shuja' of Afghanistan in preparation for defense against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India.

1811

 

Ali Muhammad Bab, founder of the Babi movement, is born.

1813

 

In Iran, Fath Ali Shah (1799-1834) signs the treaty of Gulistan and loses the Caucasus to Russia.

1813

 

Russia defeats Persia and enters the area of present-day Turkmenistan.

1814

 

Iran executes the Definitive Treaty of alliance with Britain.

1818

5 May

Karl Marx is born in Trier, now in Germany (then in Prussia).

1820

 

Kazakhs revolt against the harsh rule of the Russians.

1825

 

After the Decembrist uprising, Nicholas I turned away from the West.

1825

 

The Decembrist officers revolt makes the first stirring of democratic passions in Russia.

1825

 

vHenri de Saint-Simon passes away, Saint-Simmon combined the teachings of Jesus with science and technology to create a religion of socialism. He proposed that the states of Europe should form an association to suppress war.

1826

Apr.

Ahmad Makhdum Donish is born to a poor family of Bukhara.

1827

 

Amir Nasrullah (r. 1827-1860) eliminates his brothers, displaces the influential figures who had served his father, and confiscates the land and properties of the non-Manghit tribal chiefs. This strategy, which weakens the economic and military power of the chiefs, allows Nasrullah to create an army of considerable strength. Under Nasrullah, modernizing ideas enter Bukhara while urbanization takes its toll on the farms.

1827

 

Between 1827 and 1860, most Russian peasants are dissatisfied with the situation in which they find themselves.

1828

 

Iran signs the treaty of Turkmenchay with Russia.

1830

 

Khan Kenesary Qasimov, a Kazakh revolutionary, leads a formidable military campaign against the Russian advance into Central Asia.

1830

 

Saint-Simon's students write a proclamation demanding the ownership of goods in common; abolition of right of inheritance; and enfranchisement of women.

1831

 

Friedrich Hegel passes away at age 61 of cholera. Hegel developed a dialectical scheme that improved thought and matter as a result of interaction of two opposites (thesis and antithesis).

1834

 

Russia builds fortifications in Turkmen territory.

1836

 

Dust Muhammad defeats Shah Shoja', captures Qandahar, and takes title of Amir.

1837

 

Kazakh resistance against Russian rule is led by Kenesary Kasimov (1802-47).

1837

 

First newspaper is published in Iran.

1837

 

Iranians put a three year siege on Herat but do not succeed in annexing the principality to Qajar Iran.

1837

 

Ignoring the treaty of Zunab, the Ottomans invaded the port of Muhammarah (modern Khorramshahr) and demolished it.

1838

 

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the architect of Pan-Islamism, is born in Asadabad, Iran.

1839

 

In Afghanistan, during the first Afghan War, Britain captures Qandahar, Ghazna, and Kabul. Amir Dust Muhammad is deported to India. Shah Shoja' becomes a puppet king for Afghanistan. But the British rule does not last long.

1840

 

Under Nicholas I, Russia begins operations to colonize Khiva.

1842

 

Emir Nasrullah orders the execution of Stoddart and Conolly.

1842

 

Shah of Shuja of Afghanistan is assassinated. Currani dynasty ends.

1842

 

The British lose all their troops in the war. They leave Afghanistan. Dust Muhammad returns as king and rules for the next 21 years.

1843

 

As king, Dust Muhammad unifies Afghan tribes by statesmanship rather than by force and centralizes the government.

1844

 

Sayyid Muhammad Ali proclaims himself the Bab in Iran.

1844

 

Engles and Marx meet and begin their cooperation.

1845

10 Aug.

Abai Kunanbaev is born in eastern Kazakhstan.

1846

 

Between 1846 and 1907, Russia and British India, respectively, annexed large areas large areas in Central Asia and India. By 1885, the danger of a major confrontation was real. Having considered their options, both powers agreed to be satisfied with the regions they already controlled.

1847

 

Russia reaches the estuary of the Amu River.

1847

 

Marx and Engles joined the secret Communist Society in London.

1848

 

Karl Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto.

1848

 

Accompanied by Amir-I Kabir, Nasir al-Din Shah enters Tehran and coronates himself. With the Shah's consent, Amir-I Kabir launches a far-reaching program of revitalization that adversely affects the court, the tribal hierarchy, and foreign (British and Russian) legations. Sectors of society affected by reforms rise in opposition to the Amir and eliminate him.

1848

 

Marx and Engles publish The Communist Manifesto.

1850

 

Between 1850 and 1914, Russian rule was firmly established in Central Asia.

1850

 

The epic Manas is put to writing for the first time.

1850

 

Dar al-Fonun is established to educate future diplomats and military generals; execution of the Bab and the massacre of his followers; Baha'I movement begins.

1850

 

A deligation, including Ahmad Donish (his first trip), who served as the secretary, is sent to St. Petersburg by Bukhara to learn about the advances in Russia in technology and military.

1850

 

In Iran, Ali Muhammad Bab is arrested and executed as is the poetess Qurrat al_Ain Tabira.

1853

 

Ak Masjed falls to the Russians.

1853

 

Between 1853 and 1856, British and French troops invade the Crimea in reaction to Nicholas I's Turkish policy.

1854

 

Alma-Ata (originally called Fort Vernoe) is built by the Russians.

1854

 

Between 1854 and 1864 Russia builds a series of forts along the Emba river as well as from the Aral lake to the eastern edge of Lake Baikal.

1855

 

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani travels to India and sees first hand the treatment that Indians receive at the hand of the British. He begins to entertain the thought that a united Muslim world should be able to decrease, if not eliminate, exploitation of the Muslim masses world wide.

1855

 

Khiva is annexed to the Russian Empire.

1855

 

Fort Zailiyskoe is built in Southeastern Kazakhstan to facilitate trade. The town of Vernyi (later Alma Ata) is built.

1855

 

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, which had started two years earlier between the Ottomans and Russia, points to the way east and to the conquest of the Caucasus and Central Asia.

1855

 

Between 1855 and 1881, Alexander II (the Liberator Tsar) introduces Zemstvos or provincial assemblies which sort out local issues. Russian's social and economical transformation begins.

1855

17 Jan.

Pressured by the Khanate of Kokand and the Manchus, the Khygyz of the Issyk Kul regioin become russian vassals.

1856

 

Russia considers a full-fledged invasion of Central Asia.

1856

 

Iranians finally capture Herat. Russians map Issyk Kul.

1857

 

Iran and Britain recognize the independence of Afghanistan.

1857

 

At the Paris Treaty, the British mediate between Iran and Afghanistan.

1859

 

Imam Shamyl of Daghistan is captured by the Russians. Daghistan becomes a part of the Russian Empire and Russian power is consolidated.

1860

 

Serfdom in russia is abolished but peasant poverty remains. So does peasant and worker discontent in Russia.

1860

 

Generals Kaufman and Chernaev capture the town of Tuqmaq.

1860

 

Between 1860 and 1867, the Russians complete their military occupation of present-day Kyrgyzstan and the Ferghana Valley.

1860

 

A Sino-Russian treaty divides the Kazakh, the Kyrgyz, and the Uighurs.

1860

 

Russia's increasing influence in Bukhara brings Amir Muzaffar (r. 1860-1885) into conflict with the Russian Empire.

1861

 

In Russia, Alexander II frees the serfs.

1861

 

Between 1861 and 1865 American Civil War increases Russian demand for Central Asian cotton.

1861

 

Alexander II approves military plans including invasion of Central Asia and the coastal regions of the Caspian Sea.

1862

 

The town of Pishpek falls to the Russians.

1864

 

The town of Aulia Ata falls to the Russians.

1864

 

Russia, freed from Crimean War and conflicts in the Caucasus, moves to the Ust-Urt and the Kazakh steppe.

1865

 

Kokand state is liquidated by the Russian forces.

1865

 

Chernaev invades Tashkent but is faced with stiff resistance from Sultan Sayyid Khan. The latter, however, requests aid from Amir Muzzaffar. The Amir recalls Sultan Sayyid Khan and kills him. Ghernaev conquers Tashkent.

1865

Jun.

Tashkent falls to the Russians.

1865

 

Russia begins a series of expeditions to assess the human and mineral resources of the region. As a result, Alexis Fedchenko discovers the largest glacier in the world (1865), Russia annexes northern Tajikistan (1886), and an Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission determines the Russian and British zones of interest in the region (1884); the fortress of Termez is built to guard against Afghan incursions (1894).

1866

 

Amir Muzaffar requests Russia to restore Tashkent to Bukhara. However, Russian officials proceed and capture Khujand and Jizzakh.

1866

 

Russian forces are initially defeated by Bukhara near Jizzach; and General Cherniaev is dismissed, but, in the long run, they capture Tashkent and Samarqand.

1867

 

Tashkent becomes the capital of the Governorate-General of Turkestan.

1868

 

Russia invades the Emirate of Bukhara a second time. Bukhara becomes a Russian protectorate. Samarqand, Kattagurqan, and Zirah Bulaq fall to General Kaufman.

1868

 

Orenburg becomes the capital of the Governorate-General of the Kazakh Steppe..

1868

 

Bukhara signs a treaty with Russia giving up some of its territory.

1868

1 May

Russian forces defeat Bukhara at Chupan Ata and capture Samarqand. Bukhara becomes a Russian protectorate.

1868

00 Sept.

Amir Sher Ali occupies Kabul. As king, hecontinues the efforts of his father, Dust Muhammad. He organizes a large, modern army, establishes state controlled civil and military schools, establishes a consultative assembly, expands the bureaucracy, reforms the tax system, and makes a point of respecting tribal and individual autonomy within the state.

1869

 

Krasnovodsk fort is established on the Caspian Sea.

1869

 

Amir Muzaffar sends a deligation, including Ahmad Donish (his second trip), to St. Petersburg to assess the possibility of taking back some of the terrirtory lost in 1868 to Russia.

1869

 

Jamal Al-Afghani is exiled from Afghanistan. He moves to Egypt.

1870

 

Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) is born in Simbrisk.

1870

 

The revolt of the people of Kokand is suppressed.

1870

 

The Turkmen tribes initiate guerilla war against Russia.

1871

 

The Ili Valley is included in the Russian Empire.

1873

 

Slavery is abolished in Khiva and Bukhara.

1873

 

Khiva falls to the Russians.

1873

 

Aided by the Amir of Bukhara, Russians force the Amir of Khiva, Muhammad Rabin, to flee from Khiva.

1873

00 Aug.

The Khanate of Khiva follows the example of Bukhara and becomes a Russian protectorate.

1873

12 Aug.

The Khan of Khiva declares himself a "faithful servant of the Russian Emperor."

1873

28 Sept.

Bukhara signs a treaty with Russia accepting its status as a protectorate.

1874

 

Tashkent and Samarqand fall to the Russians.

1875

 

Aided by the Amir of Bukhara, Russia invades Quqand. Khuda Yar Khan, the Amir of Kokand is defeated and Kokand, Andijan, Namangan and Marqilan fall to the Russians who, reconstitute the region under Ferghana and place it under a Russian governor.

1876

 

Qoqand falls to the Russians.

1876

 

Russians divide the homeland of the Kyrgyz into Semirechye Oblast and the Ferghana District.

1876

 

The Khanate of Kokand is included in the Russian Empire.

1877

 

Yaqub Beg passes away (poisoned).

1878

Nov.

The Second Afghan War disrupts the reforms of Amir Sher Ali.

1879

 

Al-Afghani is exiled from Egypt.

1879

21 Feb.

Amir Sher Ali of Afghanistan dies in Mazar-i Sharif.

1879

26 May

According to the Treaty of Gandamak, Afghanistan loses the Khyber Pass and the control of its foreign affairs to Britain but retain independence and control over its internal affairs.

1879

3 Sept.

Luis Cavagnari, British Resident at Kabul, is killed by Afghan mob attack.

1880

 

The reduction of Turkmen troops conclude Russia's annexation of Central Asia.

1880

 

The rail system, begun in Krasnovodsk, reaches Turkistan.

1880

 

Under Alexander III (1881-1894) and Nicholas II (1894-1917) expansion into Central Asia continues, reaching the borders of China, Persia, and Afghanistan. At the same time, state-sponsored industrialization is accelerated and a Marxist movement develops in exile.

1880

00 Jul.

Abdurrahmon Khan is proclaimed Amir.

1880

00 Jul.

The British withdraw from Afghanistan. Russia and Britain decide to make Afghanistan a buffer state so that their empires do not meet. The British help 'Abd al-Rahman to centralize the government and consolidate his rule. #The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan # The Hazarahs enjoyed autonomy in central regions called Hazarahjat between 1229 and 1447. They number 340,000 and consist of fifteen tribes. Thirteen of these tribes recognized governmental authority. Only the Uruzgan tribe remained totally independent. They numbered 44,000. They rose in revolt to stop the Khan from segregating the elders of the tribe and against taking census for tax purposes. The Hazarah are Shi'ite. The Khan fielded 100,000 troops and tribal levies. And he incited his Sunni followers to a Jihad against the Shi'ites. Most of the Hazarah were enslaved between 1891 and 1893. The rest went into exile to Iran. Their pastures and flockswere divided between the Durranis and the Ghilzais.

1880

27 Jul.

Afghans defeat the British at Maimand.

1881

 

Russia begins the construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway.

1881

 

A revolutionary movement by the gentry leads to the assassination of Alexander II of Russia.

1881

 

Russians capture Gok Teppe in present-day Turkmenistan.

1881

 

The Emirate of Khiva falls to the Russians.

1881

 

The city of Ashgabat is founded as a fort.

1881

 

A revolutionary movement, inspired by Western anarchist, socialist idealists, and populists ends the rule of Alexander II who is assassinated.

1881

 22 Nov

Enwer Pasha is born to a relatively humble family of Monastir.

1883

 

The Amir of Bukhara sends a deligation, including Ahmad Donish (his third trip) to St. Petersburg to learn about government. Upon hearing about the workings of democracy, the Amir assigns Donish to the judgeship of one of the most remote provinces of Bukhara.

1883

14 Mar.

Karl Marx passes away in London at age 65; he is buried at Highgate Cemetery.

1884

 

The city of Merv falls to the Russians.

1884

 

American cotton picks up the slack in cotton production in Central Asia.

1884

 

The Russian occupation of Merv completes Russia's conquest of Turkestan.

1884

 

Xinjiang becomes a Chinese province.

1885

 

Construction of the Samarqand-Askabat railway begins.

1885

 

Amir Abdulahad (r. 1885-1910) agrees that his kingdom must undergo change. In the face of Russian pressure, he even allows new-method schools to teach subjects not covered in the madrasahs (theological schools). But as soon as Russia grows weak (1905), he renegs on his promises of reform. In Bukhara, urbanization and Russification advance at a steady pace.

1885

 

Karl Benz designs the first automobile.

1886

 

Panjdeh is captured by the Russians.

1886

 

Turkmen territory is annexed by Russia.

1887

 

Lenin's elder brother is executed. He is charged with an attempt on the life of Alexander III of Russia.

1887

 

The railroad reaches Bukhara.

1888

 

The railroad reaches Samarqand.

1888

 

Vose (1845-1888), a Tajik peasant from Khavaling, revolts against the Turkish governor of Kulab. Following Tajik revolutionaries before him, he intends to unite the Tajiks of the Kuhistan, march on Bukhara, and inform the Amir of the atrocities of his governor. The Amir, of course, is aware. Vose is captured and put to death in Shahr-i Sabz.

1890

 

Between 1890 and 1910, the Semirechye Oblast and the Ferghana Districts are flooded by Russian peasant workers displacing the nomadic population of the region.

1890

 

The tobacco concession pits Iranians, especially the clergy, against the Shah and British interests.

1890

 

Large numbers of Russians and Ukrainians settle in the Kazakh steppe.

1890

 

Between 1890 and 1905, strikes and riots become a frequent occurrence in Russia leading to the formation of socialist, labor, and democratic parties, riots, as well as to confrontations with the police.

1891

 

Close to a million Russian migrants move to the Kazakh steppe.

1892

 

The achievements of Turkish rulers of the 8th century, commemorated in the Orkhon inscriptions are deciphered by the Danish Professor Vilhelm Thomsen.

1893

12 Nov.

The Durand Line becomes the official dividing line between Afghanistan and British India. The boundary determined by Sir Henry Mortimer Durand cuts the Pushtun population of the region into two and creates British and Afghan zones of influence.

1894

 

Russia builds a fortress at Termez to safeguard Russian interests against the Afghans.

1895

 

Independent Kafiristan, so far inaccessible to all Amirs and others, is attacked by Afghan troops. The 60,000 inhabitants of the region fight with bows, arrows, spears and some rifles. The region is reduced to central (Afghan) rule and its inhabitants are forced to accept Islam 1901.

1895

 

Russia and British India leave the Wakhan Corridor to Afghanistan as a neutral border between their two empires and China.

1896

 

The Pamirs become the last region captured by the Russians.

1897

00 Mar.

Tajikistan's cultural icon, Ahmad Makhdum Donish (b. 1826), passes away. Bored with Bukhara schools, Donish taught himself all there was to know at his time about the natural sciences and the arts. His three trips to Russia on behalf of the Bukhara amirs added to the depth of that knowledge. His legacy includes a concise essay on Tajik history as well as a valuable book entitled Navodir al-Vaqoye' (Singular Events).

1897

9 Mar

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, philosopher and politician, who endeavored to unite the Islamic world against Western interests, passes away.

1897

28 Sept.

Mukhtar Auezov is born to a nomad family in Chingistan.

1898

 

Andijan rises against the Russians.

1898

 

Ali Monsieur, an intellectual from Tabriz forms one of the first centres of the anti-despotic struggle in Iran.

1898

17 May

The inhabitants of Andijan in the ferghana Valley kill some 22 Russian soldiers to discourage Russian advance into the the Valley. The Russian army quells the rebellion and executes 200 militants.

1900

 

Between 1900 and 1905, Russian workers in Ashkebad go on strike.

1900

 

The newspaper "Bukhara-i Sharif" is published for the first time.