from: http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Temple/9845/austric.htm plus: http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Temple/9845/sumerian.htm by: Paul Manansala extended by: Torsten Pedersen (everything within curly brackets {...} ) updated 30 Jul 09 DOCUMENT TITLE: Austrics in India Austric Influence in India {and a lot of other places, TP} THIS PAGE WILL BE AUGMENTED PERIODICALLY. NEW ADDITIONS WILL BE HIGHLIGHTED IN BOLD PRINT. -------------------------------------------------------------- Austric is the name given for a proposed language family that includes Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian. Some have suggested that the Japanese language might also be Austric. The government sponsored Indian Gazeteer states that the Austrics are the "bedrock" of the Indian population. So, Austric also refers to a cultural and "racial" group. Although the Austric family cannot be said to be fully accepted by the scholarly community it is gaining ground rapidly. In India, it is quite widely accepted among philogists. THE AUSTRIC PEOPLES The Austric-speaking people do not all belong to one homogenous racial grouping, yet there is definitely a predominant type to be found. Some Austric speakers are Negritos and Oceanic Negroids like the Aetas of the Philippines, the Melanesians and some of the Austronesian speaking peoples of New Guinea. Most Austrics, though, are basically a fusion of three primary races: Mongoloid, Austroloid and Oceanic Negroid. In India, specialists in this field have noted that the Austric-speaking peoples belong to a larger racial type that includes many non-Austric speakers and is closely related to the Dravidian racial type. In fact, it is often said there is little difference between these two types. They resemble each other in terms of superficial characteristics in a number of ways, which include: 1. Short to medium stature 2. Fair to very dark complexion. Generally brown-colored. 3. Mesorhine nose, with greater breadth than length. 4. Slight prognathism, or full lips. 5. Dark, thick, coarse hair. 6. Slight but sinewy build. On a more subtle plane, here are some less obvious resemblances between the two groups: 1. Large ratio of B type blood. 2. Rarity of A type, and especially A2. 3. Rarity of P2 gene. 4. Rarity of Rhesus negative, 5. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase defiency and alcohol intolerance (ALDH). 6. The presence of enzymes giving malaria resistance. 7. Common occurrence of shovel-shaped incisors. 8. Low bi-zygomatic diameter. The main differences of the Austric type in India from the Dravidian type include: 1. High forehead. 2. Short face. 3. Bulging occiput. 4. Rarer occurrence of prominent brow ridges. 5. Greater occurrence of Mongolian, or sacral spot. 6. Greater occurrence of epicanthic fold. Some of these differences, like the Mongolian spot and epicanthic fold, are obviously due to the greater Mongoloid blood in Austrics, although this is less apparent in India than in Southeast Asia. Some Dravidian populations in southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and along the border of Nepal also share these traits. This is aside from the presence of these traits due to Turko-Mongol admixture. Some of the similarities above are related to peoples of long presence in tropical areas. The sacral spot is very common among Austrics, particularly in Polynesia,but less common among Dravidians than even the Arabs or North Africans. However, it is significantly higher than among Europeans. The high skull of Austrics may come from the Negrito-Melanesoid types who are known for this trait. One of the most distinctive traits is the short face which can be found from Polynesia to Madagascar. Obviously, a great deal of naturual variation exists among these peoples. Some of them, like the Negritos, Batak and possibly the Ainu, are very short, while peoples like the Polynesians are one of the tallest and probably the heaviest of people. The same type of variation exists in South America, where the population is short, but the Patagonian Indians are one of the tallest of peoples. Also, in Africa, in areas where the population is among the tallest to be found, there are also Pygmy groups. The Austronesians built ships with adzes and other tools of similar genetic affiliation, they used similar types of riggings, rudders, etc. and also the same method of sewing or fitting together the planks of their ships. These early Austronesians seemed to have all carried a few important domestic animals to almost everywhere they went: the dog, pig and chicken. Where the Proto-Austronesian people developed is a sticky problem. Some think the region of the Southern Philippines and Eastern Indonesia was the likely area, while others favor either Formosa or South China. Around 5,000 B.C. blade stone tool technology reached the northern and central Philippines from the south. Wilhelm Solheim of the University of Hawai'i postulates that active maritime trade and migration was already going on in Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia by between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C. Eusebio Dizon of the National Museum of the Philippines believes this date can be moved to between 6,000 and 7,000 B.C. based on the most recent radiocarbon dating. Sometime between 1,500 B.C. and 2,000 B.C., the Lapita culure of Fiji and Tonga developed. Therefore, we can safely assume that the Proto- or Pre-Austronesians had already reached many areas of either Micronesia or Melanesia to the West. The presence of Austronesians in Madagascar has been confirmed to at least the beginning of the era, although Solheim states that work to find the earliest habitation has not yet been completed. The lack of iron and Hindu-Buddhist influences, suggest an even earlier date. The Austro-Asiatics were mainly land-bound, unless one accepts the theory that the Japanese are of Austro-Asiatic origin. Currently, the Munda languages of India belong to the Austric grouping. However, many experts believe that certain cultural items in India like the outrigger ships, the coconut, the betel, etc., may have actually been introduced by Austronesian peoples. Although no true Austronesian languages exist in modern India, studies have shown that there are such influences in both modern and ancient Indian languages. A good work summarizing some of the earlier studies done by Przyluski, Levy and others is P.C. Bagchi's Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India. Description of Language The evidence points to the Austric family being originally agglutinative in morphology, or structure. Indeed, all still are agglutinative or partly agglutinative with the possible exception of the Miao-Yao dialects. Agglutinative languages attach, or glue morphemes together with little or no incorporation. This is particularly true of the verb root. However, often it is not the case with the pronoun and noun. Some of the features commonly found (although not universal) among agglutinative languages are: 1. Verb root tends to be uninflected with no incorporation of morphemes. 2. Words are often agglutinated into phrases or word sentences or equations. This does not happen in isolating languages, and rarely if ever occurs among inflectional ones. It is different than compounding which is lexical in nature, while this is grammatical. 3. Sentences, especially the word sentences, can often lack any active element. 4. Morphemes used in verb conjugation, noun declension, etc., often have separate existences. In many cases, the pronoun, or something close to it, will be used in conjugation, while the preposition, or something resembling it is used in declension of the noun. 5. Distinction of nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., is less pronounced than in inflectional languages. Roots are commonly used interchangeably as verb, noun, adjective and adverb, often by change of accent or addition of affixes. 6. The languages tend to be terse in nature. 7. They tend to promote unity of ideas rather than specificity. 8. They tend towards exclusive and secret speech. { TP: I think (but I am not sure) that Manansala proposes that the Indic/Austric cognates he has listed belong to a substrate of Indic (or is Indic?). The problem is that the Indic half of the cognate pairs have well-established cognates of their own in the other Indo-European language groups. Therefore the existence of the cognate pairs that Paul Manansala has found does not disprove Indo-European influence in India (which he doesn't claim, anyway), rather it would tend to reinforce an out-of-India hypothesis for Indo-European. Some of the cognate pairs have cognates themselves in other language groups (Afro-Asiatic, Kartvelian, Sumerian). Which means, I think, if the Austronesian cognates are outside the Indic influence area, that there have been earlier (and extensive! judging from the number of cognates) contacts between Proto-Austric (or perhaps Proto-Austronesian with Austro-Asiatic as sister languages) and the block of languages now being proposed as descendants of Nostratic. In principle the contacts could of course be both ways, but a post-diluvian dispersal of a boat people from east to west would be intriguing. We are left with two options for action 1) Assume that it is all a part of the Proto-World language. Add Austric to the stock of candidate languages as a descendant of Nostratic. 2) Assume a heavy borrowing of cultural items in the areas of astronomy, boats, kingship, measuring, mythology, basic geometrical structures couched in zoomorphic terms (this is supposed to mean that when they talk of snakes and trees, they also mean lines, waves and circles), psychology, magic, shamanism, etc from East to West. Go chase Proto-Austronesian (the Austro-Asiatics are landlubbers) cognates in every language group that has a coastline (well, the speakers of which live in an area that has etc, you know what I mean). I go for 2). If you don't, check for Scandinavian bronze age rock carvings on the net and be convinced. This has some consequences for my modus operandi. 1) For each of Paul Manansala's cognates, I have tried to find a) IndoEuropean cognates (from EIEC, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture) b) Nostratic cognates (from IENH, Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis) and I have hoped each time (especially with Nostratic) that the cognates I found would belong to a language spoken in an area with a coastline (not too many Proto-Altaic roots, thank you very much). I seem to have been lucky. Most of the roots I found have belonged to places not incompatible with a theory of sea-borne transmission. 2) I have supplemented with discussions of root stems and related derivatives from the works of Møller and Cuny. Although they are very aged, I have nowhere found a similarly detailed exposition of the subject. Present-day authors seem to be content with working with single words (not fair, but sort of true). Especially around the complexes H-n-(g) "bend, snake, fear, kill, sew, straight line", etc and H-r-(g) "king, erect, set straight, extend" etc they have been invaluable. 3) Dumezil is good for setting things straight, when the sense of words makes no sense. 4) And some Etruscan and AfroAsiatic cognates thrown in for good measure. Of grammar Charles Fillmore (in CFC) has proposed that in all languages the various NP's (noun phrases) in a sentence each take on one of a fixed number of roles relative to the verb. He called those roles deep cases (as opposed to what he termed surface cases of e.g Indo-European languages like German, Russian and Latin). The number of deep cases varied as the theory evolved. Here is a typical list (I cite from memory, accuracy WRT names is not guaranteed): Actor Object Beneficiary Instrument These are the "non-spatial" cases. The "spatial" (or "spatio- temporal") may include: Locative (place where action occurred) Ablative (from-case) Allative (to-case) In standard Proto-IndoEuropean, such as it is reconstructed, a sentence consists of a verb and one or several noun phrases. The roles (deep cases) of the noun phrases are indicated by adding suffixes to the component words (articles, adjective, nouns) of the noun phrase in question. In Proto-Austronesian (according to PA) a sentence consists of a verb and just one noun phrase. The role of that noun phrase is indicated by an affix (pre-, in-, suf-) not of the noun phrase but of the verb. Here they are: Actor mood : *-um- (infix ) Object mood : *-&n (suffix) Beneficiary-Locative mood : *-an (suffix) Instrumental mood : *Si- (prefix) There is also a Perfective mood : -in- (infix) to which one might compare: For actor mood and perfective mood The Proto-IndoEuropean present tense -n- infix (CAIEH 76). For object and beneficiary-locative mood The Germanic and Slavic past participle in -n- (CAIEH 77) (corresponding to Sanskrit -ána). If the language has no copula (e.g. Russian), a passive sentence will correspond to a Proto-Austronesian one. Perhaps the Latin absolute ablative construction is an archaic sentence type that belongs here too. Compare also the Etruscan suffix *-na (s^uthi "grave", s^uthina "grave goods" written on funeral gifts). Alternative: the Germanic infinitive suffix (-an, later variously -en, -e, nothing), Sanskrit ´-ana. For instrumental mood The AfroAsiatic languages makes causative verbs by mens of an s-preformative (prefix). Herman Møller has suggested that the Proto-IndoEuropean "s mobile" is a cognate and therefore originally also was a causative preformative. It is tempting to compare it to the Proto-Austronesian instrumental mood prefix *Si- (cf. English "melt" vs. "smelt" (make melt?), and "reach" vs. "stretch" (make reach?), cf. German "recken" and "strecken", Germanic inserts -t- into sr-, as in "stream" from *(s)rw-m-, “flow”). Beside the s-preformative for Proto-IndoEuropean and Proto- AfroAsiatic, Møller also postulates the existence of a w-preformative of no distinct semantics. It is possible to identify suffixes in the words: *-gh/k-, *-dh/t-. -gh/k- agent, -dh/t- object It seems that there existed in whatever language all these words are from two suffixes, of participal nature?, a velar one -gh-/-k-, denoting agent, and a dental suffix -dh-/-t-, denoting object (corresponding to the PIE participle suffix *-tó-). *H-bh- “heat” *H-bh-gh/k- “someone heating” *H-bh-dh/t- “something heated” *H-p- “bind” *H-p-gh/k- “someone binding” *H-p-dh/t- “something bound” *H-r- “fix” *H-r-gh/k- “someone fixing” *H-r-dh/t- “something fixed” *H-w- “lead” *H-w-gh/k- “someone leading” *H-w-dh/t- “something led” *H-y-w- “live” *H-y-w-gh/k- “someone living” *H-y-w-dh/t- “something lived” *k-l- “owe” *k-l-gh/k- “someone owing” *k-l-dh/t- “something owed” *k-r- “enclose” *k-r-gh/k- “someone enclosing” *k-r-dh/t- “something enclosed” *y-w- “unite” *y-w-gh/k- “someone uniting” *y-w-dh/t- “something united” Of phonetics Since I assume an Austronesian origin for the cognate "clusters" I am free to assume whatever alternations that are common there, so r/n/l/d will be permissible alternates, and I have permitted n-infixing into tri-consonantal roots C-C-C < > C-NC-C. This is partly accepted in Indo-European already as present (ie. imperfective) stem infixes in verbs. Dyen notes a similar function in Proto-Austronesian: verb with n-infix, noun without. Also (NEOVF), in Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic Bedawi has an imperfective -n- prefix (two-consonant stems) and infix (three-consonant stems), eg. verb -ktum- “to come”, 1st sing. perfective a-ktim, imperfective a-ka-n-tim. Further I will not attempt to keep laryngeals apart. This means a lot of freedom and a good deal less credibility, but then, this is only a first approximation. It should be noted that in Semitic, the choice between r/n/l is considered "a matter of style" (I read somewhere) and that it is generally assumed that some substrate languages of the Mediterranean had d/l/n/r vacillation. Consider also old Indo European problems like (Hittite) laman vs. (many other Indo-European languages) n-m-, Latin lingva vs. Germanic etc dengwa, and the archaic neuter -r/-n and -l/-n paradigms. Thus it is possible to claim a common origin for the *H-n-(g) "snake" and *H-r-(g) "ruler" roots. In general, I think this d/l/n/r vacillation has been ignored. Here are some examples: Nostratic roots “extend” IENH 98: *t[h](a|&)l´- “to stretch, spread, extend” (primary meaning) IENH 106: *t[h](a|&)n´- “to extend, spread, stretch” IENH 113: *t[h](a|&)r- “to spread, spread out, expand, extend; to stretch, stretch out, scatter, strew” IENH 123: *t'[a|&]l- “to stretch, extend” IENH 179: *c'(i|e)l- “to stretch out, extend, exceed; be wealthy, prosper, do well” (“extend” =?) “reach” IENH 128: *t'(u|o)l- “to reach, attain, strive for, come to; goal, end, result” IENH 149: *t´(a|&)r- “to advance toward an end or a goal; to attain or achieve an end or a goal, reach, come to, arrive at; to master, become master of” “flow” IENH 145: *d´[a|&]w- “to run, flow, gush forth” + l/r -> IENH 83: *d(a|&)n- “to run, flow” IENH 118: *t'[u|o]l´- “to drip, fall in drops, sprinkle, wet, moisten” IENH 157: *t'´[u|o]r- “to run, flow” HSED 747: *dur- “flow” “grow” IENH 4: *b(a|&)r- “to swell, puff up, expand” IENH 10: *b[u|o]l- “to swell, expand, spread out, overflow, puff up, inflate” IENH 24: *b(a|&)r- “seed, grain” IENH 39: *p[h](i|e)r- “to bring forth, bear fruit” IENH 487: *wal- “to be or become strong” “shine” IENH 15: *b[a|&]l´- “to shine, be bright” IENH 16: *b(a|&)r- “to shine, be bright” “settled place” IENH 19: *b(u|o)rg´- “to protrude, be prominent” IENH 55: *p[h](a|&)l- “settlement, settled place” IENH 61: *p[h](i|e)r- “house” (?) which is OK when we talk of a land of islands, I suppose “divide” IENH 35: *p[h](i|e)l´- “to split, cleave” IENH 37: *p[h](a|&)r- “to separate, divide” “fear” IENH 64: *p[h](i|e)l- “to tremble, shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid” IENH 68: *p[h](i|e)r- “to tremble, shake; be afraid, fear” “take” IENH 222: *g(a|&)r- “to take, take hold of; to take away, carry off, remove” IENH 226: *g(a|&)t´- “to take (with the hand), grasp” “twist” IENH 227: *g(a|&)w-al- “to twist, turn, bend” IENH 239: *g(u|o)r- “to turn, twist, wind, wrap, roll” IENH 263: *k[h](a|&)r- “to twist, turn, wind” IENH 267: *k[h](a|&)d- “to twist, wind, wrap, bend” IENH 293: *k'(a|&)r- “to twist, bend, wind, tie (together), bend, (adj.) curved, bent, crooked” IENH 306: *k´[h](e|&)l- “to twist, twine, wind around, plait” IENH 331: *kw[h](u|o)r- “to twist or twine together, tie together, bind fasten” “bend” IENH 261: *k[h](u|o)n-k'- “to be bent, curved, crooked; hook” IENH 317: *kw[h](u|o)l- “to bend, curve turn, revolve; to move around” IENH 349: *G(u|o)l- “bend, corner, edge, valley, ravine, gully” “strike” IENH 229: *g(u|o)l- “to cut, cut off, pluck off, break off” IENH 246: *k[h](a|&)r- “to cut” IENH 312: *gw(a|&)n- “to hit, strike, slay, kill, wound, harm, injure” IENH 342: *k'w(u|o)d- “to strike, wound, hurt, slay” IENH 354: *q[h](a|&)r- “to strike, split, cut, wound, injure” IENH 359: *q'w(a|&)l- “to strike, hit, cut, hurt, wound, slay, kill” “dog” HSED 917: *ger- “dog, cub” HSED 1425: *kan- “dog” HSED 1434: *ka[ya]r- “dog” HSED 1498: *kun- “dog” HSED 1511: *küHen- “dog” HSED 1521: *kV(w|y)Vl- “dog, wolf” “man” HSED 1722: *ma[ya]n- “man” HSED 1740: *mar[ra?]- “man” HSED 1803: *mur- “man” HSED 1806: *mut- “man” “slave” HSED 1727: *mar- “slave” HSED 1783: *monVh.- “slave” “walk” HSED 1731: *mar- “walk” HSED 1746: *mat- “go, walk” HSED 1782: *mon- “move, go” “river” HSED 1733: *mar- “drop, rain” HSED 1747: *mat.ar- “water” HSED 1770: *min- “water, river” HSED 1774: *mir- “river” “spear” HSED 1738: *mar- “hoe (n.)” HSED 1750: *ma(w|y)at.- “tree” HSED 1763: *meti?- “spear” HSED 1807: *mut- “stick” HSED 1812: *mVd- “knife, axe” “house” HSED 1723: *m(a|i)n- “house” HSED 1732: *mar- “house” HSED 1748: *mawar- “roof, house” “eye” HSED 93: *?id- “eye” HSED 110: *?ind- “eye” HSED 112: *?ir- “eye” HSED 1084: *`ayVn- “eye” (> Omotic *?an- “eye”) HSED 1101: *`il- “eye” (seems based on Agaw *`il-; Central Chadic, Lowland East Cushitic, Highland East Cushitic, Dahalo, and Rift have *?il-) Of notation This is a text file. Therefore I have had to make some horrible substitutions for various phonetic symbols. & schwa ly palatal l ñ, ny palatal n î, û Slavic short i and u, soft and hard sign ã, õ, Slavic nasal vowels gh, kh, dh, th bh, ph Aspirated stops H1, H2, H3 I got rid of H-sub-a in EIEC by calling it H2, because it's easier to write. Sorry. Y. Some funny-looking Y-like letter categorized as "emphatic spirantic lenis" in VISW. Unfortunately I know next to nothing about AfroAsiatic. # Some other laryngeal plus various others that I made up on the spur of the moment. Also (...) optional [..|..|.. ] alternatives (..|..|.. ) alternatives or nothing } *w-gH- “boat, carry, road”, (Vehicle of the Sun?) -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *w-gh- “boat, carry, road”, (Vehicle of the Sun?) A study of certain Indic terms dealing with maritime navigation and the ocean might also be useful in determining how sea-faring Austronesians were able to have any influence at all in the region. TP: My interpretation: the root w-gh- (?) shows a shift in meaning from east to west, namely from signifying transport by water to signifying transport by boat. This corresponds also to representations found of the respective pantheons (panthea?), and in particulat the sun: in the east on a boat, in the west in a wain. Cf. also *p-l-(w-) “boat, swim, bathe”. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= vahana “boat, raft” Sanskrit, from vah “to carry, bear” { IENH 301: *w[a|&]gy- “to carry, to convey” Proto-Nostratic > *w(e|o)g[h]- “to carry, to convey, to weigh” Proto-IndoEuropean *w[a|&]gy- “to carry” Proto-AfroAsiatic *wighe- “to bring, to carry, to convey” Proto-FinnoUgrian IESSG, VISW *Y.-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic seems to have developped from *Y.-p- “double” (q.v.) with the original sense “pull in two, pull apart” ? *w- “pull” Proto-IndoEuropean with d-preformative *d-w- tjo:ðr “rope” Old Norse extended with -k- *d-wk- “pull” du:co “pull” Latin tiuhan “pull” Gothic dai-dussesthai helkesthai Greek (Hesychius) extended with -K^.- > PIE -g^h- *Y.apáK^.- trans. *w-gh- “pull” Proto-IndoEuropean váhati “pulls, goes” Sanskrit vazaiti “pulls (of draft animal), leads” Avestan va:há- “draft animal” Sanskrit vo:dhár- “draft animal” Sanskrit vas^tar- “draft animal” Avestan veho “pull” (currum, etc) Latin vehor intr. “go” (curru:) Latin *Y.-p- Pre-Semitic extended with -K^.- > Semitic -s.- *Y.-p-s.- (= IndoEuropean *w-gh) Y.afas.a “he pulled (-hu it) out or forth” Arabic extended with -t- Y.afata “twisted and broke” Arabic PIEL: lauchum “the king” Etruscan lucair “to lead, to rule” Etruscan *deuk- “to draw” Proto-Indo-European ducere “to draw, to lead” Latin dux “chief, leader” Latin dougen “to bear, to transport” Breton tiuhan “to draw” Gothic MVc et al.: touw “cord, rope” Dutch touwen “spin” Dutch tou “scutched fibres of hemp, flax etc” Old Saxon to:w id. Old English tow id. English tow “to smooth the surface of a clay vessel by rubbing it with a length of cord” English (OED) Tau “cord, rope” German tooi “ornament” Dutch voltooien “complete, finish” Dutch *dowo- ? > Proto-IndoEuropean *tawa- ? > “plant fibre” Proto-Germanic tave id. Danish *taw-j- denominative -j- “to use a cord on” > “finish by decorating with a cord” > “decorate”; “finish” Proto-Germanic tawido “decorated, finished” Gallehus horn Germanic taw-i- “taw (skins), prepare (leather), curry (leather)” Old English *taw-an > Proto-Germanic tawa “tool” Old English zouw- “arrange, prepare” Old High German taw-j- “do, complete, make” Gothic doid “executes, takes care of” Old Irish davit' “press, squeeze, stamp, emboss” Russian > “vomit” Czech > “press” Ukrainian > “drown” Serbo-Croatian udavit' “strangle, hang” Russian EOND taug “rope” Norwegian tov “rope” Danish tog n. “rope” Old Norse with different ablaut taug “rope” Old Norse téag id. Old English tíegan “tie” Old English tuien “tie” Dutch toga “pull” Old Norse toga id. Norwegian dial. togen id. Middle Low German togen id. Dutch zogôn id. Old High German tow English toga “pull, drag” Old Frisian zogôn “pull” Old High German from which zögern “hesitate” German verzögern “pull out” German togeren “hesitate, delay” Middle Low German further intensive formation toggen, tukken “tug” Middle English tucken, tocken id. Middle Low German tokkelen id. Dutch zucken id. Old High German zucken, zücken id. German deviant meaning in *teuhôn > tjôa “help” Old Norse *tauhian > tø^ja id. Old Norse *teuhian > ty^ja id. Old Norse tya “be of use, help, prepare” Norwegian dial. ty, tya “be capable, be enough” Swedish dial. tye, tøie “be capable” Danish dial. *teuhan “pull” Proto-Germanic probably originally “tool for pulling” toh-li:ne “tow-line” Old English to “textile, cloth wrt strength and quality, cloth for spinning or weaving, type and quality” Norwegian to, tov “uncleansed wool” Obs. Danish to “uncleansed wool or flax, thread material” Swedish dialect to: n. id. Old Norse to:whu:s “spinning mill” Old English towcræft “skill in spinning and weaving” Old English tow “the coarse part of the hemp” English related to taui (gen. tô:jis) “action” Gothic ubiltôjis “evil-doer” Gothic *towian > Proto-Germanic tooien “decorate” Dutch derivation *tôw-la- > *tôla- “tool” Proto-Germanic different ablaut *tau- *tâw- in taujan “do” Gothic têwa “order” Gothic gatêwjan “fix, order” Gothic tâwian “prepare, arrange” Old English getâwa “tools” Old English tauw, tow “tools, rope” Old Frisian touw “the coarse parts of hemp” Frisian tøir “tether” Norwegian tiur, tyr, tøger id. Obs. Danish tiuder id. Old Danish tjuder id. Swedish tjor id. Norwegian dial. tjoðr n. id. Old Norse *téoder id. Old English tedir id. Middle English tedder, tether English tiadar, tieder id. Old Frisian tûder, tudder id. Middle Low German ziotar “pole of a wagon” Old High German plus verbs tøire “tether” Norwegian tjudra id. Swedish tjora id. Norwegian dial. tjóðra id. Old Norse tuieren id. Dutch Probably formed with the PIE instrumental suffix *-tro- from the PIE root *du(k)- “pull, draw” tømme “rein” Norwegian, Danish töm id. Swedish taum id. Norwegian dial. taumr id. Old Norse tôm id. Old Saxon toom id. Dutch tâm id. Old Frisian zoum id. Old High German Zaum id. German Usually assumed derived from *taug-má > *tauma from *teuhan “pull” Proto-Germanic > causative *taugian Proto-Germanic tøie “stretch” Norwegian töja “pull” Swedish tøge id. Danish dial. teygja id. Old Norse getíegan id. Old English tíhan “pull” Gothic téon id. Old English *wantogen > wanton English getogen “brought up” Dutch tave “strand, fibre” Danish “tuft of flax, wool etc” Obs. Danish tøile “rein” Norwegian tygel id. Swedish, Norwegian dial. tygill “band, strap” Old Norse togel id. Old English teugel id. Dutch zugil, zuhil id. Old High German Zügel id. German instrumental formation from *teuhan “pull” Proto-Germanic WG: *deuk- > Proto-IndoEuropean suppletive stem tsuk-/yok- “drink” Tokharian AB du:co: “drink to the full” Latin (Horace at al.) nduk “suck out” Alban. dial. DSDE: Wickel “tuft of flax, roll” German wickili:n, wicchili: id. from *weg- “weave, tie; something woven, web” Proto-IndoEuropean CAD: CalíS “rope” Proto-Austronesian cal.isi id. Rukai cal.is id. Paiwan tali id. Palawan tali id. Molbog tali id. Sarangani Blaan tali id. Murut (Timugon) tadi id. Malagasy Merina talo& id. Aceh tali id. Batak Toba tali id. Minangkabau tali id. Indonesian tali id. Sundanese tali id. Javanese tali id. Madurese tali id. Balinese tali id. Sasak tulu? id. Bugis tulu? id. Konjo (Coastal) tali id. Sika tali id. Roti tái id. Cèmuhî tar^i id. Woleaian dali id. Eastern Fijian vase id. Manggarai vahe-t id. Buru wihi-t “cord intended as strap or handle” Buru wara “rope” Irarutu wole id. Sawai warige id. Manam woro id. Mbula voiau id. Paamese wa:k id. Nemi va:va: id. Mele-Fila *ta+pus “finished” Proto-Hesperonesian *(em+)pus “finish” Proto-MalayoPolynesian ta:pos + mag-/-in id. Tagalog ta:pus + -un id. Aklanon tobos id. Palawan tobos + mog- id. Molbog tapus + mag-/ma-/-&n id. Kagayanen ubus id. Ba:ngingi Sama pu id. Mekeo pwisi id. Lewo ?osi id. Tongan GCALLE 117: ?vil\x&-t “rope” Proto-ChukchiKamchatkan ovruks “(special) rope” Gilyak, Amur dialect (= Nivkh) ovruks^r id. Gilyak, East Sakhalin dialect Salishan: XWí?l-m? “rope” Squamish XWéy?l-m? id. Cowichan Algonquian-Ritwan: wis^kwe:-/wihkwe:- “wrap with a bundle-strap” Proto-Algonquian (?)weskul “strap” Yurok (?)weskWelekWs “rope of wild grapevine” Yurok EIEC *wegh- “bear, carry”, also “ride”? (pres. wéghe/o) amwain “drive about” Welsh veh-, vec- “pull, carry” Latin but: equo: veh- “go by horseback” vega “move, bring” Old Norse wegan “bring, be in motion” Old English weigh English wegan “move, weigh” Old High German gawigan “move, shake” Gothic vez^u “drive” Lithuanian vezõ “drive” Old Church Slavonian vjedh “steal” Albanian (w)ekhéto: “he should bring” Greek vazaiti “transports; leads” Avestan váhati “carries, transports, conveys, leads” Sanskrit EIEC *wegh- “shake, set in motion” vexa:re “shake, vex” Latin wecgan “agitate” Old English waggen “wag” Middle English wag English wagian “shake” Gothic gaié-okhos “earth-shaking” Greek wa:sk-/wäsk- “move, budge, have motion (intr.) (< *wegh-ske/o) move (from a place) (intr.) tremble” Tokharian derivatives: *weghtis vectis “bar, pole, lever” Latin vétt “weight” Old Norse wiht “weight” Old English weight English *weghitlom vehiculum “vehicle” Latin vahitram “vehicle, ship” Sanskrit *weghyo vigg “horse” Old Norse wicg “horse” Old English vazyam “load” Avestan *weghyeH2- “track, road” (< *“capable of carrying passengers”) via “way, highway, road, path, street” Latin vez^e “rut, track, trail” Old Church Slavonian vez^a “track” Latvian vahyá- “fit to be borne” Sanskrit *weghos fecht “trip” Old Irish veg-r “way” Old Norse weg “way” Old English way English weg “way” Old High German wig-s “way” Gothic *wughos vozû “wagon” Old Church Slavonian (w)okhos “chariot” Greek wo-ka “wagon” Mycenean Greek *weghnos fe:n “wagon” Old Irish gwain “wagon” Welsh wkäm “way, manner” TokharianA yakne “way, manner” TokharianB *woghno- vagn “wagon” Old Norse wægn “wagon” Old English wain English wagan “wagon” Old High German CELR VIII 329: *wa'u- “tie” West Chadic wh.´ id. Egyptian CELR VIII 330: *tVf- “tie” West Chadic ntf “untie” Egyptian CELR VIII 333: *'awar- “untie” East Chadic w3r.t “rope” Egyptian G: -dígì “bark-fibre string” Proto-Bantu -dígÒ “load” id. -dòk- “to plait” id. -dúg- “to paddle” id. suffix -t ? -dùt- “pull, tug” id. } waha “to carry, bear” Hawai'i, Maori, and: waha “boat” Ceram waka “boat” Maori, Tonga, etc. vaka “boat” Vaturana, Savo, etc. vaga “boat” Alite va'a “boat” Tahiti wa “boat” Mate, Lamenu, Nul, etc. wak “boat” Numer paki “boat” Fila wakten Port Vato bangka “boat” Philippines wangka “boat” Malay, Indonesia [TP: n-infix. From verb?] TP: Møller's derivation of this root from the root underlying words for “double” is intriguing. If he is right, perhaps the original sense was “pull by a yoke of draft animals” or even “go by double (outrigger) boat”? ------------------------------------------------------------------ A list of pronouns, kinship terms and some anatomy terms will now be given showing the possible extent of Austronesian and Austric influences. [I] Pronouns -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= “I” Indic Austric aham (Sanskrit) aho (Malagasy) ahu (Toba-Batak, Tonsawang) ahau (Maori) gw-aho (Chamorro, emphatic) aya (Papua, h > y) ayu (Oyan) iyaa (Molima) ahang (Pali) -aken (Paiwan, bounded and unbounded with case prefix, h > k, ng > n) hon (Gujarati) aken (Yami, Cotabato, Subanon, Manobo-Kalmansig, Tasaday) aing (Mundari) ainje (Juang) agne (Savo) ainyak (Anaitum) hau (Prakit, Nimadi, Pahari) ahau (Maori) au (Doda Siraji, Sindhi, Poguli, au (Tonga, Tuamoto, Fiji, Rambani, Gadi, Pangwali, Wa, Araga, Nanumea, Badrawahi, Dogri, Lari, Son, Ulawa, Wano, Kachchi, Sirmauri, Bagati) Fagani, Kerepunu, Maori, Fati, Vaturana, Sesake, S. Cape, Maewo) hu (Gujarati, Rajasthan, hu (Chamorro), ho (N. Li) Karwa) hu-, -hu (Toba-Batak, bounded forms) -hu, -he (Tagabili, bounded forms) hao (Mandeali, Konkani) hao (Ong-Be, Mamanwa) ham (Magahi, Bihari) yam (Sakai) a (Kalasa, Gawar-bati,Pasai, a (Paluang, Katugg, Torwali, Lari, Kiutali) A Hok, Vyaku, Monk-Lwe, Kosiraua) ako, aku (Indon.,Phil., Malay, Poly, h > k) “you” (sing.) tvam (Sanskrit) tam (E. Cape) tume (Ardha-Magadhi) tom (Budibud) tumi (Prakit, Bengali) komu (Galeya) tam (Maharastri) tam (Galavi, Awanai, timi (Nepali) Wedau, Gapapaiwa, Tavara) kom (Tagabili, enclitic) -hem (Tagabili, bounded form) tu (common in vernaculars) ta (S. Kelao) ku (Kapang) kuo (Dixon Reef, Mindiri) koe (Aniwa, Futuna) kaw (Indonesia, Philippines, Malay) haw (Chamorro) kau (Rerep) kew (Yakan) ko (common Melanesian) koa (Gadaisu) taaua (Mele-Fila group, dual) de (Sauraseni,Magadhi, enclitic) do (Purome, Kibiri) "you" (pl.) tum (Prakit) tomiy (Budibud) kom (Medebur) tama (B'ili) tamiai (E. Cape) tami (Anuki, Paiwa, Gapapaiwa) taumi (Wedau, Tawala) taumiya (Dawawa) tame (Gujarati, Rajasthani, timun (Paiwan) Kar'wa, Kat'iyawadi) kamu (Indonesia, Yami, t > k) hamu (Toba-Batak) tam (Gujuri, Malvi, Lab'ani, kamiw (Southeast Papuan) Bangeru) kam (Nasawa, Mpotovoro, Manam, Casiguran Dumagat) ka`am (Yakan) yam (Malalamai) timi (Pahari) kimi (Vatrata, Sasar, Lehali) temi (Kakabai) tumi (Marati, Nagpuri, Konkani) kumu (Siviri, dl.) humeu (Nimowa) komiu (Misima) teu (Laqua) kou (Labo) toa (Samoa, more than 3) ja (Onjob) tussa (Multani, Hindki, Tali, kasu (Formosa: Kan./Saa.) Lahnda) tusi (Pot'war, Chib'al) tisun (Paiwan, sing.) tusse (Mandeali, Kului) kamus (Eton) tora (Bengali, Chittagong) koorua (Mele-Fila group, dl.) korua (Mae, dl.) a-korua (Futuna-Aniwa group, dl.) tova (Sindhi) kowa (Teste Is., sg.), kowe (Ponapean, sg.), koawoa (Mokilese, sg.) "you"* ap`ne (Maithili, honorific) apa (Kherwari, Santali, pl.) apani (Bengali, sing. hon.) ape (Mundari, Kurku, pl.) apanara (Bengali, pl. hon.) ap, apne (Gujarati, pl. hon.) ap`ne (Marathi, pl. hon.) b`e (Prakit, pl. hon.) *The use of the inclusive first person plural as a second person plural or singular honorific is a widespread feature of Austronesian languages. The example of "kami" and "kita" and their various forms being the best example. In Indic languages like Marathi and Gujarati, the same rule is followed with first person plural exclusive resembling the same pronoun in Austronesian, but with the inclusive variant resembling the inclusive first person plural in some Munda languages. The second person honorific in Marathi and Gujarati are the same as the first person inclusive plural, and are similar to the ordinary second person plural in Munda languages. “that” ta/sa (Sanskrit) i-ta/siya (Austronesian) tya/sya (Sanskrit) itsy (Malagasy) si/sa (Formosa) sa (Dumagat) ota (Bengali) i-tu (Malay) aka (Singhalese) tyo (Nepali) tia (Letemboi, Li'o, Sika) tea (Siviri) “he/she” sah/sa (Sanskrit) siya (common Austronesia) se (Bengali, inferior) si (E. Formosa) sa (Roviana, Toga) isah (Kan./Saa.) “they” te (Sanskrit, Prakit) te (Santa Cruz) ter (Vanua Lava) to (Laqua, Savo) tu (Lakkia) de (Sauraseni, Magadhi) de (Casiguran Dumagat, attributive, Santa Cruz) dia (Malay) diat (Duke of York) tida (Indonesia) i-tis (Yami) “this” eta (Sanskrit) ito (Tagalog) e (Mayang) ity (Malagasy) eta (Bengali) eke (Lehalurup) esah (Sanskrit) isi (Larevat) “this” ana (Sanskrit) on (Toba Batak) enei (Vatrata) nana (Lamenu) nani (Nul, Filakara) inu (Iarkei) ini (Malay) eni (Florida) iaani (Bugotu) ani (Gao) eni (Proto-Polynesian) “their” onkar (E. Hindi) onkoran (Kherwari) unkar (Bhojpuri) onkoran (Santali) umaker (Nagpuri) akoran (Mundari) unko (Mewati) arka (Juang) unka (W. Hindi, Kanauji) aninji-na (Savara) “him/her” ena (Sanskrit) ine (Oba) eni (Vanua Lava) ini (Gaua) ina (Nifiole) ana (Anutan) ena- (Suau, Molima) ena (Manikion) “we”* “we, exclusive” ham (Hindi, Nimadi), ham (Chamorro) hamai (Kanauji) hami (Vaturana, Toba-Batak) hama (Mewati) hamai (Nimowa, Sabari) hami (E. Pahari) hama (Panayati) ami (Assam, Marati, Nagpuri, ami (Amboyna, Amahi, Toti, Konkani) Sika, E.Formosa, Manggarai) amhi (Marathi) ame (Prakit, Gujarati, B'ili) ama (Ham) am (Al, Ulau-Suain, Kaiep, am (K'andesi) Gedaged, Bilbil, Arop) amai (Prakit) amai (Vowa) yami (Seran) kami (Malay, Phil., Indon, Poly., Melan., h > k) he (Semang, incl./excl.) hi (Sakai, incl./excl.) iami (Ulawa) hame (Bag'ati, Kiut'ali, hmei (Rhade) Sodochi, K'ar'wa) * Gujarati and B'ili "ame", K'andesi "am" and Marathi "amhi" are also exclusive pronouns. "we" (inclusive) apan (K`andesi, Marathi) abon (Kherwari, Santali) pan (Kachch`i) bon (Savari) ap`ne (Gujarati) abung (Kurku) api (Singhalese, incl./excl.*) abu (Mundari), abo (Kherwari, Santali) ap`da (B`ili) ba, beh, be (Gilgiti, incl./excl.*) pue (Talaing, incl./excl.*) b`e (Prakit) -be (Sora) *No distinction between inclusive and exclusive pronouns “body, self”* *t-n- “stretch” tanu “body” Sanskrit* tana “offspring” Sanskrit { IENH 106: *t[h][a|&]ny- “to extend, spread, stretch” Proto-Nostratic > *t[h](e|o)ny- “to ectend, spread, stretch” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h]&n-ú-s “thin” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h]en-k[h]- “to stretch, to extend” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h]en-p[h]- [through assimilation] > *t[h]em-p[h]- “to stretch” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h]on-k'- “to think, feel” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h][a|&]n- “to extend, spread, stretch, endure” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tan- “to increase, thrive, abound” Proto-Dravidian ?tani- “to know, learn” Classical Mongolian, Altaic VISW *t-n- or alternative *d-n- Indo-European *t-n- “stretch” teíno (< *tenio) “span, extend” Greek teno:n “sinew” Greek tanó-ti “extends, spans, stretches” Sanskrit thenja “extend” Old Norse denen “extend” Old High German teneo “hold” Latin tetini “held” Old Latin *t-n- + determinative > eller *t-t-n- > *t-dn- , metathesis > *t-nd- tendo “extend” Latin AfroAsiatic *t-n- semantic development as Latin por-rigo, German reichen > “offer”, “extend your hand” with n-preformative n-t-n “give” Hebrew, Old Aramaic na:than Hebrew perf. n > l nethal Syriac, Judeo-Aramaic with w-preformative y-t-n- “give” Phoenician + -i hithna: “give, spend” Hebr.Hiph. EIEC *ten- “stretch” *ten-do- tendo: “stretch” Latin thenja “stretch out” Old Norse thenian “stretch” Old English den(n)en “stretch out” Old High German uf-thanjan “stretch out” Gothic tìnti “swell” Lithuanian tit “wind, roll up” Latvian *H1en-ten(y)e/o- ndej / nder “extend, spread, stretch” Albanian tanúo: “stretch” Greek pairi-tanuya- “wish to keep a way” Avestan tanóti “expands, extends” Sanskrit *ténus (gen. *tnóus) “thin, long” *tanuw(y)o- tanae “thin” Old Irish tenau “thin” Welsh tenuis “thin, fine” Latin thunn-r “thin” Old Norse thynne “thin, lean, not dense” Old English thin English dunni “thin” Old High German tévas “thin, slim” Lithuanian tie:vs “slender” Latvian tînûkû “slender, thin” Old Church Slavonian tana(w)ós “long, elongated” Greek tanú-thriks “long-haired, shaggy” Greek tanuk “thin, weak” Middle Persian tanú- “thin, slender, small” Sanskrit tánuka- “thin, slender, small” Sanskrit tanu:- “body” Avestan tanú:- “body” Sanskrit tánutai “is strets^ed” Greek tanóti / tanete “expands, extends, endures” Sanskrit *ten-g- “think, feel” tonge:o “know” Latin thokk “gratitude, reward, joy” Old Norse thakka “thank” Old Norse thekkja “notice” Old Norse thanc “thanks, favor” Old English thank English thancian “thank” Old English to thank English thencan “think” Old English to think English dank “thanks, favor” Old High German danko:n “thank” Old High German denkan “think” Old High German dunken / dunchen “seem” Old High German thank-s “grace” Gothic thankjan “think, plan” Gothic thunkjan “please” Gothic tëngë “resentment, grudge” Albanian tunk “love” TokharianA tankw “love” TokharianB cänk- “please” TokharianB cancare / cincare “lovely, agreeable, charming, delightful” TokharianB *temp- (< *ten-p-) “stretch” tempus “time” Latin thamb-r “thick, swollen” Old Norse tempti “stretch out, pull out” Lithuanian timpa “sinew” Lithuanian tõpû “thick” Old Church Slavonian t'amp “saddle” Armenian tampe “power” TokharianA cämp- “be able to” (?) TokharianAB *teng(h)- “pull” *tenghs-mon- te:mo: “chariot pole” Latin *thenslo: thi:sl “wagon-pole, shaft” Old Norse thi:xl “wagon-pole, shaft” Old English di:hsila “wagon-pole, shaft” Old High German ras-tegõ “pull apart” Old Church Slavonian thang- (th unexpected) “pull” Avestan *ten-s- “pull” dinsan “pull” Old High German at-thinsa “pull” Gothic te:sti “stretch, pull” Lithuanian tamsayati “draws to and fro” Sanskrit VMPSIE: tutúe “thin” Tongan tanu “thin” Sanskrit tenuis “thin, fine, small” Latin dünn “thin” German totónu “manifest, clear, evident” Tongan ton, tintan. “see” Javanese, Malay totónu “straight, even, in a row” Tongan tan “extend” Sanskrit tati “row, line” Sanskrit tanu “body” Sanskrit tanus “body” Sanskrit tena “body” Madagascar kino “body” Hawaii tínana “human torso, tree trunk” Maori c^ino “human torso, tree trunk” Tongan c^i “small” (< “thin”) Tongan tini “many” (< “small”) Maori tini tini “very many” Maori tanula “extended” Sanskrit SBTIE (p. 209) 7: ten-uis Latin t`ãi~n, “thin” Bushman NS 181: *t'anV, *t'angV “stretch, extend” Proto-Nostratic *tan, (~ d-) id. Sino-Tibetan } tene Nengone tuna Gao hana Ngad'a zana Malagasy tane “humankind” Polynesia kane “humankind” Hawai'i tino “body” Anutan, Tahiti, Nanumea tinana “body” Maori tena “body” Malagasy kino “body” Hawai'i taw “body” Proto-Austronesian dai “body” Waropen tani “body” Tarfia tanun “person” Mota, Meralava tinoni- “man” Vaturana, Florida, Duke of York tane- “man, mankind” Aniwa, Futuna, Fila tanun- “mankind” Bank's Is. kane- “man, mankind” Hawai'i jame- “man, male” Ekagi, Kaupaku *Atman and tanu are used as substitutes for the old reflexive pronouns in the Indic languages. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= That horrible Serpent -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *H-n-g- “crooked, snake, destroy” naga “snake, serpent” Sanskrit { IENH 372: *?[a|&]n “to turn, return, turn around, turn back” Proto-Nostratic > *?h[e|a]n (?h[e|a]n-[yo|t[h]ero]-s) “on the other hand, on the contrary” Proto-IndoEuropean *?[a|&]n- “to turn, return, turn around, turn back” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 395: *H[a|&]n- “to bend, to curve, to twist” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a]n-k[h]- “to bend, to curve” Proto-IndoEuropean *Hh[e|a]n-k'- “to bend, to curve” Proto-IndoEuropean *h[a|&]n- “to bend, curve, twist” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 386: *H[a|&]n- “to show favour; to be gracious, affectionate, tender” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a|n-s- “to be gracious, to show favour” Proto-IndoEuropean *H[a|&]n- “to show favour, to be gracious” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 379: *H[a|&]n-ag- “to press or squeeze together, to make narrow or constricted, to strangle; (adj.) narrow, constricted; (n.) throat” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a]ng[h]- “to be narrow, to choke, to strangle; (adj.) narrow, constricted” Proto-IndoEuropean *H[a|&]n[a|&]g- “to be narrow, constricted; (n.) throat” Proto-AfroAsiatic *angke “painfully constricted” Proto-FinnoUgric *anank- “to suffer, to be distressed, to be slain, to afflict; (n.) pain, affliction” Proto-Dravidian *ank- “palate” Proto-Dravidian IENH 563: *n[a|&]H- “to tremble, shake; to fear, be afraid” Proto-Nostratic > *n[e|a]Hh- > *na:- “to fear” Proto-IndoEuropean *n[a|&]H- “to tremble, shake; to fear, be afraid” Proto-AfroAsiatic With w-preformative as posited by H. Møller: IENH 498: *w[a|&]ng- “to bend” Proto-Nostratic > *w(e|o)-d[h]- “to bend, twist, turn” Proto-IndoEuropean *w(e|o)-k[h]- “to bend, twist, turn” Proto-IndoEuropean *w(e|o)n-k'- “to curve, bend” Proto-IndoEuropean *w(e|o)n-g[h]- “to turn, go crookedly” Proto-IndoEuropean *w[a|&]n- “to bend, twist; to be bent, twisted, crooked” Proto-AfroAsiatic *wangka “bent or crooked object: hook, handle, knob, lever, elbow, etc” Proto-FinnoPermian *vanki “bent or curved object: hook, handle, curved ornament” Proto-Dravidian *vanank- “to bend” Proto-Dravidian *vãnk- “to bend, bow, stoop, become crooked” Proto-Dravidian further with w-preformative? (same semantic field) HSED 1288: *h.unah.- “be afraid” h.n.h. “fright” Egyptian (late) Deverbative noun. xunax- “be afraid” Central Chadic xunaG “be afraid” Musgum Partial reduplication? HSED 2499: *wagal- “fright, fear” *wVgal- “be frightened” Semitic wgl “be frightened” Arabic *walVg- East Chadic walga “fright, fear” Kera (metathesis) HSED 2500: *wagar- “be afraid” *wVgar “be afraid” Semitic ygr Hebrew wgr Arabic *?urVg “fear” East Chadic (metathesis) ?urg- Mokilko HSED 2508: *wahal- “be afraid” *wVhal- “be afraid” Semitic whl Arabic *wawal- > *waHal- “be afraid” West Chadic wowal Paa *yal- “be afraid” East Chadic yele Sokoro HSED 2510: *wah- “die; death” wh3 “deadly illness” Egyptian (medical papyri) deverbative. -3 stand for the root vowel *a *waH- “perish” West Chadic wah Dafo-Butura HSED 2517: *wak- “be afraid” *wVkVy- “be afraid” Semitic way Ugaritic way Arabic (VIII) *wak- “frighten” West Chadic wuk Sura wok Angas CELR IX 52: *hunag- “fear” Central Chadic h.nh. “fright” Egyptian IELS: wanaks “king” Greek TP: This one badly needs an explanation. According to Benveniste, wanaks is subordinate(?) to the basileus. So I imagined some kind of opposition major vs. minor, order vs. chaos, Forces of Law vs. Serpent. But that's as close as I get. Yes, I know. Perhaps wanaks is someone else's king, the other side's king? Of course, this side's king, the right king, is H-r-g. EIEC *a:nos (= H2eH2enos?) “circle, ring” a:inne “ring, circuit” Old Irish a:nus “ring, anus” Latin a:nulus “finger ring” Latin anur “necklace, ring” Armenian *H2enghus “narrow” cumgae “strangling, suffocation” Old Irish cumung (< *kom-nghu-) “narrow, restricted” Old Irish eang (< *eks-nghu-) “wide” Welsh angi-portus “narrow street, cul-de-sac” Latin ôngr “narrow” Old Norse enge “narrow” Old English angi “narrow” Old High German angwus “narrow” Gothic añks^tas “narrow” Lithuanian hnzwg- “narrow” Middle Persian amhú- “narrow” Sanskrit possibly ozûkû “narrow” Old Church Slavonian amphén “neck” Greek *H2engh(w)én- “neck” hals-anga “nape of neck” Gothic vjazî “nape” Russian amphen “nape” Aeolic Greek aukén (?< *ankhwen) “nape” Attic Greek awjik' (pl.) “neck” Armenian UUASI ilpa “scar, cicatrice” Uw Olkola ilpa algngan “message stick” Uw Olkola alh “fire, firewood, wood” generic classifier anything to do with fire (root: /alhu/; ergative/locative: alhu-l) Uw Oykangand alh odnd “fire carrying stick” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand alh anychir “smokefire, smoke” Uw Oykangand ajimb (meat cl): inh ajimb “spotted tree monitor or "wangu", Varanus timorensis” Uw Olkola ajimb alh anyjir “seven sisters constellation” Uw Olkola achimb (meat cl): inh achimb, wangu, Varanus timorensis Uw Oykangand achimb alh anychir “seven sisters constellation” Uw Oykangand alk (Oyk) alk “spear, generic classifier for spears, spear parts and some trees important in spear industry (root: /alka/; ergative/locative: alka-nhdh)” Uw Oykangand inh alk (meat cl) “porcupine [echidna] quill” Uw Oykangand alk alaw “spear rod”, “spear rod tree, Cordia myxa” Uw Oykangand iganigan (fire cl): alh iganigan “spark” Uw Olkola TP: H-n-g- > alk ? H-n-gi > anychi-, anyji- ? SIG: H-n- “bend, twist” Ha:na: perf. “bend, twist” Hebrew Hana: “he bent” Arab. transferred sense “was inclined to, amore affectione propensus fuit” H-n-n redupl. Semit.: H-n-n “be favourably, gracefully inclined, give out of grace to sby, take pity on sby” H n perf. “to favour” Phoenic., as in the proper name b y l H n "Baal favours" Hanna “was merciful, compassionate, favourably inclined”, subst.: Hinn-, Hèn m. “inclination, favour, mercy, grace” Hebr. annu m. “favour, grace” Assyrian proper names Hanni'e:l Hebr. H n b y l (= Hannibayl) Phoenic. HannanuN “compassion” Arab. IE extended by A1, H-n-A1- > ne: in (gi-)na:tha “mercy” Old Saxon gi-na:da “mercy” Old High German present stem with n-infix (H)nne: from (H)nneA1, an “is favourable to” Old High German unnan “be favourable to” Old High German gi-unnan “be favourable to” Old High German from which the abstract fem. Germanic an-sti- ansts “favour” Gothic anst “favour” Old High German èst “favour” Anglo-Saxon äst “favour” Old Norse from H-n- “be inclined, bend” : H-n-g2- “bend oneself, bend” Hanaga perf. “caused to bend, made crooked” Arab. IE ánk2- in ánca-ti “bends, curves” Sanskrit ánkas n. “bend, curve” Sanskrit ancus “having a crooked arm” Old Latin angko:n “elbow” Greek angkulu-s “curved” Greek angkistron “fish hook” Greek angul “hook” Old High German o-grade IE ònk2 in anká- m. “bend, hook” Sanskrit ongko-s “bend, hook” Greek uncus “bent; hook” Latin alternate form H-n-G2 > IE áng2- in angulus Latin o-grade ungulus “ring” Old Latin with w-preformative IE wank2- in vánca-ti “walks bent, strays, stumbles” Sanskrit wa:h “bent, wrong” Old Saxon un-wa:hs Gothic alternate form wáng2- in wancho:n “stray, wander” Old High German further H-n-p- : H-n-P H-n-p- in Hanafa “he inclined to, declined (from it)” Arabic HanafuN “a natural wryness, an inversion of the foot, a crookedness in the leg or foot” Arabic plus Hanifa, Hanufa intr.perf. “he had that kind of distortion” Arabic H-n-P- > sem. H-n-b- in H-n-b- II “(old age) bent him down” Arabic V “he was (became) crooked, curved or bent” Arabic metaphorically “he was (became) affected with compassion (for him)” Arabic mu-HannabuN “bent with age” Arabic ta-HnibuN “a bending or curving of the sinews or a convexity in the shank of the backbone and forelegs of a horse” Arabic from this, with suffixed r (and feminine -t) Henbert 1) “navel” 2) “inguina” Ethiopian, Tigre 'enbert 1) “navel” 2) “inguina” Amharic H-n-p- > IE ámb- in ambo:n “raised edge, (ionian ambe) raised bottom of the beaker, mountain peak” Greek H-n-P-, stressed on second syllable > IE n-bh- “hub, navel” o-grade òmbh- in umbo “shield buckle, projecting part of a mountain” Latin from which, with (likely) the same r as in Ethiop. > l after labial *ombhelo-s omphalos “navel” Greek umbilicus “navel” Latin SNE 4 *hina “feel tenderness for, love” Nostratic apparently *hina ~ *hani; Semitic: ene:nu “to show favor” Akkadian hnn “get favor, take pity on” Ugaritic ha:nan “to show favor, be gracious” Hebrew han “to show favor, be gracious” Syriac hanna “to feel tenderness, affection, sympathy” Arabic hnn “give” Soqotri Indo-European: *ans- “be favorably disposed” *ansé:s > *a:né:s > pros-e:né:s “friendly” Greek ap-e:né:s “unfriendly, hard” Greek ansts “favor, grace” Gothic anst, unst “favor, grace” Old High German unna “love, favor” Old Norse *ans- > as^s^u “good” Hittite Mongolian: inaû “friendship, love, friend, lovely” Mongolian Tgm.: a:ni- “rejoice” Evenki a:n'in “joy” Evenki Dravidian: *in- “be pleasant” Dravidian *an- “love, friendship” Dravidian *ani- “be beautiful” Dravidian ani- “enjoy” Kodagu IESSG *H-n-P- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic > *n-bh- “navel” Proto-IndoEuropean naba “nave” Old High German nabe “nave” German naf “nave” Old Norse nabalo “navel” Old High German nafli “navel” Old Norse nabhya- n. “nave” Sanskrit ná:bhi “nave, navel” Sanskrit *ambh- “circle” ámphi Greek ambi-, amb- Latin amb- Gaulish *nbh- > *mbh- > umbi “about” Old High German umb “about” Old Norse SIG extensions to H-n- “bend, twist”, words for snake H-n-kw- (H-n-k2-) > IE angw- in: angui-s “snake, adder” Latin angì-s “snake, adder” Lithuanian ãzi “snake, adder” Slavic n-g2- in: na:ga- “snake” Sanskrit with s mobile (or causative, from the verb?) from sHn-: sno:kr Old Norse snaca Anglo-Saxon snake English ng in: unc “snake, adder” Old High German H-n-k1- in Hanas^uN “reptile animal” Arab. metathesis to n-H-s- in na:Ha:s^ “snake” Hebr. from the noun “snake” some verbs are derived: a) in the sense “choke, frighten" H-n-k2 in: Henkat “fright” Ethiopian possibly H-n-k “frighten” Ethiopian Hænkétkete “take fright” Tigre possibly West Semitic H-n-k H-n-k “strangle” Hebrew Henak “he choked” Syriac further Henikå “anxious” Syriac however this has also H2 and might go with South Semitic X-n-k b) in the sense “pursue" *H-n-k1 in: Hanas^uN originally “snake, reptile animal, noxious reptile” Arab. from which a denominative verb Hanas^a “he hunted, sought to catch or capture (venomous or noxious reptiles or the like, such as scorpions or serpents)” Arab. might possibly correspond to IE ang1- a:hta (from Germanic anXta:-) “ban, hostile pursuit” Old High German a:htian “to ban, to outlaw” Old Saxon a:hten “to ban, to outlaw” Old High German æ:hten “to ban, to outlaw” Middle High German ächten “to ban, to outlaw” German *H-n-K- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic n > l, *H-l-s- > *l-H-s- Proto-AfroAsiatic la:Has “impell, push, oppress” Hebrew làHas m. “tightness, oppression” Hebrew laHHasa II “got someone into difficulties” Arabic TP: and if, as Møller writes somewhere, but I can't find it now, *nH- > *mH- : HSED 1757: *mehas- mzh “crocodile” Egyptian metathesis (Old Kingdom) *myaHas- “python” West Chadic me:sa: Hausa *mas- “snake” Lowland East Cushitic mas- Somali contraction *hamas- “snake” Highland East Cushitic hamaso Sidamo hamas-ic^c^o Hadiya hamasi Bambala metathesis, assimilation of vowels but note: HSED 2430: *t[ü]m- “fish” tm.t “kind of fish” Egyptian (medical papyri) *tum- “fish” Central Chadic tum “fish” Musgum *ü is reconstructed on the basis of forms appearing in HSED 2431 *tüm-mehas- “crocodile, snake”. This root serves as a second component of a Cushitic composite for “fish”: *kur-tum- Lowland East Cushitic qurttummi Oromo kurtum-et Gidole *kir-tum-/*kur-tum- Highland East Cushitic kilti?mi Sidamo kultu?me Darasa kurtume Hadiya kurc^um-et Alaba kur-tume Bambala kurtum Kambatta HSED 1870: *nihas- “snake” *nahas- “snake” Semitic assimilation of vowels, cf Arabian hanas^- “reptile, snake”? n-h-s^ “snake” Ugaritic na:ha:s^ “snake” Hebrew *nyas- < *niHas- “python” West Chadic nyes^ “python” Bokkos nis “python” Dafo-Butura TP *tüm-nihas- > HSED 2431: *tüm-mehas- “crocodile, snake” *tims^ah- “crocodile” Semitic timsa:h- “crocodile” Arabic Haplology and metathesis. ts^mm “crocodile” Egyptian (Greek papyri) Metathesis and loss of the laryngeal in Late Egyptian. Note irregular -s^- < *-s-. *timyas- < *tumyaHas- “horned viper” Central Chadic times^ “horned viper” Mofu *tumVs- “crocodile” East Chadic tumsa “crocodile” Mubi tumsa “crocodile” Mokilko Borrowed from Arabic? Compound with the original meaning “snake-fish” of *tüm- “fish” and *mehas- “big snake, crocodile” TP or *nihas- “snake”. Hence *mehas- by assimilation and re-division? EBAE 6.23: Enkel “ankle” German anhala, enkil id. Old High German anka “back of head, joint” Old High German anke “joint” Middle High German án.ga- n. “joint” Sanskrit anka, hanka “foot, lower thigh, lower extemity of animal” Basque “leg, buttock, hip” Basque dial. *anka “foot, lower thigh etc” Proto-Vasconic anca “hip” Spanish, Portuguese, Provencal, Italian hanche id. French hancha id. Medieval Latin with k-prefix? cf above EBAE 6.24: Schenkel “thigh” German schenkel id. Middle High German schinkel id. Middle Low German sc(h)enkel id. Middle Dutch diminutives of sceanca id. Old English schinke id. Middle Low German with dissimilated anlaut sákthi n. id. Sanskrit *skanko “foot, leg” Proto-Vasconic > zango id. Basque sanga, sango, sanka, sankho s.ango, s^ango s^anko id. Basque s^ungo “hind thigh” Basque Schinken, Schunke “ham” German diminuating palatalisation s~anku “limping” Basque EBAE 6.9: *hæ:ggo:n “hook” Pre-German Haken id. German ha:ke(n) id. Middle High German ha:kho, ha;co, hac(ho), ha:ho id. Old High German ha:gge id. Middle High German ha:go id. Old High German *hako:n id. Pre-German hako, ho:co id. Old Low German haca id. Old English haki id. Old Norse *ho:ka id. Pre-German ho:k, huk id. Middle Low German ho:k id. Old Frisian ho:c id. Old English hækja “crutch” Old Norse gako, gakho “key” Basque dial. gakulu “thorn, spur” Basque dial. kako, kakho “hook” Basque khakodun “hook-shaped” Basque kakola “stilt” Basque EWBS: denies kak.vi “hook” Georgian okoka “plough” Georgian SFPST 74: *khjuk “bent, crooked” Old Chinese *khjowk id. Middle Chinese 'gugs “to bend, make crooked” Written Tibetan kug “crooked, a hook” Written Tibetan *kuk > kauk “to be crooked, not straight” Written Burmese ROC: (b)khok “to bend, bent” Old Chinese khjowk id. Middle Chinese qu3 id. Chinese (b)N-khok “bent, curved, bend the body” Old Chinese gjowk id. Middle Chinese ju2 id. Chinese *n,khok “curved” Proto-Miao-Yao CAE: kan, “spread open (legs)” Proto-Austronesian kuk “bent, crooked” Proto-MalayoPolynesian kun, “bend” Proto-Austronesian kuq “bent, crooked” Proto-MalayoPolynesian ISG: *k^-n-g- “hang” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *k^-nk- id. Proto-IndoEuropean ha:han tr. “hang” Gothic hange:n intr.“hang” Old High German hangen id. Middle High German, German s^´an,ka-te: “is suspended > doubts, worries, vacillates” Sanskrit s^´an,ká: “doubt, worry, fear” Sanskrit s^´an,kita- “worried, nervous of” Sanskrit cunctor “vacillate, procratinate, hesitate” Latin hæ:tta “endanger, risk, dare” Old Norse a: “let depend on” Old Norse : *k^-n-G.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *k^-nk- Proto-IndoEuropean henchen “limp” Old High German hinken id. Middle High German, German = s^´-n-k.- Semitic s^anak.a “tied, impeded, he bound (the camel with the s^ina:k.), he curbed (the camel) by means of his zima:m (or nose rein), he bound (the head of the beast) to the head of a tree or to an elevated peg so that his neck became extended, he suspended (the waterskin) to a peg” Arabic > s^enek. “he hanged (him) by the neck till he died” Modern Arabic mis^nakatuN > Arabic mes^nak.a “a gallows” Modern Arabic mas^nu:kuN part. “put to death by being hanged” Modern Arabic s^anik.a intr. “he became attached (to a thing)” Arabic sEnek. “he craved” Syrian af. “made crave, induced, forced” Syrian s^anak.uN “the heart's longing for a thing” Arabic s^inak.uN “any cord by which a thing is suspended, the suspensory cord of a waterskin” Arabic DELL: cingo:, cinxi:, cinctum “to gird, put on belt” Latin `sihitu “girt, with belt on” Umbrian an`sihitu “un-girt, with no belt on” Umbrian kañcate “he binds” Sanskrit (gloss.) kañcukah “armor, shirt” Sanskrit kañci “belt” Sanskrit kinkýti “rein (beast)” Lithuanian podo-ka(k)e: “wooden impediment for horses” Greek TP: kink Nordwestblock in English DELL: ha:mus “(fishing) hook” Latin hamo “fishing hook” Old High German khamós “kampúlos” Greek (Hesych.) khabós “kampúlon, stenón” Greek (Hesych.) DBF: hamu “(fishing) hook” Lapurti, Low Navarre Basque DEE: ham lit. “bend of the leg” English hamme “ham” Middle English hamm “ham” Old English hamme “ham” German dial. cam “bent” Welsh camurus “crooked” Latin gammon preserved thigh of a hog English gambon Old French < gamba “leg” Old French gamba “joint of the leg” Late Latin kampé: “a bending” Greek IENH 557: *n[i|e]k[h]- “to strike, hit” Proto-Nostratic > *n(e|o)k[h]- “to slay, smite” Proto-IndoEuropean *n[a|&]k[h]- “to strike, hit” Proto-AfroAsiatic *nikkä- “to push” Proto-Uralic *nek- “to suffer, be distressed” Proto-Dravidian EIEC *nek- “perish, die” neco: “kill” Latin noceo: “inflict injury” Latin nasyeiti “disappears” Avestan násyati “is lost, disappears, perishes” Sanskrit näkstär “disappears, perishes” TokharianA nakstär “disappears, perishes” TokharianB naksäm “destroys” TokharianB *nek- “death” *nkti- e:cht “killing” Old Irish nex “death” Latin no:kar “coma” Greek néktar “nectar” (< “death conquering”) Greek henkan- “death” Hittite *nekus “death, dead” *nkw e:c “death” Old Irish angau “death” Welsh nékus “corpse; dead” Greek nasu- “corpse” Avestan *nkw-ó- “mortal” onk “man” TokharianA enkwe “man” TokharianB HSED 1838: *nahas- “pierce” *nVhas^-/*nVhus^- “prick” Semitic nhs[-a-, -u-] “prick” Arabic *nas “pierce (with spear)” West Chadic nas^e “pierce (with spear)” Hausa *nas < *naHas- “pierce” East Chadic nase “pierce” Mobu nesi “pierce” Ngamo HSED 1873: *nikif- “tree, bush” *nikip- “bush” Semitic niqiptu “bush” Akkadian ndf.t “tree” Egyptian (Old Kingdom) HSED 1866: *nig- “break” ngy “break” Egyptian (New Kingdom) Infinitive in -y. *lig- < *nig- “break” Central Chadic ligi “break” Mbara HSED 1871: *nik- “grind” nd “grind” Egyptian (Old Kingdom) Progressive palatalization of *-k- *niku- “grind” West Chadic nika “grind” Hausa nik “grind” Fyer nuk “grind” Bokkos cf. partial reduplication in *ni-nuk- “break” nung “break” Sura nung “break” Sha nying “break” Kulere HSED 1837: *nah- “bend” (intr.) *nVh- “bend” Semitic nhh “bend” Arabic *naH- “bend” Agaw na?y- “bend” Bilin HSED 1846: *napil- “snake, worm” *napil- “caterpillar” Semitic nappillu “caterpillar” Akkadian -n < Hamito-Semitic -l- npn “snake” Egyptian (in royal tombs) HSED 1833: *na?Vw- “snake, worm” n'w “kind of snake” Egyptian (book of the dead) *nVHVw- “snake” West Chadic nywoo “snake” Sura nwo “snake” Chip nwo “snake” Mupun EIEC *H1ógwhis (gen. *H1égwis) “snake” euod “sheepworm” Welsh euon “horseworm” Welsh *eghi- Proto-Keltic egala “leech” Old High German ekhis (< *eghi-) “viper” Greek ekhidna (< *eghidneh2) “viper” Greek ophis “snake” Greek iz^ (< *e:gwhi-) “snake, viper” Armenian az^i- “snake” Avestan áhi- “snake” Sanskrit auk- (< *euk ?< *eku) “snake” TokharianB *H2éngwhis (gen. *H2ngwhéis) “snake” TP: from n-infixed present of verb? esc-ung ('water-snake”, ung < angwho:) “eel” Old Irish llysyw(en) “eel” Welsh anguilla “eel” Latin uo:dze “snake” Latvian uz^ “snake” Russian wãz “snake” Polish abeis “snakes” Illyrian (Hesychius) awj (gen. sg. awji) “snake” Armenian *néH1to:r (gen. *nH1trós); Italo-Celtic *nH1trik- “snake” nathir (gen. natrach) “snake” Old Irish neidr “snake” Welsh natrix “water-snake” Latin nadhr - nadhra “snake, adder” Old Norse næ:dre “snake, adder” Old English na:t(a)ra “snake, adder” Old High German nadrs “snake, viper” Gothic *HVngh[el|ur] “eel” angurgis “eel” Old Prussian ungurys (< *angurys) “eel” Lithuanian ankeria (< Proto-Baltic *anguriya-) “eel” Finnish õgulja/jegulja “eel” Old Church Slavonian ugorî “eel” Russian engelus “eel” Greek from *(s)neH1(i) “twist fibres together to form a thread, occupy oneself with thread” (present *(s)néH1ye/o-) sniid “twists, binds, torments, strives” Middle Irish nyddaf “spin” Welsh neo: “spin” Latin nä(w)en “sew, stitch” Old High German sna:ju “twist loosely together, spin” Latvian néo: “spin” Greek eunnetos “well-spun” Greek sná:yu “ban, sinew” Sanskrit nominal derivatives: (1) *snoH1teH2- sna:th “thread” Old Irish sno:d “headband” Old English snood English sna:te “linen shawl, cape” Latvian (2) *snéH1tis na:t “seam” Old High German ne:sis “spinning” Greek (3) *snéH1mn ne:men “tissue, fabric” Latin ne:ma “thread, yarn” Greek derivatives: *neH1-tleH2- “needle” sna:that “needle” Old Irish na:dhl “needle” Old Norse næ:dl “needle” Old English needle English na:dala “needle” Old High German ne:thla “needle” Gothic *(s)niH1 (<(s)nH1i) nýtis “weaver's reed” Lithuanian nits (some part of the loom) Latvian niti “thread” Russian GCALLE: *?alx& “snake” Proto-ChukchiKamchatkan Salishan: ?él\qay? id. Squamish ?él\qey? id. Cowichan al\qic'änc^ id. Coeur d'Alène Algonquian-Ritwan: *aþko:ka id. Proto-Algonquian *-askwaya- “bloodsucker; snail” Proto-Algonquian IENH 559: *n[a|&]t'y- “to turn, twist together” Proto-Nostratic > *n[e|o]t'- “to turn, twist together, tie, bind” Proto-IndoEuropean nd “string, thread” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic EIEC *sneH1u- “twist fibres together to form thread, occupy oneself with thread” snu:a “wind, (double and) twist (yarn), twine (thread)” Old Norse snaujis “noose, snare” Latvian snujõ “set warp” Old Church Slavonian HACL: *ngalé “eel” Hokan cf. anguilla “eel” Latin Ben Madison claims a connection between Afro-Asiatic and the Hokan languages of North America. He mentions a Snake people in Ohio, which caught my imagination, along with the image of the well-known Ohio mound depicting a snake devouring an egg. So I included it. EIEC from *(s)neH1w-r or *(s)neH1-wr “sinew, tendon” nervus (< *neuro-) “sinew, tendon, muscle, nerve” Latin neuron “sinew, tendon, cord” Greek neard ( *ani:wa: TP : the other way round, *-nH- > *-m- would suit me better SNE *naha “to fear” *nah “fear” East Cushitic nah- “pity, be startled” Somali nah- “fear, take pity on” Galla nah- “be tender hearted” Konso nah- “be afraid, tremble” Gidole na- “fear” Burji Indo-European: *naH- > na: “to fear, be ashamed” nahh- “to fear, be in awe, be cautious” Hittite nahhan “awe, worship” Hittite nah-s^aratt- “fear, awe” Hittite na:r “modest, shy” Old Irish na:(i)re “shame” Old Irish Dravidian: *nar- “to fear” arai “be terrified” Tamil aruku “be afraid” Tamil aral(a) “terror, fear” Kannada aragali “hesitation, doubt” Telugu ari “fear” Najki ari “fear” Kolami nar “fear” Parji narc- “to fear” Parji nar “fear” Gadba nars- “to fear” Gadba arkara “be terrified” Malto narring “to flee, run away” Brahui IENH 568: *n[a|&]?- “to come, go, arrive, journey, travel, sail” Proto-Nostratic > *n[e|a|o]?h- “to sail, to set sail” Proto-IndoEuropean *n[e|a]?h-u-s “ship” Proto-IndoEuropean *n[a|&]?- “to come, go, arrive, journey, travel, sail” Proto-AfroAsiatic EIEC *(s)neH2- “swim” (pres. (s)néH2ti) snaid “swims” Old Irish no: “swim” Latin nekho: “swim” Greek snayeiti “washes” Avestan snáti “bathes” Sanskrit na:sk “bathe, swim” TokharianB *néH2us (gen. nH2uós) “boat” na:u “boat” Old Irish noe “boat” Welsh navis “ship” Latin no:r “ship” Old Norse nowend “skipper, sailor” Old English from *noh2w-on- with "hardened" laryngeal : nokkui “boat” Old Norse naca “boat” Old English nahho “skiff, small boat” Old High German naûs “(war)ship” Greek naw “boat” Ossetic na:u- “boat” Sanskrit derivatives: *neH2uiyos néios “of or belonging to a boat” Greek na:viya- “navigable” Avestan na:viya:- “(river) passable only with a boat, not wadable” Old Persian na:vyà- “crossable with a boat” Sanskrit na: “mill race, aqueduct consisting of hollow logs” Khowar *n-s- “island” (q.v.) HSED 1852: *neb- “swim” nby “swim” Egyptian, pyramids Vocalic -y *nyabi- “swim” Central Chadic nebia “swim” Gulfey IENH 302: *H[a|&]gy- “to be pressed or weighed down; to be oppressed; to be disheartened, distressed, afflicted, troubled” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a]g[h] “to be weighed down, oppressed, fearful” Proto-IndoEuropean *H[a|&]gy- “to be pressed or weighed down; to be oppressed; to be disheartened, distressed, afflicted, troubled” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ag- “to press firmly, to hold firmly; to tremble, to fear; (n) affliction, trouble, difficulty” Proto-Dravidian TP: Angel the brother of Dan, according to the chronicler Saxo Grammaticus (appr 1170 AD) Angeln today, landscape in Schleswig from which the Anglians emigrated to England, according to Beda Venerabilis; then, possibly the name of all of Schleswig-Holstein, situated between Denmark and Saxony. The importance of Scheswig-Holstein is that it controls the place where the Jutland peninsula is at its narrowest and hence there was a strong flow of goods that way, from the North Sea up the Treene River, over land to the market town of Hedeby, and on the Schlei inlet to the Baltic. This route was preferred since the journey around Jutland was dangerous to small ships. Several places in North America you find "portages", e.g. Portage des Sioux. These are places where people used to transport goods from one river system to another. This route across Jutland peninsula is a portage. The etymology of "Angeln" has been disputed. One suggestion derives it from the shape of the Schlei inlet: narrow and winding. Another (mine, actually) would see the name as designating the place where the Jutland peninsula is at its narrowest. But suppose there was a connection between the Naga people and the "Angli"? In that case the English people would be doomed to roam the seas forever. This is of course silly, so let's disregard it. As an aside, Dan and Angel were descendants of a king Skjold (Shield) who as an infant came to Denmark alone in a ship. ikari “anchor” , Japanese ikari “anger” , Japanese TP: Is snow = precipitation = pumice, or am I stretching this too far? Note the Sanskrit use of the sword. To those that say that an imported religion can't replace such a commonplace word as "snow", look what happened to the word for "word", "verbum" in Italian and French "parola", "parole" (< "parabola"), replaced by a Greek word from the religious manners of speech of the early Christian communities. EIEC *snigwh-s (fem.), *snóigwh-os (masc.) “snow” snige “drip, flowing” Old Irish snecht(a)e “snow” Old Irish *snigwh- nyf “snow” Welsh nix, nivis (fem.) “snow” Latin sna:w “snow” Old English snow English sne:(o), sne:wes (masc.) “snow” Old High German snaiws “snow” Gothic snaygis “snow” Old Prussian snie:gas “snow” Lithuanian snìegs “snow” Latvian snegu “snow” Old Church Slavonian nípha (acc.fem.) “snow” Greek niphás, niphetós “snowstorm” (pl.) “snowflakes” Greek z^inij “snow” Shugni snéha “slime, grease” Sanskrit sineha- “snow” Prakrit *snigwhi- or *snigwhen- *s^iñce “snow” s^iñcatstse “snowy” TokharianB *sneigwh- “to snow” snigid “rains, snows” Old Irish nyfio “snows” Welsh nivit, ninguit “snows” Latin snýr “snows” Old Norse sni:wan “snows” Old English sni:wan “snows” Old High German snie:ga, snie:gti (sniñga, snigti) “snows” Lithuanian snieg, snigt “snows” Latvian osnez^eitî “snows” Old Church Slavonian neíphei “snows” Greek snae:z^aiti “snows” Avestan sneháyati “causes to fall(?)” Sanskrit a-snih-at (aorist) “remain lying(?)” Sanskrit No evidence for s-mobile TP: ? niha-ka “snow-storm” Sanskrit is therefore not cognate ninctu Umbrian uncertain interpretation, TP (?), should have s- TP (?) GCALLE: n,aq-r “snow” Gil Algonquian-Ritwan: *mexkwamya “ice” Proto-Algonquian Salishan: máqa? “snow” Squamish méqe id. Cowichan n,áqe? id. Clallam *muq&- “rain; hail” Proto-Chukchi EIEC: Fire under the water: *Hngwnis “fire” [note the n!] ignis “fire” Latin ùgnis “fire” Lithuanian uguns “fire” Latvian ognî “fire” Old Church Slavonian ogónî “fire” Russian agní- “fire” Sanskrit The fire in the water is an important Proto-IndoEuropean theme. Several of the myths suggest that the unsuccessful approach to the deity resulted in the formation of (three) rivers, real or mythical. *Hóngl ( - ?*Héngo:l) “charcoal” Old root noun in -l, n-infix? aingeal “fire” New Irish anglis “charcoal” Old Prussian anglis “charcoal” Lithuanian ùogle “charcoal” Latvian öglî “charcoal” Old Church Slavonian úgolî “coal” Russian } naka- “sea-monster” Hawai'i ngata- “snake” Samoa nganga- “house-lizard” Marquesas niha- “snake” Buro ngu- “snake” Thai ngua- “snake” Sek ngi- “snake” Ong-Be ngi- “snake” Laqua nge- “snake” Dioi ngata- “snake, worm” Indonesia nguak- “dragon, crocodile” Thai ngata- “snake” Makatea, Mele, Futuna { neak “snake” Khmer DMSM nàik “mythical serpent, possessing superhuman powers, Na:ga” Mon "(na:k < Sanskrit, Prakit na:ga)" nàik prèa “female Na:ga, Na:gini” Mon neke “snake” Maori "English loan" Dictionaries make a point of telling you that these words are loans. They offer no evidence for that claim. } nah “to tie”, also naddhe “cord” Sanskrit { IENH 559: *n[a|&]r'y- “to turn, twist together” Proto-Nostratic > *n[e|o]t'- “to turn, twist together, tie, bid” Proto-IndoEuropean nd “string, thread” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic EIEC *ned- “knot” naiscid “binds” Old Irish naidm(m) “bond” Old Irish necto: “knot, bind” Latin ("influenced by pect- “comb (wool)”"?) no:dus “knot” Latin nassa (< *nd-teh2-?) “weel, wickertrap for fish” Latin no:t “net” Old Norse nett “net” Old English net English nez(z)i “net” Old High German nati “net” Gothic ( perhaps also nest “needle, clasp” Old Norse nostle “fillet, band” Old English nestila “brooch” Old High German nust “connection” Old High German ) naska (< *nad-ska) “bundle” Avestan náhyati “bind” Sanskrit ("-dh- from badh-" ?) *ned- “nettle” nenaid “nettle” Middle Irish dynat “nettle” Middle Welsh "Celtic *ninati- with assimilation in Welsh" netele “nettle” Old English nettle English nezzila (< nod-il-eH2-) “nettle” Old High German nazza “nettle” Old High German ádíke (< nd-ik-eH2- ) “nettle” Greek noatis “nettle” Old Prussian no:tere “nettle” Lithuanian na:tre “nettle” Latvian na:t “nettle” Slovene ('t' instead of 'd' in Baltic and Slavic unexplained) From nettles can be obtained fibres, which can be used for weaving cloth. They have been recovered from a Bronze Age tomb in Denmark, and were also used for cloth in Denmark in the textile (and otherwise) shortage in WWII. TP: Presumably they have been used also for sewing, so that a connection with *neH- “sew” is possible. EIEC *H3nobh- “navel, nave” nof “nave of wheel” Old Norse nafu “nave” Old English naba “nave” Old High German nabis “navel, nave” Old Prussian naba “navel” Latvian nábhya- “nave” Sanskrit aniw “wheel” Armenian imbliu “navel” Old Irish umbilicus “navel” Latin umbo “boss on shield” Latin nafli “navel” Old Norse nafela “navel” Old English nabalo “navel” Old High German amban “belly” Old High German omphalós “navel, boss of shield” Greek ná:bhi “navel” Sanskrit “navel” is often a derivative of “nave” } nake, naki- “to tie, knot, bind” Polynesia nati- “to tie” Tahiti naga “tree”, Sanskrit { This is as close as I can get to that Naga tree. I assume an underlying idea such as "vertical line". Spear tree? cf. IELL *derw- “tree” Proto-IndoEuropean dervo- “a tree” Gaulish dóru “spear, tree” Greek taru- “tree, trees” Hittite dáru “tree” Sanskrit taru- “spear” Thracian UUASI alk “spear, generic classifier for spears, spear parts and some trees important in spear industry (root: /alka/; ergative/locative: alka-nhdh)” Uw Oykangand inh alk (meat cl) “porcupine [echidna] quill” Uw Oykangand alk alaw “spear rod”, “spear rod tree, Cordia myxa” Uw Oykangand EIEC ?*H1negh-es- appr. “spear” noz^i (< *H1nogh-yo-) “knife” Old Church Slavonian engkos (?< *H1enghes-) “spear” Greek nes(s) “wound” Old Irish from *H1negh- “stab” IEW *nogwo- or *nagwo- “tree”? naga- “tree, mountain” Sanskrit nokkui “boat” Old Icelandic nahho “boat” Old High German naco “boat” Old Saxon naca “boat” Old English } Naga- name of tree (Narra, Philippine Mahogany) Philippines, naga- “tree” Malua Bay, Lingarak nega- “tree” Petarmur, Vao nige- “tree” Rerep, Unua nege- “tree” Litzlitz nagai- “tree” Vartavo, Lepaxsivir, Port Sandwich negai- “tree” Maxbaxo naka- “tree” Tonga, Makura nakau- “tree” Woraviu, Sesake, Nguna, Pwele { IENH 312: *gw[a|&]n- “to hit, strike, slay, kill, wound, harm, injure” Proto-Nostratic > *gw(e|o)n- “to hit, strike, slay, kill, wound, hurt” Proto-IndoEuropean *gw[a|&]n- “to hit, strike, slay, kill, wound, harm, injure” Proto-AfroAsiatic EIEC *gwhen- (pres. *gwhénti) “strike” *gwhóneye/o- gonaid “wounds, strikes” Old Irish de:-fendo: “protect” Latin gunn-r “combat” Old Norse guntwei “drive (cattle)” Old Prussian genù “drive (cattle), hunt” Lithuanian geniù “prune (trees), trim (a hedge)” Lithuanian dzenu “drive cattle” Latvian z^enõ “drive cattle” Old Church Slavonian gonjõ “pursue” Old Church Slavonian z^ijõ “harvest, cut” Old Church Slavonian gon “a drive, a hunt” Russian theíno “strike” Greek phónos “murder” Greek apéphato “died” (< *'was struck down”) Greek (Hesychius) jnem “strike” Armenian ganem “strike” Armenian kue:nzi “strikes” Hittite jainti “strikes” Avestan hánti “strikes” Sanskrit *gwhn-ske/o- käsk- “scatter (violently)” TokharianB CAIEH 11 *ghwen- “strike, kill” Proto-IndoEuropean *bunuq Proto-Austronesian bunoq “war” Tagalog bunu “kill” Toba bunoh “kill” Mal. vuno “kill” Mer. hunu “slaughter” Saa TP: cf the traditional description of the mythical dragon-slayer: áhann áhim “he slew the serpent” Sanskrit janat az^im “he slew the serpent” Avestan *(H1e)gwhent H1ógwhim “he slew the serpent” Proto-IndoEuropean or *H1egwhent H1éngwhim ? i.e. originally something like *H-gw-n- H-n-gw- ? That would be aesthetically pleasing (I think, I haven't been a Proto- AustroIndoEuropean bard). AG: BEND 1. *kun[k,q], “bend” PAustric *(n)kun[k,q] id. PAA *du(?)ku? “bend, curve” PAN (ACD) *(n)ku? Mon-Khmer kong koi “back of neck” Bahnar (PB) cung kiêng ti “elbow” Chrau kung kíng kóng id. Sedang trùang gung “curved” Jeh makóng “arm” Katu kong id. Rengao kun /ko?/ “to bend, curve” Khmer cúng “to bend as to make a fishhook” Pacoh ticong “neck” Pacoh ku? “to bend” Pearic kóng “arm, hand” Sedang cung “bow” Vietnamese *inku? > *ju? Mon-Khmer jung “curved” Rengao Munda: None Comment: Cf AT*[i](?)kuk, *[i](?)ku? “bend/bent, arched, crooked” Previously compared with PAN (D38) *hi?kuk “bent, crooked” and (B173) *(C,t,T)iku? “bend, curve” Note that in the ACD, Blust cites the AN roots *-ku(q) “bend, curve”, *-kuk “bent, hunched over”, and *-ku? “bend, curve” At the PAustric level, the “bend, curve” root was probably *kV, with *kuk and *kuq suffixed derivatives thereof. Affixation of the latter produced *kunk and *kunq, whence *ku?. Last updated: 11/22/01 Published: A1:169 as *(n)kuk, *kunk, *kunk[eq] IELL eban, ebanen “died, was buried” Iberian UUASI: agngar “devil, ghost, kwinkan; white man” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand ajen “kill” Uw Olkola angaw “freshwater crocodile” Uw Ilbmbanhdiy, Uw Oykangand abm “man, person, generic classifier for all human beings (root: /abma/; ergative/locative: abma-l)” Uw Oykangand ing (man cl): abm ing “ghost sp.” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand Anhanggaw undetermined language and group name, about Laura Uw Olkola Anhangkaw undetermined language and group name, about Laura Uw Oykangand anngul “hand, finger” Uw Olkola anychunggal “bend” Uw Oykangand anyin “fishing net” Uw Oykangand anyumb “throat” Uw Oykangand, Uw Ilbmbanhdiy engawal “image, breath” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand, Uw Ilbmbanhdiy engawal “spirit” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand angangal “spirit” Uw Ilbmbanhdiy engawal “body” Uw Ilbmbanhdiy enggar “body” Uw Olkola engkar “body; laboured breathing, breathing slowly” Uw Oykangand engomang “cloud; image, spirit; shade, shadow” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand oneg “neck” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand inh generic classifier for mammals, birds and reptiles Uw Oykangand inh onyel “snake skin” Uw Olkola inh onychel “snake skin” Uw Oykangand onychar “tree” Uw Olkola algal “shooting star” Uw Olkola algal “straight” Uw Oykangand -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= An Egg -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= { CAIEH 41: teluR “egg” Proto-Austronesian qi-tlog “egg” Tagalog telor “egg” Melanesian anielu “egg” Javanese (literary) sa-olu “egg” Saa jadro “kernel, testicle” Russian Church Slavonian jãdro “kernel” jãdra pl. “testicles” perhaps *andra >? anda “egg, testicle” Sanskrit } -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Kinship Terms -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= vaprah “father” Sanskrit vappa, pia Prakit baba, bap Bengali bapa Magahi pio, piu Hindi (v > b > p > f) bapa Indonesia, Malay, Solor, Li'o, Gane, papa common Polynesian baba Ouma bab, babu Efate paa, paapaa, paapara Maori paapaaq Yap paapa Puluwat babi Murray Is. fa Rotuma fa S. Li pha N. Li ba Laqua pu Lati a-pan Salon pa Talaing, Yin, War, Semang a-puk Khmer pa-e Dana apu-t Kherwari, Santali apu Mundari aba, ba Kurku apang, abbani Gadaba vava Fiji (Vuda Lautoka) aba Formosan Paz, Sai, Ata abu Mukawa avu Ubir, Wedau poi Gadsup pu Tai apu, apo Philippines bapa “uncle” Kapampangan bapa “title of respect for old men” Ilokano papa “uncle” Mae-Morae, Vartavo, Rerep papap “uncle” Lembinwen bubu “address for elder” Motu pu “sir” Indonesia pap “uncle” Maat tata “father, affectionate term, also used for other elders” Sanskrit, also kaka “uncle” and dada “elder brother” Bengali (t > k) tata Mae-Morae, Lironesa, Pt. Vato, Baimp, Kapampangan, Enga, Loniel, Lapwang, Ikiya, Ikiti, Lironesa, Fiji, Aurora, Chamorro tatai Labo, Baiap, Windua tetai Espirito Santo kaka Nengone chichi Japan, tatai “grandparent” Nadrau ta “mother's father, wife's father” Mak, Sui, Kam, Tai tai “grandparent” Fiji taka “older brother” Formosa kaka “older brother” Philippines, Indonesia, Maga tuaka- “older brother” Polynesia tata “uncle” Motu janaka “father” Sanskrit (j > t > k) (n > m) tamaku Hukua, Valpei, Wusi, Tasiriki, Wailapa matua tane Polynesia makua kane Hawai'i tana- Tolomako tonu- Tambotalo tani- Loreidiakarkar jema Marshall Is. jamjam “father-son relationship” Mokilese jamah “his father” Mokilese ma “mother” Prakit, Hindi and many other modern vernaculars, also amma, ama mi, me Talaing ma Palaung, En, Yin, Kla Muk, Malay mi, ma, mia SE Papuan mo Pak, Sasar, Teqel mama Savo moa Wa mwe Son ma-e Dana mai War may Kurku u-ma Mundari a-ma Malay, Fasu, Kewa, Beami me Tai mei Li, Laqua mama “nursing mother” Samoa ama “female guardian, female authority” Tagalog nana “mother”, affectionate term similar to tata Sanskrit naunod “husband's sister” Bengali nana Lepaxsivir, Baiap, Tagalog, Arosi, Chamorro, Tikopian, W. Futunan naana Woleaian nanu Kwale nohna Ponapean nene Nengone, Patani, Sawai, Weda, nena Maxbaxo nen Burmbar nunu Mae, Larevat ninen Maat ninox Toak niinnaeq Yap nene “youngest or younger sister” Philippines akka “mother” Sanskrit (k > j > t) aki Kerepua aita Pango aite Ulingan ek Eton iak Eratap etata Mele itak Loniel aje Buli jaja- Tidore, Sula Fagudu ja- Sula Mangoli agi- Kewa inggi- Mendi anji Augu enggi Megi inkiki Sau agini Ipili engat Kherwari, Santali enga Mundari okaa-san?- “your/his/her mother” Japan ate “eldest or older sister” Philippines aita “woman” Erima ak goefata- “wife” Sula Fagudu jani “mother”, Sanskrit (j > t > k > d) jine- Marshall Is. jinana West Futunan tina common Oceanic tina-ku Wailapa tene-ku- Burmba kane-gu Bonkovia kina-ku Valpei tina-na Tikopian dina-na Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro ina common Austronesian tain “woman” Ulau-Suain janik ngolota, janik maping- “wife” Buli baya “brother” Prakit baha Ketrani bai Bengal, Hindi, Panjabi, Rajasthani bau Marathi, Nagpuri, Kandesi (b > p > v) biai Salon a-ban Malay ban, pun Khmer bah, pa Semang vai, va Palaung pa rameh Wa po Son, En bo Yin, War baka, boeha Kherwari, Santali bau Mundari boko Kurku, Juang u-ban Savari buang Gadabi bai Karia bai Gadsup wagi Proto-Austronesian bayaw “brother-in-law” Philippines bauw “brother-in-law” Tai pa “older brother” Gusap-Mot paa “older brother” Wantoat baab “older brother” Ok baw “older sibling” Formosa ba:u “older sibling” Nung dada “brother” Gar'wali, Bag'ati, Sirmauri, W. Pahari, C. Pahari “older brother” Bengali dada- Kherwari, Santali, Kurku kaka Juang kaku Savara taka “older brother” Formosa kaka “older brother” Philippines, Indonesia, Maga tuaka- “older brother” Polynesia bagini “sister” Sanskrit bahini “sister” Prakit bone “sister” Bengali (b > p > f > v > w) (g > k > b > h) (h > s) bai Talaing ber Semang boko kuri Mundari bokoje Kurku boko-rain Juang au-wahine Maori tua-fafine Samoa bisi- Woleaian faifil Woleaian wayin Yap baka Santali, Kherwari vai Palaung po Son pinas Mong Lwe ban srey Khmer bau “female kin” Tai vahini “sister-in-law” Polynesia wahini “sister-in-law” Hawai'i bai, pai “younger or older sister” Austro-Tai bai “grandmother's sisters” Formosa baw “older sibling” Formosa ba:u “older sibling” Nung balah “child” Sanskrit balu Prakit bachcha Potwar, Bihari, Magahi, Maithili, W. Hindi, Dakini beta/beti “son/daughter” Hindi putta “child” Pali putra/putri “son/daughter” Sanskrit pota(ka) “young of animal” Sanskrit bokuto “young child” Kashmiri, becca “young child” Lahnda, Panjabi bacca “young child” Bengali (ch > t > k) (b > p) bata “child” Tagalog, Cebuano, Kapampangan, Manobo baka “child” Vaturana bitiir “child” Yap bainta “child” Tairora boot “son” Thai poti'i “infant” Samoa pota “infant” Anutan pootiki “infant” Maori potii “girl” Tahiti potiti “small” Marquesas budak, bunting “child” Proto-Austronesian bala “people” Malay, Tidore, Sobojo, Kadai banta “man, person, people” Gadsup kumar “child” Sanskrit kama Hawai'i tamari'i Tahiti tamaliki Nanumea tama- Anutan, Fila, Mele, Maori ta-tama Futuna tamasisi Aniwa tamatiti Makatea koa Eton tamalo “person” Vao tamalohi “person” M. Malo tamloa “person” Tangoa tamol “man” Gedaged, Takia, Biliau, Wab tomol “man” Bilbil gumoru “man, mankind” Sud-Est *p-t- “lord, mistress” pati/patni “husband/wife” Sanskrit pati “lord” Sanskrit patti “wife” Prakit { SIG, IESSG, VISW *b-y- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *po- Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -w- *pou- (2nd normal form) Proto-IndoEuropean *pò:n- pán “lord” Czech pan “lord” Polish dés-poina “mistress of the house, female ruler” Greek extended with -d- > PIE -t- *bayad- Proto-IndoEuropean *pot- (2nd normal form) Proto-IndoEuropean páti- “master of the house” Sanskrit pósis “master of the house” Greek bru:þ-faþs “bridegroom” Gothic -faþs “master” Gothic potis “able” Latin com-pos “in possession, control of” Latin im-pos “not in possession, control of” Latin pátni: “mistress of the house” Sanskrit pótnia “mistress of the house” Greek *b-y- Semitic extended with originally suffixal -l- (< -n- after labial -b- < PIE -n-?) bayluN “husband, lord, master” Arabic be:lu “master, possessor” Assyrian inf. “take into possession” Assyrian bàyal “lord, owner, spouse” Hebrew ba:yl, baya:l “master, possessor” Ethiopian bayala “he married, became a husband” Arabic bayalat “she became a wife” Arabic EIEC *pótis “husband” Proto-IndoEuropean *potis stegesos ozah “husband, master of the house” Breton *ghos(t)-pot- hospe:s “host” Latin bruth-fath-s “bridegroom” Gothic gospódî “host” Russian fat “husband” Albanian pats “husband, self” Lithuanian pats “master of the house, self” Latvian *wisá: + *pot- > *dz^opt- zot “master of the house” Albanian pósis “husband” Greek pat “self” Hittite paiti- “husband” Avestan páti- “husband, master” Sanskrit pats “husband” TokharianA petso “husband” TokharianB *pot-niH2 “mistress, lady” waispattin (acc.) “wife, mistress” Old Prussian vies^patni “lady” Lithuanian po-ti-ni-ja “lady, wife, mistress” Mycenian Greek pótnia “lady, wife” Greek *wisa: + *potnja: > *doptnja: zonjë “lady, wife” Albanian -pathna:- “lady” Avestan pátni- “lady, wife” Sanskrit AE: páta “have, possess” Albanian } bati, baati “husband” Tairora patu, fatu “lord” Polynesia patuan “chief” Bismarck Archipelago patan “wife, woman” Iarkei, Loniel pita “wife, woman” Morouas peka “chief” Maori paduka- “lord, master” Malay patul- “ruler” Manobo *w-dH- “lead; wife” vadhu “wife” Sanskrit vahu “wife” Prakit bahu “wife” Bihari, Braj, B'aka, Rajastani wahu “wife” Gujariti, Charotari bauhti “wife” Powadi bai “wife” Kandesi bau “wife” Cancha, Jaipuri, Malvi biwi “wife” Hindi vahu “wife” Kanchchi bebe “woman” Tinauli bebbe “mother” Panjabi babi “mother” Kachchi bou “wife” Bengali { IENH 474: *w[a|&]d- “to take, lead, carry, bring” Proto-Nostratic *w(e|o)d[h]- “to lead, bring, carry” Proto-IndoEuropean *w[a|&]d- “to take, carry, bring” Proto-AfroAsiatic *wetä- “to take, guide, lead, carry” Proto-FinnoUgrian SIG, IESSG Alternating form *w-t- “wind > bind” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *w-dh- “join” Proto-IndoEuropean : *w-T.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *w-dh- “join” Proto-IndoEuropean gavidan “yoke together” Gothic ga-viss “connection, joint” Gothic wetan “join, bind” Old High German weten “join, bind” Middle High German gi-wet “yoke, pair” Old High German fedan f. “” Old Irish vas, va:d- “bail, security” Latin vadimonium “bail, security” Latin vadhú- “spouse, wife” Sanskrit vadhú:- “draft animal” Sanskrit vadhú:mat “” Sanskrit with n-infix *w-nd- Proto-IndoEuropean *wòndu-s Proto-IndoEuropean *wantu-z Germanic vottr “mitten” Old Norse : *w-ndh- Proto-IndoEuropean bi-windan “wind” v. tr. Gothic windan “wind” v. Old English windan “wind” v. Old Low German wintan “wind” v. Old High German vinda “wind” v. Old Norse want “wall” Old High German ge-want “attire” Middle High German gewende “yoke” n. German vandhúra “wagonseat” Sanskrit Alternating form *w-t.- Semitic extended with -d- (= PIE partcp.-forming -d-) wat.ada “joined and attached (something with something else)” Arabic : w-t- Semitic extended with -d- watada “fixed (it) firmly” Arabic extended with -r- wataruN “string (of a bow), chord (of a lute)” Arabic whence denominative wattara II “he bound the string of the bow” Arabic V “(a sinew) became tense like a bow-string” Arabic watr “rope, chord, nerve, string” Etiopian ye'þær “noose, tent rope, bow string, rein” Hebrew yaþra: “rope, string” Aramaic yaþrå: “rope, string” Syrian EIEC *H2uedh(H)- “lead in marriage, marry (from the male point of view)” dyweddio “marry” Welsh from *H2uodh(H)ei[e|o]- weddian “wed” Old English wed English arweddu “lead, bring” Welsh cywedaff “lead, bring in” Welsh widema, widoma “bride-price” Old English weotuma “bride-price” Old High German wedde “wed” Old Prussian vedù “lead, marry (of a man)” Lithuanian vedu “lead, marry” Latvian derivatives vede:kle “son's wife” Lithuanian vadhú- “bride” Sanskrit *H2udh-teH2 > u:dhá “married woman, wife” Sanskrit cf. fedid “leads, goes, wears, brings” Old Irish vedõ “lead” Old Church Slavonic voditi “get married” Old Russian voz^dõ “lead” Old Church Slavonian huttiye- “pull, drag” Hittite vadhayetti “pulls” Sanskrit vadhayeiti “pulls” Avestan upa-vadhayeiti “gives a woman in marriage” Avestan vadu “young woman, bride” Avestan eedna “nuptial gifts” Greek anaednos “without bridal gifts” Greek CELR VIII 125: *wid- “to fish” West Chadic î3d.t “net” Egyptian VMPSIE: vadhu (vadhv-) “woman” Sanskrit vadhon “woman” Javanese vadhukâ “woman” Sanskrit védhok “woman” Javanese vadi, vadin vali, badi “wife, husband” Madagascar vavi, vave “woman” Madagascar vaivave “woman” Madagascar véavi “woman” Madagascar babayi “woman” Tagalog fafine “woman” Tongan } (w > v > b > p > f ) vihin “wife” Ambrym vehi-vavy “wife” Malagasy vahine “wife” Polynesia vavine “wife” Melanesia wahine “wife” Hawai'i, Maori bahi “wife” Ruk vaine “woman” Magori va'ine “woman” Yoba, Bina waine “woman” Sepa babine “wife” Papua babae “woman” Philippines babi “female” Indonesia behen “wife” Ranon, Fona beben “wife” Sevesi, Pt. Vato bebe “mother” Wetamut bayi “mother” Indonesia pai “grandmother” Formosa pae “mother” Anutan -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Anatomy -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *p-k- “belly, flank, wing” paksha “wing” Sanskrit, also pakshi “bird” petakah “belly” Sanskrit, also petum, pottam “belly” Prakit pet “belly” Lahnda, Gujarati, Panjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Nepali pot “belly” Marathi { IESSG 1st normal grade *páA1ag- > *pé'k- > *pe:'k- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic 2nd normal grade *paA1ág- >pa'ág- > Proto-IndoEuropean-Semitic *pek- Proto-IndoEuropean *p-k- “breast” Latin o-grade *poctus > ucht, gen. ochta “breast” Irish *p-A-d- (Pre-Semitic g > Semitic d) Semitic fu'a:duN “the heart, the pericardium, the appendages of the oesophagum = liver, lungs and heart > the mind, soul” Arabic denominative fa'ida “he had a disease in his fu'a:d” Arabic fa'ada “it smote, affected his fu'a:d” Arabic EIEC *poksós (< *pogsos) “side, flank” *poksiyo- paksis “corner of a house” Latvian paks^á- “wing, flank, side” Sanskrit *po:kso/eH2- , lengthened grade pákh “flank, loins” Russian pakhá “armpit” Russian faxs “side” Ossetic *pógyo- paz^e “arm” Czech pa:jasyá- “belly, loins” Sanskrit *poktu- ucht “breast” Old Irish pectus “breast” Latin *pant- “stomach, paunch” pantex “belly, paunch, gut” Latin -panduha- “stomach” Hittite HSED 1933: *pakuh- “hand, arm” *pakh.- “palm” Semitic fakh.-at- “palm” Arabic *paku- “wing, arm” West Chadic paka “wing, arm” Tangale pak-ni “wing, arm” Warji pak “wing, arm” Kariya pak “wing, arm” Miya puka “wing, arm” Paa partial redupl. fuffuke, fiffike “wing” Hausa GCALLE 2: poku “hump” Gilyak, Amur dialect (= Nivkh) Algonquian-Ritwan: *ne-xpeþkwani “my back” Proto-Algonquian *-pexkwane:- “back” Proto-Algonquian VMPSIE: kapakáu “wing” Tongan pauks^-tis “bird” Lithuanian passer (< pak-ser) “bird” Latin fug-ls “bird” Gothic fok “flight” Old Norse } pika- “belly” Savo boka- “belly” Moto beteng- “belly” Indonesia alo-piko- “belly” Hawai'i boga- “belly” Gadaisu poka- “concavity, hollow” Polynesia “belly” Central Papuan putani- “belly” Gadabi pjit- “belly” Dana po- “belly” War, K'mer va- “belly” Palaung betek- “belly” Maragus tabak- “belly” Rano putok- “navel” Lakona, Marig, Merlav pitoku- “navel” Raga putuku “navel” Tasmate, Wusi-Valui Wusi-Mawa pwitoku- “navel” Huka, Valpei, Nokuku bituka- “intestine, bowel” Tagalog vatek- “belly” Leviamp, Unmet pakau “wing” Maori ta-pakau “wing” Tonga pekehu “wing” Marquesas pako “kite” Marquesas pak-pak “wing” Tagalog pekau “wing” Fila, Mele pakakau “wing” Makaea pakau “wing” Futuna *H-kW- “eye, see” iksh “to look, behold, perceive, know” Sanskrit. Also iksi “eye” Sanskrit iki “eye” Syrian Gypsy aki “eye” Oriya, Bihari, Bag'eli, Kanauji it “eye” Kohistani itsin “eye” Gawar-bati { SIG *y-g1- “eye, see” Pre-Proto-AfroAsiatic whence with suffix n- yàin(u) “eye” Proto-AfroAsiatic e:nu “eye” Assyrian *yék1- Proto-IndoEuropean whence *'ók1 (since yé > yó > ó) in *ók1-si Proto-IndoEuropean áks^i “eye” Sanskrit as^i “eye” Old Persian *yok2- Proto-IndoEuropean whence *'ok2- in oko “eye” Slavic oc^i, dual “pair of eyes” Slavic osse: “eye” Greek oculus “eye” Latin akìs “eye” Lithuanian opsomai, fut. “see” Greek opo:pa, perf. “have seen” Greek The Semitic suffix -n- is probably the same as the one in akn “eye” Armenian *aug-n- “eye” Germanic okno “window” Slavic EIEC *H3ekw- “see” opo:pa “have seen” Greek opipeúa “stare at” Greek ís^ate “sees” Sanskrit *H3éni-H3kw-o/eH2 enech “face” Old Irish enep “face” Middle Welsh *H3okw- “eye” oculus “eye” Latin auga “eye” Old Norse e:age “eye” Old English eye English ouga “eye” Old High German augo: “eye” Gothic ackis “eye” Old Prussian akis “eye” Lithuanian acs “eye” Latvian oko “eye” Old Church Slavonian os^i (pl., old dual) “eyes” Old Church Slavonian ossi (dual) “eyes” Greek omma (< okw-mn-) “eye” Greek o:ps “face” Greek akn “eye” Armenian ach'k (acc.) “eye” Armenian ek “eye” TokharianB perhaps *sekw- “see” is really *s-H3ekw- (with causative s-preformative) “watch, make (oneself) perceive visually” and *seH3g- “perceive acutely, seek out” is *s-eH3g-, an alternate form HSED 93: *?id- “eye” *?id- “eye” West Chadic ido “eye” Hausa yit “eye” Sura yit, yid “eye” Angas yit “eye” Montol has-yid “eye” Ankwe yit “eye” Gerka ?ido “eye” Bolewa ?ido “eye” Karekare yero “eye” Dera idu “eye” Tangale ido “eye” Ngamo ida “eye” Maha ido “eye” Bele iro “eye” Kirfi iid.i “eye” Gera iirya “eye” Galambo ida “eye” Geruma ado: “eye” Diri ida “eye” Jimbin da “eye” Ngizim Some forms with -r- may go back to HSED 112 *?ir- “eye” as well. *?id- “eye” Central Chadic idi “eye” Tera di “eye” Nzangi *?id-/?ud- “eye” East Chadic uda: “eye” Dangla ?id.e “eye” Migama ?ude “eye” Jegu id- “eye” Sokoro East Chadic *?ud- < *?idu- or a trace of an apophony? Although this root is preserved only in Chadic, its derivatives also occur in Cushitic, see HSED 110 “eye” and we may, there- fore, consider it as an Hamito-Semitic archaism. HSED 110: *?ind- “eye” *?Vnd- “eye” Central Chadic nde “eye” Dghwede No traces of the original first syllable. *?int- “eyes” (pl.) Saho-Afar intit “eyes” (pl.) Saho intit “eyes” (pl.) Afar Unvoiced *-t- < Hamito-Semitic *-d- is not clear. *?ind- “eye” Lowland East Cushitic ind.o “eyes” (pl.) Somali indo “eye” Rendille iynd.a “eye” Arbore iinda “eye” Gidole Secondary -d.- in Somali and Arbore? Derived from HSED 93: *?id- “eye” with a nasal infix. HSED 112: *?ir- “eye” ir.t “eye” Egyptian (pyramids) yr.t “eye” Demotic *yiri “eye” Coptic ieire “eye” Lycopolitan *?ir-/*yir- “eye” West Chadic yir “eye” Polchi yir “eye” Sayanchi yerr “eye” Geruntun yir “eye” Kir ge-ir “eye” Tala yeer “eye” Fyer *yir- is a result of further development of *ir-. Note a prefix in Tala. *?ir- “eye” Central Chadic iri “eye” Lame ir “eye” Mesme ira “eye” Banana Related to *?ir- is a derivative *?aray- (< *?iray-?) “eye” Central Chadic ?aray “eye” Balda aray “eye” Munjuk arai “eye” Masa *?ir- “eye” East Chadic ir-in “eye” Mubi HSED 1084: *`ayVn- “eye” *`ayn- “eye” Semitic i:nu “eye” Akkadian `n “eye” Ugaritic `ayin “eye” Hebrew `ayno: “eye” Aramaic (Syrian) `ayn- “eye” Arabic `ayn “eye” Ge'ez `n, `yn “eye” Egyptian (ancient) Borrowing from Semitic? *?an- “eye” Omotic an “eye” Gim Regular development from *`ayn-? HSED 1101: *`il- “eye” *?il- “eye” Central Chadic yel, yil “eye” Buduma el “eye” Gulfey ili “eye” Lamang *`il- “eye” Agaw `il, `el “eye” Bilin el, iel “eye” Xamir &l “eye” Xamta el, yel “eye” Kwara il, yil “eye” Dembea yil “eye” Kemant el, &ll, ill “eye” Aungi *?il- “eye” Lowland East Cushitic il “eye” Somali ila “eye” Oromo il, ili “eye” Bayso ille “eye” Arbore iil “eye” Geleba il-da “eye” Konso il-c^a “eye” Busso il-ta “eye” Gidole *?ill- “eye” Highland East Cushitic illee “eye” Sidamo ille “eye” Darasa illi “eye” Hadiya ille “eye” Alaba ille “eye” Bambala ille “eye” Kambatta ?ila “eye” Dahalo ila “eyes” Mogogodo *?il- “eye” Rift ila “eye” Iraqw ila “eye” Alagwa ila “eye” Burunge ?ilat “eye” Asa ilito “eye” Kwadza NS 35: *Huk'a “eye, see” Proto-Nostratic *-gwV “eye” Sino-Caucasian *kWe:-n (~*gW) “look” Sino-Tibetan if -n is a suffix *?agwV “see” North Caucasian } igi “eye” Sumerian ike- “to see, perceive” Hawai'i ite- “to see” Tahiti k-ite- “to see” Mangar., Tonga, Maori ma-k-ita- “to see” Tagalog kita- “visible” Tagalog ita- “to see” Ouma, Bina, Wedau t-ingin- “eye” Tagalog pan-ingin- “eye” Tagalog h-ingo- “eye” Kapau ma-k-ita- “eye” Parawen, Yorawata te, de- “eye” Papuan ta, da- “eye” Austro-Tai ang-k “eye” Danaru ege- “eye” Usu agi-utu- “eye” Duduela engge- “eye” Usino ite-c “eye” Meax oto- “eye” Samahi atsing “eye” Mt. Goliath ite-ja- “eye” Meninggo enggio- “eye” Dem eki- “eye” Suma *pul- “hair” balah “hair” Sanskrit, and balo “hair” Prakit { EIEC *pou-m-s “(human) body-hair” pu:be:s “pubic hair” Latin pu:be:s “one adult enough to bear arms” (< “one characterized by adult body-hair”) Latin pu:be:sco: “attain adulthood, come to maturity” Latin paustìs “animal hair” Lithuanian dialect pukh “down, fluff, fine hair” Russian push “hair, down, fibre, fur” Albanian pushem “begin to grow a beard, body-hair” Albanian *poum-gon- po:go:n “beard” Greek pu:m “down, fluff” Shugni púma:n pumsás gen. “man, male” (< “one characterized by adult body-hair”) Latin *pulos “(a single) hair (of the human body)” *pulu ul “beard” Middle Irish púlinges “hairs of the body” Greek pal “fringe of hair” Pashto pu:r “headhair” Kurdish pulaka:s (pl.) “bristling hairs of the body” Sanskrit pulastin- “wearing the hair straight or smooth” Sanskrit *pilos “(a single) hair (of the human body)” pilus “(a single) hair (of the human body)” Latin *piles “felt” *pilseyo- pilleus “felt” Latin TP: Minimally, inexplicably different roots of similar semantics. Obviously loanwords. G: -bùdì “hair on body” Proto-Bantu } balahibo- “fine hair” Tagalog bol-bol- “hair” Tagalog bulo- “hairs” Tagalog bolou- “hair” Bouru boloi- “hair” Amblaw bolo- “hair” Baju pulu- “hair” Sulu Is. bulbul- “hair” Sulu Is. fulu- “hair” Nanumea vulungi- “hair” Mosina volo- “hair” Malagasy vul- “hair” Lakon vului- “hair” Vureas vulu- “hair” Gog, Torres Is. buloe- “hair” Salon bulu- “hair” Indonesia, Malay bila- “hair” Lamenu bele-ti- “hair” Pagu karna “ear” Sanskrit, also kanna “ear”, Prakit. kalna-ku- Tasmate talna-ku- Wusi-Valui calna-ku- Wusi-Mana telnan- Lakon taringa- Maori darnga- Avok tarnga- Maxbaxo karina- Wano, Fagani kalina- Navut dalina- Sesake, Api tana- Salon tani- Cham taliga- Nanumea taling- Malay -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= While some instances of correspondence may be coincidence, it is obvious that as a whole, so many coincidences occurring between the two language groups is very unlikely. Here are a few more interesting links, based on similar sounding words for human, people, etc.: -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *A-n- “wind, breath, god, spirit”; “man” PMA an “to breathe, blow, live” Sanskrit, also anila “wind” PMA asu “life” Sanskrit asu “five vital breaths” Sanskrit PMA nara “human (homo sapiens)” Sanskrit IENH 369: *?[a|&]n-ah “to breathe, respire, live” Proto-Nostratic > *?h[e|a]nHh- “to breathe, respire, live” Proto-IndoEuropean 'nh “to live; life, living persons” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic 'nhy “a living being” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic *an&R “to breathe out” Proto-Eskimo IENH 558: *n[i|e]r- “to be strong, manly, virile” Proto-Nostratic > *ner- “to be strong, manly, virile; (n.) man, hero” Proto-IndoEuropean nr “to be strong, mighty” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic nrw “power, strength, victory” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic ner “prince” Sumerian SIG, IESSG, VISW *A-n- “breathe” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *an- “to breathe, blow” Proto-IndoEuropean uz-anan “breathe one's last” Gothic anemos part. “wind” Greek anima “breath, wind, life, soul” Latin animus “soul” Latin animal “animate being, animal” Latin ond “breath, soul” Old Norse anda “breathe” Old Norse andi “breath, spirit” Old Norse extended with -H- or, half redupl., -A- ána: (= Proto-Semitictic A-n-H- ?) áni-ti “breathes” Sanskrit ánila- “wind” Sanskrit extended with -p- or -w- > PIE -w- *A-n-p (probably) *Aánap intr. ánu “man” Sanskrit *Aanáp *n-w- nó(w)os Greek extended with -d- and s-preformative snutrs “wise” Gothic snutrei “wisdom” Gothic snùki-s “snout” Lithuanian with broken redupl. *n-p-n-p- > *p-n-p- Pre-IndoEuropean *pn-w- IndoEuropeam pnéwo: Greek pneûma “spirit” Greek with -n- > -l- between labials pleúmo:n Greek extended with -s- *pn-ws- Pre-IndoEuropean fnéosan “sneeze” Old English fniezen “sneeze” Dutch extended with -H- *pn-wH- Pre-IndoEuropean pe-pno:-mai “am wise” Greek extended with -H- and with s-preformative *sn-wH- > *snu:- Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -d- snu:te “snout” Middle Low German snu:den “pant, snore” Old High German snu:den “pant, snore” Middle High German sny:ta “blow one's nose” Old Norse snu:zen “blow one's nose” Old High German extended with -s- *nw-s- niosan “sneeze” Old High German with s-preformative sne:sen “sneeze” Old English sneeze English nyuxa-ti “snuffle, smell” Russian sniuchac´ “snuffle” Polish njus^iti “snuffle” Serbian nuster “(snuffling) nostrils” Low German nusteren “(snuffling) nostrils” Middle Low German nüstern “(snuffling) nostrils” German nüstern “stick your nose into something, snuffle” German extended with -ks- bi-niuhsjan “investigate” Gothic ny:sa “snuffle, investigate” Old Norse ne:osan “investigate etc.” Old English njo:sn “investigatio, information” Old Norse nys “information” Swedish, Danish *n-w- Semitic extended with -y- nawa: “he intended, purposed, aimed at (-hu it)” Arabic nawa:N “intention” Arabic extended with -s- *A-n-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *'anás- Proto-IndoEuropean násate: med. “associates himself with” Sanskrit with sam + instr. “come together in friendship, come together in love (with... espec. of man and wife)” Sanskrit whence perhaps ásta-m “abode, home” Sanskrit 'anisa perf. intr. “he was (became) sociable, inclined to company, friendly or familiar (bi-hi, by his company or presence)” Arabic III “entered or maintained friendship, was courteous, urbane” Arabic *'a'nasa > 'a:nasa IV “he gladdened (-hu him) by his company or presence, he behaved in a sociable or familiar manner (with him)” Arabic 'unsuN “sociableness, inclination to company, friendliness, socialness, familiarity”, “companionship or familiarity with women, amatory conversation and conduct” Arabic 'insuN “a chosen or particular friend or companion” Arabic 'anasuN “a tribe staying, residing, dwelling, the people of a place of alighting or abode, a numerous company of men”, “one with whom one is sociable” Arabic 'ani:suN “a sociable, companionable, familiar person, one with whom one is sociable” Arabic al-'ani:satuN “the fire” (= “the familiar element of the hearth”) Arabic *an-s- extended with l *ansl- (h)a:la:re “emit vapor, be fragrant” Latin an(h)e:la:re “pant, gasp” Latin *n-s- nosu “nose” Old English nose “nose” Old Friesian *A-n-s- Semitic extended with fourth consonant > *n-s- Semitic extended with -m- nasama “breathed lightly” Arabic V “breathed out, died” Arabic II caus “brought back to life” Arabic “breathe forcefully” Hebrew na:s^am “breathe” New Hebrew n&s^am “breathed, blew, lived, exhaled” Syrian n&s^am pa. “breathe deeply” Jewish Aramaic nasamuN “breath, soul” Arabic nasamatuN “soul” Arabic n&s^a:ma: “breath of life” Hebrew n&s^amþå: “soul” Syrian nis^ma: “breath of life” Biblical Aramaic nasi:muN “light wind” Arabic nås^omå: “(dog's) mouth” Syrian ma(s^)s^omiþå: “nostrils” Syrian extended with -p- : -P.- > Semitic -p- : -b- na:s^aP “breathed, blew” Hebrew n&s^aP “breathed, blew” Jewish Aramaic na:s^aB “blow” Hebrew n&s^aB “blow” Jewish Aramaic nas^abu “blow (away)” Assyrian n&s^aBå: “breath, breeze” Syrian mas^(s^&)Bå “breath, wind” Syrian 'a-nsaba “blew forcefully” Arabic metathesis *n-A-s- >? *na:s- “nose” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic ná:sa: dual “nose” Sanskrit na:h “nose” Avestan na:h “nose” Old Persian na:sus “nose” Latin na:res pl. “nostrils, nose” Latin no:sis “nose” Lithuanian nasá: “nose” Sanskrit nasa “nose” Old High German nasu “nose” Old English nosU “nose” Old Church Slavonian Alternative forms *A.-n-S.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic extended with r (relativity = comparative) suffix anthr-(o:pos) Greek *s.r-, *s.-r > *dhr-, *dh-r- Proto-IndoEuropean [ compare (*-s- : *-S.-) *-dhr- < *-s.r- in *lewdhero-s > Proto-IndoEuropean (e)leutheros Greek *lowdhero-s > Proto-IndoEuropean *lowfero > Italic li:ber “free person, child” Latin versus *-s- in *lw-s- > -liusan, laus Gothic and *kadh&ró-s > Proto-IndoEuropean katharó-s “pure” Greek versus *kas- > Proto-IndoEuropean castus “pure” Latin ] *A.anáS.- Pre-IndoEuropean *nr- na:, nom. naram, acc. “man” Sanskrit *A.ánaS.- Pre-IndoEuropean *anr- ané:r, andr- “man” Greek : *A-n-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *A-n-s- Proto-Semittic 'ana:s^im pl. “men” Hebrew 'æno:s^ “humanity” Biblical Aramaic (')nås^å “man”, coll. “men” Syrian na:suN “man”, coll. “men” Arabic 'insuN “human race” Arabic nis^e:, pl. “people” Assyrian te:nis^e:t, stat. constr. “men, humanity” Assyrian extended with th (< feminine -t-) *A-n-th- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic 'untha: “woman” Arabic 'anst “woman” Ethiopian as^s^atu “woman” Assyrian altu (< as^tu) “woman” Assyrian 'is^s^a: “woman” Hebrew 'ittetha: “woman” Aramaic 'at(t)tå: “woman” Syrian *'-n- “breathe” Proto-Semitic single redupl. *'-n-n- “breathe loudly > sigh” Proto-Semitic 'anna “he uttered a moan or prolonged voice of complaint, (the bow) made a gentle and prolonged sound” Arabic extended with -H- *A-n-H- (= Proto-IndoEuropean ána- ?) 'anaHa “he breathed hard or violently, uttered a long or violent sigh” Arabic 'a:niHuN “breathing hard or violently” Arabic 'unu:HuN “a sound that is heard from a man's inside with breathing, shortness of breath or panting for breath” Arabic '-n-H niph. “moaned, groaned” Hebrew 'enaH “moaned, groaned” Syrian 'ana:Ha: “moan, groan” Hebrew 'enaHþå: “moan, groan” Syrian extended with -X- a:naX “coughed, sobbed” Assyrian (pret. 1st sing.) extended with -k.- *A-n-k.- Pre-Semitic 'a:nak. “pant” Hebrew 'enak.þå: “a groan” Syriac metathesis *n-A-k.- Pre-Semitic na:'ak. “pant, groan” Hebrew extended with -p- *A-n-p- Pre-Semitic *'anp- Semitic 'anfuN “nose, sense of smelling” Arabic dual. “nostrils” Arabic 'anf “nose” Ethiopian plur. “nostrils” Ethiopian appu “nose” Assyrian 'app-, aP- “nose” Hebrew dual. “nostrils” Hebrew 'appu “nose” Jewish Aramaic n-f- “breath” Egyptian nif “breath” Coptic extended with -y- n-f-y- “breathe” Egyptian nife “breathe” Coptic extended with -s- *A-n-p-s- > *nàps- Semitic nafasuN “spirit” Arabic nafsuN “spirit, soul > self” Arabic nafs “wind, spirit, soul, character” Ethiopian nafsa “breathe, blow” Ethiopian napa:s^u “breathe” Assyrian næ`Pæs^ “breath, soul, living creature, self” Hebrew naps^å: “breath, soul, living creature, self” Syrian napis^tu “breath, life, living creature, person” Assyrian extended with -X- *n-p-X- “breathe, blow” Semitic napa:Xu “blow (on fire), kindle” Assyrian whence nappaXu “smith” Assyrian nafaXa “blew, inflated” Arabic nafXa “breathed, blew” Ethiopian extended with -H- nafHatuN “breath, odor” Arabic nafaHa “gave off an odor” Arabic extended with -t- : -t.- nafata “(the pot) bubbled, boiled vehemently” Arabic nafat.a “sneezed, boiled, seethed” Arabic extended with -T- nafaTa “blew, puffed, inspired” Arabic VISW: *A-n-k- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ang- Proto-IndoEuropean angelos “messenger, emissary” Greek angéllo: “am messenger, bring a message, announce” Greek angaros “Persian messenger on horseback” Persian, in Greek angaron pûr “signal fire” Greek ángira:s pl. “beings between Gods and humans as mediators between both” Sanskrit *A-l-k- (n > l before k as in Proto-AfroAsiatic h-l-k- vs Proto-IndoEuropean k-ng- “walk”) Proto-AfroAsiatic 'alaka “he acted as a messenger (bayna-l-kawni, between the people), he conveyed, communicated a message (-hu, to him), he sent” Arabic 'alu:kuN “a message or communication, a messenger” Arabic 'alu:katuN, ma'lakatuN, ma'lukuN, ma'lukatuN “a message, mission, dispatch” Arabic *l-A-k- with metathesis la'aka perf. “send as an envoy, send a message” Ethiopian la:'k “minister, attendant” Ethiopian mal'a:kh “messenger, messenger from God (angel, prophet)” Hebrew mel'a:kha: “work, profession” Hebrew ml'kt “work, profession” Phoenician EIEC *H2énH1mi “breathe” uz-anan “breathe one's last” Gothic ániti “breathes” Sanskrit ana:sk- “breathe, inhale” TokharianB *H1eH1tmén- “breath” æ:Dm “breath” Old English a:tum “breath” Old High German a:tmán- “breath, soul” Sanskrit a:ñcám “self, soul” TokharianA a:ñme “self, soul” TokharianB both < *antmen- from this and the next etymon *H2énH1mos “breath” animus “spirit, wind” Latin anemos “wind” Greek *honm > holm “wind” Armenian perhaps *anila- anila “wind” Sanskrit *H2enH1-tlo- (Celt.) ana:l “breath” Old Irish anadl “breath” Welsh IEW *ansu-, *nsu- “ghost, demon” ásu- “breath, world” Sanskrit anghu- “breath, world” Avestan ásu-ra- “ruler” Sanskrit ahura “ruler” Avestan ahsu- (= a:su) “cult image” Venetic *ansuz “god” Germanic a:ss “god” Old Norse a[n]suz “god” Runes o:s “god” Old English anses “demigods” Gothic Latin from an- “breathe”? EIEC *H2énr “(manly) strength, vitality” Proto-IndoEuropean derivatives na:r “noble, great-hearted” Old Irish nóras “will” Lithuanian *H1en-H2noró- “having (manly) strength within” Proto-IndoEuropean innara: “violently” Hittite innarahh- “make strong” Hittite innarawant- “strong, forceful; sexually potent” Hittite annara/i- “forceful, virile” Luvian *H2nér (gen. *H2nrós) “man, person” Proto-IndoEuropean ne:r “hero” Welsh ner- “chief” Umbrian ner- “chief” Oscan njeri “person” Albanian anér (gen. andrós) “man” Greek ayr (gen. arn) “man, person” Armenian anar “man” Phrygian nar- “man, person” Avestan næl “man” Ossetic nár- “man, person” Sanskrit derivatives: nert “strength, power” Old Indic nerth “manliness, courage, army” Welsh nerio:sus “firm” Latin nertien “anger” Old Prussian nóras “will” Latvian nrtú- “hero” Sanskrit *su-H2nr-tós “provided with vital energy” > sonairt (so + nert) “brave, strong” Old Irish hynerth “brave, strong” Welsh su:nrta:- “exultation” Sanskrit HSED 1865: *nif- “smell, breathe” *nVpah.- “smell”(intr.) Semitic nfh.[-a-] “smell”(intr.) Arabic nifx “smell”(intr.) Jibbali nafah. “smell”(intr.) Soqotri Secondary formation based on *nap-? nfy “breathe” Egyptian (new) *nif- “breathe, smell” Central Chadic nip “breathe, smell” Daba n&p “breathe, smell” Musgoy For the semantic development, cf. c'houez “smell” and “breath” Breton HSED 1828: *naf- “breath” nf “breath” Egyptian (New Kingdom) *naf- Saho-Afar naf “breath, soul” Saho neef “face” Afar *naf- Lowland East Cushitic naf, neef “breath, soul” Somali nafa “body” Arbore Related to HSED 1865 *nif- “smell, breathe”. HSED 1830: *nafus- “breath” *naps^- “breath, soul” Semitic napis^tu “breath, soul” Akkadian nps^ “breath, soul” Ugaritic nepes^ “breath, soul” Hebrew naps^a: “breath, soul” Aramaic(Syrian) nafs- “breath, soul” Arabic nafs “breath, soul” Ge'ez nefeset “breath, soul” Harsusi nefese:t “breath, soul” Mehri nefset “breath, soul” S^h.eri *nVfas- “breath” Berber u-nfas “breath” Ahaggar Metathesis of vowels. *nufas- “breath” West Chadic numfa:s^i:, lumfa:s^i: “breath” Hausa lafwos, lufwos “breath” Sha Secondary nasal infix in Hausa and dissimilation of *n- in Sha. Metathesis of vowels. *na[f]us- “soul” Central Chadic nawus& “soul” Logone A widely attested semantic pattern, cf. anima “breath” and “soul” Latin *nafVs- “breathing” Saho-Afar nafse “breathing” Saho Metathesis of vowels explained by the influence of verbal forms. Derived from HSED 1828 *naf- “breath”. Related to HSED 1882 *nufas-. Cf. also *nVs^Vp- “blow” Semitic nas^a:pu “blow” Akkadian ns^p “blow” Hebrew ns^p “blow” Aramaic ns^p “breathe” Egytian (Greek papyri) if these are not derived from *sip- “blow”. HSED 1882: *nufas- “blow, breathe” *nVpVs^ “blow, breathe” Semitic napa:s^u “blow, breathe” Akkadian nefos^ “blow, breathe” Soqotri *nufas- “breathe” West Chadic numfa:sa, lumfasa: “breathe” Hausa nafos “breathe” Dafo-Butura nos “breathe” Kulere lufwos “breathe” Sha *nVfVs- “blow” Agaw nefes-&ng “blow” Aungi HSED 1829: *nafar- “man” *napr- “man, group of men” Semitic nafr- “man, group of men” Arabic *nafar- “man” West Chadic naafara “man” Dafo-Butura Derived from *naf- “man, person” West Chadic na:f “man, person” Dafo-Butura na:fu “man, person” Gulfey preserve only in West Chadic. Cf. also neepe “first born child” Pero TP: anore “wind” Greenlandic anorak “wind jacket” Greenlandic EHWL ase “breath, wind, soul” Etruscan asi “inspiration, spirit, wind” Etruscan ais “god” Etruscan NS 37: *Hinx.V “breathe” Proto-Nostratic *?inV “live, life” Proto-Altaic *HwEnHV “blood; breath, soul” Sino-Caucasian *(s)-CWij “blood, breath” Sino-Tibetan hwenHV “blood” North Caucasian CAD: *asug “transvestite shaman” Proto-Hesperonesian *qanito “spirit” Proto-Austronesian *hán,es “breathe, gasp” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *hán,in “wind, air” Proto-MalayoPolynesian } ani “gentle breeze” Hawai'i ani-ani “blow gently” Hawai'i angi “breeze” Mangar. angi “to blow” Samoa, Tonga, Maori angi “air” Nias anin “air” Teor. anghin “air, wind” Malagasy ani-ani “spirit” Igorot ani-to “spirit” common Western Austronesian h-angin “air” Philippines h-ingin- “breath” Philippines aniangi- “to live” E. Tanna es- “to live, life” Mota, Vatrata, Sasar Nume, Koro, Lakona aho-roa- “long-lived” Tuamotu aho- “breath, spirit” Hawai'i, Tahiti, Marquesas aho- “to breathe” Tuamotu ao- “breath” Rarotonga osi- “breath” Arosi naren- “man” Avok naeren- “man” Axamb nrenman- “man” Maxbaxa ner-ner- “man” Mae nat-u “child, offspring” Oceanic ka-naka- “man, people” Hawai'i ta-nata- “man, people” Polynesia a-nak- “child, offspring” common Malay za-nak- “child” Malagasy nitu- “spirit” Proto-Austronesian anito- “spirit, soul, particularly spirit of deceased ancestor, god” Philippines mera- “man” Tutuba naru- “child, offspring” Nul, Fila Koara nera- “child” Lenakel nare- “child” Kwamera narmang- “person” Yimes noranan- “person” Chambr nur- “person” Murik naura- “person” N. Halmehera “self”* atman “self, soul, intelligence, a person” Sanskrit atta “atman, conscience” Pali { VMPSIE: (h)âti “heart” Malay, Javanese ati “heart” Bugis âtma(n) “soul” Sanskrit ate, aten, atine “liver” Madagascar atine cacazou “le coeur d'un arbre” Madagascar (Challan) aten atouli “moyen d'oeuf” Madagascar (Flacourt) aen “heart” Madagascar } atamai “mind” Anutan atamai “intelligence, wisdom” Samoa atamai “skill, ability” Nanumea ataman “man, person” Vowa etmen “person” N. Tanna atmen “man” Mosina ateman “person” Mae-Morae ata “person” Ngad'a, Li'o, Sika, Solor ata “reflected image, outline, spirit” Samoa ata “shadow, reflection, representation of self” Nanumea atam? “head, intelligence” Japanese aken “intelligence” Buru aka “shadow, figure, outline” Hawai'i ako,aku “I” common Austronesian atin/akin “our/my” Philippines, Indonesia In decorations on Hallstatt artefacts, you often find images of a duck. Because of the similarity of the words, I thought this might stand for the (released) soul. Strangely enough, this simlarity exists in Austronesian too. CAD: xanaxana “duck” Tsou ganagana id. Malagasy Merina gain,gwan, id. Yabem l-ainema “water hen” Mekeo aran,a “duck” Lau a?alan,a id. Kwaio iaren, id. Kwamera ãõt “wild duck” Nemi w.ôni “duck” Cèmuhî niã “wild duck” Xârâcùù n,o:n,o: “duck” Woleaian n,a: id. Eastern Fijian n,a: id. Western Fijian DSDE: and “duck” Danish, Norwegian, Swedish o,nd f. id. Old Norse ant id. Middle Low German anut, anat, anit id. Old High German Ente f. id. German ænid, ened id. Old English *anuð, *anað, *anið id. Proto-Germanic an&t id. Proto-IndoEuropean anas f. , ana:tis gen. id. Latin ántis id. Lithuanian utovI acc. id. Old Rusian a:tih. “waterfowl” Sanskrit ne~:ssa f. “duck” Greek Many are feminines. Any connection with this root? WORD: an-us, -a, -um “old (of feminine persons and things), aged” Latin or this? CELR VIII 301: *'an- “swim” East Chadic h_ny id. Egyptian cf. ECIUS 23: *g^han-, *g^hanad-, *g^hanud- Proto-IndoEuropean *ganat-, *ganut- Proto-Germanic ganazzo, ganizo, ganezo, ganzo “gander” Old High German gante id. Middle High German *g^hans- “goose” Proto-IndoEuropean loaned into d'z´ad'z´eg, d'z´az´eg id. Votyak d'z´od'z´eg id. Zyryan *z^ansi- id. Proto-Baltic loaned into *s^ans^e > hanhi id. Finnish Ducks in the other direction: PCALLE 71: gal\ge “duck” Proto-ChukchiKoryakan Almosan-Keresiouan: kelok “goose” Yurok *wa:pi- ki:la:hkwa “snow goose” Proto-Algonquian Salishan: s-kWl-kWél-c “loon; long-necked diver” Squamish janata “humankind, people”, Sanskrit, also janah “people” janaka “father” jani “mother” gna “divine wife, woman” Sanskrit { IENH 275: *k'[a|&]n- “to get, acquire, possess, create” Proto-Nostratic > *k'(e|o)n- “to beget” Proto-IndoEuropean *k'[a|&]n- “to get, acquire, possess, create” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kan- “to bear or bring forth, beget, bear children; (n.) young of various animals, young child” Proto-Dravidian gan “to bear, bring forth, give birth to” Sumerian IENH 347: *k'w[a|&]n- “to suckle, nurse, suck” Proto-Nostratic > *kwen-[e|a]- (> *k'wena:) “woman, wife, female” Proto-IndoEuropean *kw[a|&]n- “to suckle, nurse, suck” Proto-AfroAsiatic *konk- “woman's breast” Proto-Kartvelian SIG, VISW: *G-n- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *g-n- Proto-IndoEuropean zan- Avestan e-géne-to, aorist Greek jánati “gives birth to” Sanskrit genunt 3rd pl. “give birth to” Old Latin -to, participle e-genó-me:n Greek chind “child” Old High German kind “child” Old Low German redupl. present gigno: “give birth to” Latin gignomai “give birth to” Greek extended with -A- in *génâ- Proto-IndoEuropean jani- (-ta:, -tri:, -tra, -ma) Sanskrit geni- (-tor, -trix) Latin and in *gne:- Proto-IndoEuropean -guntos Greek o-grade *gno:- Proto-IndoEuropean kno:ds “genus” Gothic gno:tós “brother” Greek gno:té: “sister” Greek reduced gn:- (< gnA-) (g)na:tus “born” Latin (g)na:ta “daughter, child” Latin natio Latin extended with -y- Proto-IndoEuropean *gnyo-m > kuni “kin” Gothic kyn “kin” Old English genius Latin (lectus) genia:lis “nuptial (bed)” Latin *Z.1-n- Proto-AfroAsiatic *d.-n-` Arabic extended with -A- Proto-AfroAsiatic d.ana'a “it multiplied” (of cattle) Arabic d.ana'at f. “she brought forth, she was fruitful” Arabic d.in'uN “origin, root, race” Arabic d.an'uN “offspring, children” Arabic d.a:ni'uN (of cattle) “having numerous offspring” Arabic d.a:ni'atuN (of woman) “fertile” Arabic extended with -w- d.-n-w- (of woman) Arabic infixed with (presumably the same) -w- d.-w-n- (of man) d.a:na perf. “had copious offspring” Arabic extended with -s- *G.1-n-s- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *g1énos Proto-IndoEuropean jánas “what is born” Sanskrit génos “what is born” Greek génus n. “what is born” Latin Z.-n-s- “be with child, pregnant” Proto-AfroAsiatic z.-n.s, z.ansa perf. “conceive, have conceived, be (become) pregnant” 'a-z.nasa II 1 “make pregnant” ta-z.ansa III 1 “be conceived” z.enu:s part. z.enst f. “pregnant” Arabic zinnis^-tu (s partially written z) “femina; womanhood” Assyrian zikru u sinnis^ “male and female” Assyrian : *g-n- Proto-AfroAsiatic > *z-n- Proto-AfroAsiatic *z-n-y- z-n-y- pa. “consorted with harlots” Aramaic z-n-y- pa. “consorted with harlots” Syriac z-n-y- “consorted with harlots” Arabic z-n-w-, z-m-w- (n > m before w) “commit adultery” Ethiopian za:na: (of woman) “commit adultery” Hebrew zana: “he committed fornication or adultery” (bi-ha:, “with her”) Arabic zinan “fornication, adultery” Arabic zenyat “shedding of semen” Ethiopian zånithå: “harlot, prostitute” Syriac zon(n)åyå: “fornicator” Syriac za:nin, participle “fornicator, adulterer” Arabic za:niyatuN f. “fornicatress, adultress” Arabic EIEC *gwenH2 (gen. *gwnéH2s) “woman” ben (gen. mna:) “woman, wife” Old Irish *gweneH3-n- cwene “woman, female serf, prostitute” Old English quean English quena “wife” Old High German qino: “wife” Gothic genna “wife” Old Prussian z^ená “wife” Old Church Slavonian guné “woman” Greek kin “wife” Armenian wanatti/unatti “women” Luvian gna: “wife of a god” Avestan g&na:-/jna:- “woman, wife” Avestan jaini- “woman” Avestan zan “woman” New Persian gná:- “goddess, divine female” Sanskrit jáni- “woman, wife” Sanskrit *gwen-eH2 säm “woman” TokharianA sana “woman” TokharianB gwe:ni-, lengthened grade : kvæn “wife” Old Norse cwe:n “woman; wife, consort” Old English queen English qe:ns “wife” Gothic ja:ni “wife” Avestan já:ni “wife” Sanskrit *gwnH2-H1en- with dissmilation of l..n > n..n kwli “woman” TokharianA kliye “woman” TokharianB gnata “daughter, girl” Latin gna-scor “be born, spring forth” Latin EIEC *genH1es- “family” genus “family” Latin génos “family” Greek cin “birth” Armenian jánas- “family” Sanskrit HSED 647: *dan- “family” dn.w.t “family” Egyptian (XVIII dynasty) *dan-H-/Ha-dan- “family, clan, people” West Chadic dangi “family, clan, people” Hausa dang “family, clan, people” Sura deng “family, clan, people” Angas Originally, *Ha- is a prefix. Cf. also *dan-H- “twins” Rift dangi “twins” Iraqw RCLF 42: *ken- “be born, young” Proto-IndoEuropean *kan- “give birth” Proto-Dravidian NS 60: *küni “wife, woman” Proto-Nostratic *qwEnV “woman” Sino-Caucasian *qVm- (~ x.-) Proto-Yeniseian *q(w)änV North Caucasian } (j > t > k > h > w) (n > m) kanaka- “man, humankind” Hawai'i tanata- “man, humankind” S. Polynesian zanaka “children, offspring” Malagasy hamata- “humankind” Siusauru kanau- “offspring” Efate janau- “man, male, humankind” Halmahera janawoe- “man, humankind” Galela anai- “child” Buru, Bank's Island ana- “man” Yava, Kaowerawedj Samarokena, Saberi Bank's Is. wana- “child” Niala hana- “child” Ngad'a qanak- “offspring, child” Kapampangan qungad- “offspring, child” Isneg qanake- “offspring, child” Tinguian dakanak- “offspring, children” Sambal anak- “children, offspring” West Austronesian natu “child, offspring” Indonesia, Proto-Oceanic nat- “person” Kehali, Lehalurup, Eton naat- “person” Bonga net- “person” Motlav nae- “person” Woraviu tanuN “person” Mota, Meralava tinoni- “man” Vaturana, Florida Duke of York tane- “man, mankind” Aniwa, Futuna, Fila tanun- “mankind” Bank's Is. kane- “man, mankind” Hawai'i jame- “man, male” Ekagi, Kaupaku tene- “child” Nengone -jin?- “human, people suffix” Japanese geme “temple prostitute” Sumerian geni- “woman” Lau, Kwaio keni- “female, woman” Are'are ginang “married woman or widow” Tagalog gining “lady, elder woman of dignity” Tagalog geni- “wife, woman” Proto-Malaitan keni- “wife, woman” Saa, Ulawa ke-keni- “wife, woman” Mota a-gen- “wife” Dumut a-gan- “wife” Awyu gam=e- “widow” Pisa gamtu- “wife” Lakona *m-d- “Tree (pole) at middle of the world, middle of the world, order of the world” from IELS: *med- In historical times the root *med- designated a great variety of different things: “govern”, “think”, “care for”, “measure”. The primary meaning cannot be determined simply by reducing all these to a vague common denominator or by a confused agglomeration of the historically attested forms. It can be defined as “measure” not “measurement”, but “moderation” (Lat. modus, modestus), designed to restore order in a sick body (Lat. medeor “care for”, medicus), in the universe (Hom. Zeùs (Idèthen) medéo:n “Zeus the moderator”), in human affairs, incuding the most serious like war, or everyday things like a meal. Finally, the man who knows the médea (Hom. mé:dea eidó:s) is not a thinker, a philosopher, he is one of those "chiefs and moderators" (Hom. hégé:tores e:dè médontes) who in every circumstance know how to take the tried and tested measures which are necessary. *Med-, therefore, belongs to the same register of terms as ius and díke: : it is the established rule, not of justice but of order, which it is the function of the magistrate to formulate: Osc. med-diss (cf. iu-dex). mut “to break, crush” Sanskrit also math, manth “churn, crush, destroy”, and mota-ka “crushing, breaking, destruction, strangulation” matha “churning-stick” Sanskrit, also manthan “fire-stick” mit “post, pillar” mahina? “month” Hindi, also masa “month” Sanskrit { IENH 408: *m[i|e]H- “to measure, mark off” Proto-Nostratic > *m[i|e]Hh- (> *me:-) “to measure, mark off” Proto-IndoEuropean mh Egyptian, AfroAsiatic IENH 527: *m[a|&]t'- “to stretch, expand, lengthen, draw out, measure out” Proto-Nostratic > *m[e|o]t'- “to measure, measure out, estimate” Proto-IndoEuropean mat'- “to augment, increase” Georgian, Kartvelian *m[a|&]t- “to stretch, expand, to lengthen, to draw out, measure out” Proto-AfroAsiatic *mede- “to know, perceive, understand” Proto-Altaic IENH 517: *m[a|&]-t[h]- “middle, in the middle of, with, among” Proto-Nostratic > *met[h]- “middle, in the middle of, with, among” Proto-IndoEuropean *m[a|&]t[h]- “middle, in the middle of” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, IESSG, VISW *A-m- “measure” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic extended with -Á-, half redupl. *me:- trans. “measure” Proto-IndoEuropean má:ti “measures” Sanskrit má:tram “measure” Sanskrit me:-tior “measure” Latin me:ra: “measure” Old Church Slavonic me:la m. “bushel” Gothic '-m- “measure” Arabic single redupl. '-m-m- “aim at” Arabic ammatu “ell” Assyrian 'amma: “ell” Hebrew 'am(me)tha “ell” Syrian 'em(m)at “ell” Ethiopian *A-m-d- “end” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semittic *énto-s or *ánto-s Proto-IndoEuropean ánta- m. “end” Sanskrit ántya- “last” Sanskrit ánta-má “the last one” Sanskrit andeis “end” Gothic enti “end” Old High German To Sanskr. ánda- as high tone word corresponds exactly 'amaduN “terminus, finis; the utmost (extreme) term, limit, point or reach, each of the two terms of the life (of a man, i.e. the time of his birth and the time of his death), time considered with regard to its end, starting place, goal” Arabic (balaya) 'amadu-hu “(he reached, attained) his utmost or extreme extent, term” Arabic From the point of view of Proto-IndoEuropean (with the third radical d > t being that of the participle) the word must be considered as participle of *A-m- [above] whence, extended *A-m-t- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *'amát- 'amata “he measured” Arabic *med- IndoEuropean Alternating forms: *m-d- “measure” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic reduplicated m-d-d- “measure” Assyrian m-d-d- “measure” Hebrew midda: “measure” n. Hebrew mudduN, mida:duN pl. “a certain measure of dry land” Arabic muddatuN “distance (spatial or temporal)” Arabic : *m-D.- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *m-d- Proto-IndoEuropean mitan “measure” Gothic metan “measure” Old English mizzan “measure” Old High German médomai “I measure” Greek médimnos “measure for grain” Greek *med-tro-m > mettron > métron “measure” n. Greek modus “measure” n. Latin modius “peck, a Roman dry measure” Latin But *m-d- “measure” Proto-IndoEuropean may derive from *(A-)m-t- “measure” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *A1-m- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic ìm- prep. “in, inter” Egyptian whence ìmwty “between, midst” Egyptian (pyramids) mtt “center” Egyptian mite “center” Coptic mtr t “noon” Egyptian meere “noon” Coptic extended with t > T. > Proto-IndoEuropean dh *médhyò-s Proto-IndoEuropean mádhja-s Sanskrit méssos, mésos Greek medius “middle” Latin miðr “middle” Old Norse midjis “moddle” Gothic mitti “middle” Old High German extended with d > Proto-IndoEuropean t méta, metà “midst, among” Greek miþ “midst, among” Gothic *m-t- Semitic extended with (originally suffixal) -n- matnuN “the middle, the middle part of a bow, a spear, a sword, a road” Arabic extended with the comparative suffix t-r- (or, rather, with the same t- and the comparative suffix r-) *mter Proto-IndoEuropean antár “between” Sanskrit inter “midst, between” Latin unter “among” Old High German [ Not to be confused with the comparative of *A1-n “in” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic éni “in” Greek namely *nter Proto-IndoEuropean *ntéro, *ntré “inner, more inward” Proto-IndoEuropean intra: Latin interior Latin intimus, sup. Latin and with *ndher- Proto-IndoEuropean under “underneath” Gothic unter “underneath” Old High German infra: Latin inferior Latin untarn “noon” Old High German *undaurus “noon” Gothic undaurni-mats “noon meal” Gothic ] PIEL matan “on, before” Etruscan meta Proto-Indo-European meta Greek miþ Gothic EIEC *mentH2- “stir” (pres. *mntneH2- / *mntmH2ie/o-) mondull “handle on a pestle” Old Norse mêsti “stir, agitate” Lithuanian mêsti “disturb, molest” Old Church Slavonian motati sê “be agitated” Old Church Slavonian motáti “wind, shake, vanish” Russian *mntneH2- mathna:- Sanskrit mäntänä- Tokharian *mntnH2ye/o- matháyati Sanskrit mäntäññ- Tokharian mánthati mathnáti matháyati “stirs, whirls, churns; hurts, destroys” Sanskrit mänt- “remove (utterly) from its place, destroy; pour out; disturb, meddle with; fall into misfortune, be irritated, feel malice” TokharianAB *míts gen. *mitós “stake, post” *mit-ustu- methas “boundary marker” Middle Irish *moito- meið-r “post, border, boundary” Old Norse SBV: meju : mèju : miet “knock in a pole” Latvian ICSDIE: húntrú “lower” Oscan hondomu “from the lowest” Umbrian hondra “infra” Umbrian PIEL: hintha, hinthu, hinthin “under” Etruscan *ndhos, *ndheri Proto-Indo-European adhas Sanskrit ette Tocharian B inferus Latin anda Hittite HB: ondo “bottom, side” Basque (h)ondar “remains; beach, sand” Basque ondoren (ondo + gen.?) “after” Basque (ibaiondo “riverbank” Basque) EWBS: basa “sieve” Basque mase “sieve” Basque maso “club” Basque maso “soft, tender, fresh” Basque AHDIE: *bhes- “rub” Proto-IndoEuropean 1. Zero grade with unclear suffix *(bh)s-amadho “sand” Proto-IndoEuropean psamathos id. Greek *sam(a)dam), *sandam id. Proto-Germanic sand English 2. Suffixed form *(bh)s-abh- Proto-IndoEuropean further suffixed sabulum “sand” Latin 3. Suffixed form *bhs-a:- Proto-IndoEuropean pse:n “rub, scrape” Greek pse:phos “ballot, pebble” Greek TP: Note the 'unclear suffix' in 1. The suffix in 2. looks like a postposition too. TP: *bhs-e:na “sand” PIE? Substrate? NCGGL: (h)are:na “sand” Latin fase:na id. Sabine (Varro) DV: “tree, pole, gallows” The tree that Odin hung from for nine days, commonly identified with the world tree, Yggdrasil. AEDL 41 maddan “wood” Wiradyuri , Australian maddan “wood” Wongaibon , Australian madan “wood” Waliwun , Australian mada “wood” NWBundiyil, Australian *mutt- “log of wood” Proto-Dravidian ROR 19: *mo-dun “tree” Proto-Mongolian > modun “tree” Middle Mongolian *mo: “tree” Proto-Tungus-Manchu > moo “tree” Literary Manchu cf. *mo:i(h), *mòró “forest” Korean *m&´rí id. Proto-Japanese > mori id. Japanese EIEC mietas “post” Lithuanian miets “post” Latvian moyt “pillar” Armenian mit “something erected, pillar, post” Sanskrit methi “pillar” Sanskrit *mei-, the underlying verb : meju “drive in a stake” Latvian minóti “fixes, fastens in the ground, sets up” Sanskrit me:ta “pyramid structure, boundary stone” Latin HSED 1750 *mawat-/*mayat- “tree” *mVt- “baobab” Central Chadic m&te Higi Nkafa mate Higi Ghye m&d- Higi Futu cf. mude Higi Nkafa *mawat- “kind of tree” East Chadic moote Mokilko *mayat- > *me:t- “palm tree” Lowland East Cushitic meetii Oromo Consonantal alternation *-w- ~ *-y-. Probably related to *mut- “stick” HSED 1763 *meti? “spear” mt3y.t “spear” Egyptian (Book of the Dead) *myat East Chadic meta Bidiya HSED 1766 *mi?es- “tree” *mVHVs^- “kind of tree” Semitic me:su “kind of tree” Akkadian *mVHyas- > *myas- West Chadic mes “mahagony” Chip mes “locust-bean” Mupun *mVHyas- > *myas- Central Chadic mesa: “tamarind” Logone *mi?es Highland East Cushitic mi?eesaa “cedar” Bambala HSED 1768 *mi-`Vbal- “arrow, spear” *mi-`(V)bal- “arrow” Semitic mi`bal-at- “arrow” Arabic m`b3 “harpune” Egyptian (pyramids) Semitic loanword? *mubul > *umbul- West Chadic ?umbul “throw (a spear)” Bolewa Denominative verb HSED 1806 *mut- “stick” *mat- Semitic mate “stick, branch” Hebrew mdw “stick” Egyptian (Old Kingdom) TP maat “order of the world” Egyptian } motu- “to break” Nanumea, Samoa muka- “to begin to break” Nanumea mongo-mongo- “crushed, bruised, shattered” Maori magai- “to crush” Arosi makere- “broken” Arosi mota- “mortar for crushing areca nut” Saa, Ulawa, Arosi makasi- “to break to pieces” Saa, Ulawa makaka- “broken in pieces” Saa, Ulawa madou- “broken” Ulawa mek-mek- “to crush into small pieces” Bontok mug-mug- “softened by pounding, made painful by beating” Tagalog moto- “to strike” Samoa moko- “pound with fist” Hawai'i moto- “to punch” Rarotonga moto- “squeeze, compress” Marquesas “embrace” Fiji mata- “club” Ulawa, Wango manda- “club” Viti mada- “club” Wedau, Arosi mata- “stick” Tolomako, Malmariv Nonona, Navut Morouas, Akei Fortesenal Penantsiro mant- “stick” Roria, Nambel meta- “spear” Ambrym mtah- “spear” Motlav metah- “spear” Volow moto- “spear” Fiji matah- “spear” Ureparapara mata- “spear” Torres Is metomwa- “digging stick” Hiw TP: The pole at the center of the world? The churning stick with which the oceans were churned to milk? If yes: IEW *me-, m-e-t- “measure, divide, set up limits for” *me:-no- “measure” *me:-ti- “measure, wisdom” *me:-to- “year” mati, mimati “measures” Sanskrit ma- “measure” Avestan ma- “measure” Old Persian métron “measure” Greek *matio: > mat, mas “measure” Albanian medru “hit a goal, be able” Middle Welsh medr “skill” Middle Welsh mæ:ð “measure” Old English mæla “measure” Old Icelandic metõ, mesti “throw” Old Church Slavonian motáti “wind up” Slovenian mera “measure” Old Church Slavonian metit' “aim” Russian thumb as measure? *mo:-ta: > maut “thumb” Old Welsh meut “thumb” Middle Breton *medhi-, *medhio-, *medhu- “middle” mádhya- “middle” Sanskrit me:j “center” Armenian me:sos “middle” Greek (Att.) medius “in middle” Latin mid- “center” Old Irish mide “center” Middle Irish Mide Meath (central province out of five) Middle Irish midjis “middle” Gothic midjun-gards “world” Gothic middan-geard “world” Old English mez^da “road” < “border of field” Old Bulgarian mez^á “border (of field)” Russian mez^du (loc. du.) “between” Old Bulgarian median “forest, wood(mat.)” Old Prussian mez^s “forest, wood(mat.)” Latvian medz^ias “tree” Lituanian *med- “measure” *me:dos- “a measure” *med- “healer, doctor” *med-ti > masti “measuring” Sanskrit mit “thought, mind” Armenian médomai “consider” Greek médon “ruler” Greek meditor “think about” Latin modus “way, manner” Latin modestus “measured, modest” Latin modera:re “moderate” Latin modius “bushel” Latin mers “right, duty, law” Umbrian merstu “right, just” Umbrian *medo-dik's > med-diss “judge” Oscan midiur “consider, pass judgement” Old Irish airmed “measure” Old Irish mitan “measure” Gothic mezzan “measure” Old High German meta “estimate” ge-met “measuring” Old English vi:-mad “healer, physician” Avestan medeor “heal” Latin *med- “healer, physician” > medicus “healer, physician” Latin ET matam, matan “above, before” Etruscan PMA mahina- “month, moon” common Polynesian, also masina, mase masina- “month, moon” Makatea NMNW madja “a kind of tree with edible fruits, with two species, the common or sweet and the madja pahit or bitter. From this, the old Javanese kingdom Madjapahit got its name. Further it also occurs as name of other trees the fruits of which are used in medicine, among others madja-kani, madja Keling and madja lawai” PMA math “to kill, exterminate, destroy” Sanskrit mat- Eratap tau-mata- Li'o bau-mata- Sula Fagudu ka-mate- Sobojo, Kadai, Taliabu bus mat- Dorig, Wetamut bus mate- Mota los mate- Valpei naki-mateia- Akei, Penantsiro lous-mateia- Fortsenal pu-matay- Philippines mata, etc.- “dead” common Austronesian *m-l- “sweetness, honey” SLOIA *medh/melit “sweet, honey”: *medhu “sweet” IE is found in madhu “sweet, honey, mead” Ved. madhu Avest. mdhw “wine” Sogd. (cf. mel “wine, from grapes” Burushaski) mit “honey” Toch. B me'thu “wine” etc. Greek it has spread to *mese, mete Uralic mete Finnish me'z “honey” Hungarian mi < *miet Chin. mil Sino-Korean mitsu < *mit(u) Jpn. *madhu > Iran. bal “honey” Turkish, Mongolian mAdI? Arabic and to > mot “intoxicating drink” Toch. B --- From another source **melit, me'lit- Greek milit Hitt. mel, mell- Latin milith Gothic in Nostratic (Illich-Svitych, Opyt II, Moskva 1976 : 38sq.) both forms are united under *majLa > *majdh'a' Ural. maTT, miTT Drav. /m/ala, bala Altaic cf. also, still further afield, in Polynesia: meli Samoan mele, meli; mele, melemele “yellow” Hawaiian miere Maori melie “sweetness, sweet, delicious” Tongan meli “honey” Rarotongan mere “honey” Mangareva SAPGOW 45: *mayl\V “honey” Proto-Nostratic > Proto-IndoEuropean, Proto-Uralic, Proto-Dravidian, Proto-Altaic *me,n “honey” Proto-Ge *m-n- “spirit” manus “man, human” Sanskrit, also manawa “humans, mankind, boy” While many may feel this word is related to the English 'man', there are actually much fewer correspondences in sound between Indo-European and the Indic languages with this word. While mostly confined to a few Germanic languages in IE, it is far more spread out in Austric. Also, while it is possible that some of these cases *may* be borrowing from Indian languages, it is obvious that many languages were well beyond the known range of Hindu-Buddhist influence. Besides in semantics and phonology the Austric link is closer. { TP: Actually all the Germanic languages have the root man-(“man”), but it is true that in Indo-European, man- is confined to Indic and Germanic (and both language groups have coastlines). But consider this: Manup Austronesian legendary hero Austronesian Mánu Indic founder hero Sanskrit Manus-c^ithra Descendent of Manu Avestan Mananan MacLir (son of sea) Legendary navigator, gave his name to Isle of Man (FLIM) Celtic Mannus According to Tacitus, the father of the three brothers that were the founders of the three subdivisions of the Germanic peoples: Irmiones, Istvæones, Ingvæones. Germanic The father of Mannus is Twisto (= snake?) HKD: Manius John Doe, everyman Latin ET: man, mani “the dead” Etruscan Manes “the dead” Latin manin- “to offer to the Manes”? Etruscan men- “offer” Etruscan IENH 533: *m[u|o]n- “to protrude; to stand out; to jut out; to be first, foremost, in front of; (n.) topmost or most protuberant part, highest or farthest point” Proto-Nostratic > *m(e|o)n- “to protrude; to stand out; to jut out; (n.) topmost or most protuberant part, highest or farthest point” Proto-IndoEuropean mn, mny “mountain, stone, hill” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic mnw “monument” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic *mun- “point, end, extremity; before, in front, further; first” Proto-Dravidian IENH 534: *m[u|o]n-at'y- “to suckle; (n.) breast, udder” Proto-Nostratic > *m(e|o)nt'- “to suckle; (n.) suckling, young animal; breast, udder” Proto-IndoEuropean mnd “breast” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic moñci “breasts” Proto-Dravidian IENH 549: *m[u|o]n- “egg, testicle” Proto-Nostratic > *mon-d[h]- > *mõdo “testicle” Slavic, IndoEuropean *muna “egg, testicle” Proto-Uralic *muntay “egg, testicle” Proto-Dravidian IENH 541: *m[a|&]ny- “to lust after, desire passionately, copulate, have sexual intercourse, beget” Proto-Nostratic > mian “desire” Irish, IndoEuropean mwyn “enjoyment, value; gentle, kind , dear” Welsh, IndoEuropean mwynhau “to enjoy” Welsh, IndoEuropean *m[a|&]n- “to lust after, desire passionately, copulate, have sexual intercourse, beget” Proto-AfroAsiatic *man- “to be united with, love, copulate with, wed; (n.) copulation, union, marriage” Proto-Dravidian IENH 542: *m[a|&]ny- “progenitor, begetter, man, male” (derived from IENH 541) Proto-Nostratic > *man(u)- “man, begetter, progenitor” Proto-IndoEuropean *man(n)- “man, person” Proto-HighlandEastCushitic *m[a|i]n-t- (t feminine suffix) “woman” Proto-EastCushitic *manytye “man, male” Proto-FinnoUgrian *mañc- “man, husband” Proto-Dravidian IENH 536: *m[a|&]t[h]- “to set in motion, arouse, excite, impel; to be luxuriant or fruitful, to be fertile; to be energetic, vigorous, strong; (n.) man, male” Proto-Nostratic madhr “man, human being” Old Icelandic, IndoEuropean mat “boy” Ligurian (in Romansch) IndoEuropean *m[a|&]t[h]- “to be energetic, vigorous, strong, fertile” Proto-AfroAsiatic *m&t[h]- “man, male” Proto-AfroAsiatic *mat- “to be luxuriant or fruitful, to be fertile, to grow fat; to be in must(n.), strength, abundance, excess” Proto-Dravidian TP: *mat- / *man- / *mant- “man” ? Does the stem *mant- “man” exist? Are the above three stems identical? IENH splits the Old Norse (actually Old Icelandic) paradigm maðr/mann- into two roots. Consider also mand [pron. man? ] “man” Danish mandig [pron. mandi] “masculine, macho” Danish The traditional explanation of these forms is that the -d is a "false d". In Danish, there has been a development -ld- > lð > -ly- > -ll-, -nd- > nð > -ny- > -nn-, in auslaut and before -e (schwa). Also unvoiced stops p,t,k have developed into voiced continuants, written b,d,g, especially after long vowels. Therefore Danish orthography has no need for making distinctions between long and short vowels (German, long vowel: duplication or adding -h, short vowels: duplication of following consonant; English, long vowel: adding -e after the syllable, short vowel: duplication of following consonant), except in the case of -l and -n in auslaut. Therefore many such roots have been given an etymologically false "mute d" e.g. kalde “call”, rende “run”. The -d- of "mandig" is traditionally explained as influence from the written form. Some Danish dialects have "mañ" with a palatalized n, difficult to explain without a -d in auslaut. I suggest instead that the -d in Danish is original . In that case, the root *mant- exists and may be an n-infixed variation of *mat- (data from Old Norse, i.e. Old Icelandic, being West North Germanic, do not apply to Danish, which is East North Germanic). IENH 519: *m[a|&]n- “to divide, to apportion” (> “to count, to reckon” > “to consider, to think” > “to recount” > “to speak, to say” Proto-Nostratic *m(e|o)n- “to reckon, consider, think” Proto-IndoEuropean *m[a|&]n- “to divide, to apportion; to count, reckon, enumerate” Proto-AfroAsiatic *mana- (*mona-) “to consider, to conjecture, to recount, to say, to speak” Proto-Uralic *many- “to talk, to speak” Proto-Dravidian IENH 570: *?in-[i|e]m- “to say, speak, neme; (n.) name” Proto-Nostratic *Hn[e:|o:|o]mn.“name” Proto-IndoEuropean *nimä “name” Proto-Uralic inim “word” Sumerian inim-du11 “to speak” Sumerian inim-bal “to say, speak, tell; (n.) speech, utterance” Sumerian inim-e “to say a word, utter” Sumerian SIG, IESSG, VISW *A2-m-n- “be firm” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *men- Proto-IndoEuropean méno: Greek reduplicated mi-mno: “stay, remain” Greek mónimos “permanent, durableholding on” Greek man- “stay” Old Persian fra-man- “hold out” Old Persian *m-A2-n- Proto-indoEuropean-AfroAsiatic maneo “remind” Latin *'-m-n- Semitic 'amina perf. “was safe, whole” Arabic niph. “be firm, durable, permanent” Hebrew ethp. “stayed, remained” Syrian 'aminå: ethp. “constant” Syrian adv. “forever” Syrian 'òmæn “truth, faithfulness” Hebrew 'ami:nuN “trusted, confided in” Arabic SNE 7 *muni “stomach” South Cushitic: *muna- “heart” South Cushitic *man- “large intestine” South Cushitic *manso > Ma'a maso “belly” South Cushitic máni “large intestine” Dahalo Indo-European: monja “belly, intestine” Russian Samoyed: *mu´â “the inner parts” Samoyed Dravidian: moñci, monni “breasts” Tamil muñña, muññe “the breast” Tulu Tgm.: mongku “belly (of stag)” Evenki SNE *manHi “ghost of dead” Indo-European: *ma:ni- “anger, furious” mê:nis “anger” Greek mânes “anger” Doric Greek émma:nis “bearing grudge” Cretan Greek Ma:ne:s “the departed souls” Latin imma:nis “horrible, savage” Latin Baltic Finnic: mana, manala “empire of death” Finnish mannelatj “after-life” Lap. L mwones^ “deads of some illness” Finnish, Lap. Estonian Turkic: manir name of a demon Old Turkish Mongolian: Manûus “evil spirits, man-eating demons” Mongolian > Turkic: mangghus “parasite, mangus, vampire, monster” Soyot. mangys, mongus, maghys, moghus “insatiable” Yakut Tgm.: mangT “giant, devil; bear; ghost of ancestors, ghost of land; man-eater” Evenki mangæ, mangi “ghost; idol” Oroch mangi name of burxan Ulch. mang'an “evil ghost” Mandzhu mangun “devil, monster” Mandzhu cf. *manu- “think” Nostratic mana- “exorcise” Finnish manu- “exorcise” Estonian muna- “practice sorcery” Mordv. E. HSED 1722: *man-/*mayan- “man” *mVyVn- > *mi:n- “man” Berber mi:n Zenaga *man/*min “man” West Chadic mun (pl.) Karekare m&ni Polchi mani Dwot m&n Buli mani Bar mi:ni (pl.) Kir menni Bolewa ma:ni Geji mwan Sayanchi The variant *min- may go back to *mVyVn- *mayan- “man” Central Chadic meeni Logone *mun- “male” Lowland East Cushitic mun Somali Secondary *-u-, cf. Omotic *man- “people” Highland East Cushitic maana Sidamo maana Darasa maana Hadiya maana Kambatta mana Tambaro *mon- < *man- “people” Omotic monoo Yamma Note: *mayan morpho-phonological variant of *man with an inlaut sonant (*-y-) cf. mana'e “child” Dahalo HSED 1772: *min- “want” *mVnVy- “want” Semitic mny Arabic mny Soqotri mny Geez mny Tigray *min- “want” Central Chadic min Masa HSED 1796: mune?- “to love” *mun- Semitic menû “love” Akkadian mnn [u] “be favourable” Arabic mny “desire” Soqotri mutni “desire” Jibbali *munya- “love, like” West Chadic muni Fyer mun Sha meno Pero *mun- “preferred” Central Chadic mun Lame minne “love” German HSED 1723: *man-/*min- “house” mn “room” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) *mone: “dwelling, inn” Coptic mone: “dwelling, inn” Bohairian mone: “dwelling” Sahidic may be borrowed from Greek mone: *man-/*min- West Chadic man “house” Tangale m&na “place” Derra mina “house” Pero mun “place” Sha Secondary -u- in Sha *min- “door” Central Chadic min, mng “door” Musgum *man- “place” East Chadic mana “place” Sumray ma:n “place” Ndam man “place” Tumak *man-/*min- “house” Lowland East Cushitic miin “house” Somali mana, manaa “house” Oromo ming “house” Boni min “house” Arbore *man- “house” Werizoid mano “house” Gawwada *min- “house” Highland East Cushitic mine “house” Sidamo mine “house” Darasa mine “house” Hadiya mine “house” Kambata mini “house” Dahalo Alternation *a - *i HSED 1721: *man- “know, test” *mVnVw- Semitic manu: “count” Akkadian mny “count” Hebrew mnw[-u-] “test, try” Arabic Based on biliteral *mVn-. *man- “know” West Chadic man Montol man Ankwe ma:n Mupun mon Bolewa man Ngamo *man-/*mun- “understand, analyze” Central Chadic man, mun Lame Secondary *-u- *man- “mind” Lowland East Cushitic cf. mn.t “manner, way” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) HSED 1795: *mun- “be, remain” mn.w “remain” Egyptian (pyramids) *mun- “remain” West Chadic mun “remain” Dafo-Butura *muni- > *min- “be” Central Chadic mine “be” Musgum ool 14. *MANA--'to stay (in a place)” ---- remain, permanent *men “to remain” Proto-IndoEuropean > man “to linger, not budge from a place” Sanskrit manere “to remain” Latin mân- “stay, remain” Persian *mn “to remain, be firm” Proto-AfroAsiatic > amen Hebrew amina “be secure” Arabic mn, “to remain” Egyptian mun “to remain” Coptic min “be firm, strong” Omotic mana “home” Oromo miin “home” Somali mena “dwelling” Georgian *man “to remain in a place” Proto-Dravidian > mannu “to be permanent, remain long, stay” Tamil mannuka “to stand fast” Malayalam mannu “to last, be durable” Telugu mana “to live settled” Evenki Tungus 'i-ma(n) “to stay, be” Proto-Caucasian mann- “to be” Hurrian min “to place, set up, settle” Basque mana “to dwell; to sit, stay” Papuan mina “stay” Papuan man “remain” Tsimshian 'ima “sit” Zuni ma- “be” Quechua ool 15. *MANO--'man” ---- man; *manu(-s) Proto-IndoEuropean > manuS “man, person” Sanskrit manus “man” Avestan manna Gothic mana “man” Rwanda me'en “person” Me'en mats “male” Didinga mots “person” Dinka *mn “male, man, person” Proto-AfroAsiatic Min (a phallic deity) Egyptian mun “male” Somali iman “person” Berber *mani “man, person” Chadic *mänce “man, person” Proto-Uralic > magyar (self-name) Hungarian mansi (self-name) Vogul mies “man” Finnish manja “man, person” Gondi mântar “people, men” Tamil man “king, husband” Tamil wo-mina “woman” Old Japanese (onna Modern Japanese) mene-ko “woman” Ainu munan, mando, mundu “man” Papuan mancho “man” Nahali hmong (self-name) Miao man~ myen (self-name) Yao man “father” Bella Coola man “husband” Squamish *men “husband” Proto-Tupi män “person” Cayapo ool 16. *MENA--'to think (about)” ---- mind; mental; memory; mantra *men “think” Proto-IndoEuropean > manas “mind” Sanskrit mens “mind” Latin memini “remember” Latin monere ”remind, warn” Latin me:na ”to like” Sandawe mEn ”understand” Malinke *meni~ man “know” Proto-Bantu *man “think, understand, wish, desire, count” Proto-AfroAsiatic muná “wish” Arabic manah “to count” Hebrew maan “mind” Somali man “know” Chadic mon, min “wish” Chadic *manV~ monV “guess, speak” Proto-Uralic mon-d “say” Hungarian maan, muno “say, command” Samoyed manaa “warn, admonish, curse, bewitch” Finnish muna “bewitch” Mordvin manu “prayer, request” Tamil manavi “prayer, request” Telugu mani Turkish manä “folk song” Crimean Tatar mun “medulla” Basque munak (pl.) “brains” Basque minAs “story, tale” Burushaski ming “to name” Tibetan man “to be named” Burmese *mang “dream” Proto-Tibeto-Burman menw “prefer, like” Shawnee amu “love” Laguna mu'e “wish” Catawba -manen “wish” Spokane mena “think” Miwok mani “love” Mixtec muna “seek” Aymara muna “wish” Quechua AEDL 31 amand'o “man” Amandyo , Australian mandef “man” Kolijon , Australian many “man” Murrawarri, Australian mainy “man” Wiradyuri , Australian maing “man” Wiradyuri , Australian mean “man” EWakka , Australian *manti “people” Proto-Dravidian mukha “face, mouth” Sanskrit. Also muham “mouth” Prakit mukh “face” Bengali muh “mouth” common in modern vernaculars NDAP 9 *muk- “face, mouth” Dravidian *maku/i “mouth” AfroAsiatic VMPSIE mua “the first, foremost” Tongan mûla “root, beginning” Sanskrit mukha “mouth, face; the first, foremost” Sanskrit mûla “origin, beginning, cause, the first” Malay mûka “mouthface, front part” Malay mula “beginning” Javanese mula-mula “the first” Javanese pa-mulai “begin” Buginese pa-mulan. “the first” Buginese mula “begin” Tagalog pasi-mula “begin; the first” Tagalog pasi-mona “beginning; begin” Tagalog mona “the first” Tagalog muc-ha “face” Tagalog mónos Greek AEDL 21: ma(r)na “mouth” Nulla, Dieri Yarrawurka, Ulaolinya-Wonkajera mana “mouth” Evelyn Creek munno “mouth” Kuinmunburra munno “mouth” NNarrinyeri (low Murray) mu(r)n “mouth” (Yittha dial.) munu “mouth” Kogai, Barcoo, Mamburra muna “mouth” Wakelburra mundo “mouth” Skuri, NYuin (coast) me:na “mouth” Yaroinga *mun_ “(in) front” Dravidian AEDL 22: mingo “nose” Kungerri-Birria mungar “nose” Najki mungeli “nose” Kui PMA mukha- “face” Philippines muka- “face” Malagasy maka- “face” Polynesia mata- “face” N. Guinea meka- “tongue” Amboyna mocha- “mouth” Kherwari, Santali mua- “mouth” Katorr mwe- “mouth” Darang main- “mouth” Son mu-lut- “mouth” Malay muru- “mouth” Central Papuan mangai- “mouth” Maori mana- “mouth” Vaturana, Florida muu- “mouth” Manggarai mut, mit- “mouth” Formosa mingir- “mouth” Awyi magota- “mouth” Kiwai mongot- “mouth” Kati manga- “mouth” Kapau EIEC *men- “project” mant “mouth, lip” Welsh pro:-mineo: “stand out, project” Latin mentum “chin” Latin me:ni- “face” Hittite fra-manyente “gain prominence” Avestan *mandh-, *mant- “chew” me:tal “belly” Old Irish mando: “chew” Latin me:l “bite” Old Norse mithl “bite” Old English mindil “bite” Old High German máthniai “jaws” Greek (Hesychius) ?*men- “mountain” *monyo- > mynydd “mountain” Welsh *mon-ti- mont- “mountain” Latin *mn-ti- > mati- “(mountain), height” Avestan *monis - *moneH2 “neck” muin “neck” Old Irish mwn “neck” Welsh mon “mane” Old Norse manu “mane” Old English mane English mana “mane” Old High German manaothri: “neck” Avestan mánya: “nape” Sanskrit ?*mono/i “neck ornament” minci “collar, necklet” Old Welsh maniákis “Celtic necklace” Gaulish (in Greek) moni:le “necklace, collar” Latvian men “necklace” Old Norse mena “necklace, collar” Old English menni “neck ornament” Old High German monisto “necklace” Old Church Slavonian zar&nu-maini “(bird) with golden necklace” Avestan ba-ra-man-nu-is^ “(horse) bearing a collar” Old Persian mani-gri:vá- “carrying a neck ornament” Sanskrit CAIEH 72: mu:la “mouth (of animals)” Old High German munth-s “mouth” Gothic *mulut “mouth” Proto-Hesperonesian mulot “mouth” mulutrá “lips” Mer. EIEC *mVnus “man” madh-r/mann-r “man” Old Norse mann “man” Old English man English mann “man” Old High German *monwon > manna “man” Gothic mánu- “man, person” Sanskrit IEW: cerus manus “creator bonus” Old Latin CAIEH 73: anaq muani “man” Balinese mone “man” Sawu mwään “man” Trukese AEDL 31: amand'o “man” Amandyo mandef “man” Kolijon man´ “man” Murrawari main´, main, “man” Wirradyuri mean etc “man” EWakka *manti “people” Dravidian AEDL 32: meru, meri “man (aboriginal)” SNarringeri mar(a) “man (aboriginal)” SEBuandik murri, murdi “man (aboriginal)” Kogai murri “man (aboriginal)” Barcoo, Mamburra Wakelburra, Burdekin murrin, “man (aboriginal)” Yuin (island) murre-wangar “children” Wiradyuri murrowa “children” Yarrawurka *ma:r_- “young man, male” Yarrawurka AEDL 33: mika “man” Yuin (coast) mega “woman” Yuin (coast) moak “man” Walsh River *mak- “child” Dravidian mega, moga “male” Telugu maguva “woman” Telugu magvan “husband” Kolami SAPGOW 15: *manu “to see, think” Proto-Nostratic *nemnem “to consider” Proto-Austronesian *nham “to consider” Proto-MonKhmer *nVmHV “to see, think” Proto-SinoCaucasian *-mu(,n) “to see” Proto-Ge SAPGOW 16: *mänV “man, husband” Proto-Nostratic *mVn-xV “man, husband” Proto-SinoCaucasian *mVn “man, husband” Proto-MonKhmer *myen “man, husband” Proto-Ge NS 114: *majrV “young male” Proto-Nostratic *mirl\V “male, man” North Caucasian NS 115: *manV “stay, stand still” Proto-Nostratic *?i-ma(n)- “stay, be” North Caucasian *?i-ma- Proto-Lezghian *mann- Hurri-Urartean NS 116: *m/o/nV, *m/o/ngV “many, big” Proto-Nostratic *man, “many, big” Sino-Tibetan NS 117: *manu “think” Proto-Nostratic *nVmHV id. Sino-Caucasian *n´Vm “think” Sino-Tibetan *?a-n/ï/n, “think, mind” Proto-Yeniseian NS 121: *mänV “man, male” Proto-Nostratic *mVn-xV id. Sino-Caucasian *n&:m “man, person” Sino-Tibetan *pix- “man” Proto-Yeniseian *mVnxV “man, male” North Caucasian NS 125: *min´a “woman, female relative” Proto-Nostratic *nam “sister-in-law, daughter-in-law” Sino-Tibetan NS 130: *nojmV “name” Proto-Nostratic *nyomV “name; spell, tale” Altaic *main, “name” Sino-Tibetan } mane- “male” Solomon Is. mon, o-main, manesh- “man” Oceania ma-mana- “man” Kate muane, a-mana- “man” Solomon Is. men-ahwe- “man” Awa Mani-k-a- “the first people” Awa mane- “male” Are'are manusia, -manusa, manesh- “man, mankind” Asonesian, Sunda, Malay, Goram, Matabello, Sanguir, Ceram manu-t “man” Salon mnus- “man” Khmer mnih- “man” Talaing mai- “man” Sakai menik- “man” Semang mandra- “man” Savari i-mai- “man” Darang muana- “man” Duke of York myen, mun- “person” Chiengrai Yao, Haininh Yao, Taipan Yao man- “child” Telefol ma- “boy, male, man” Ambrym mantun- “man” Lanten-Yao myen- “man” Man mien- “man” Man-ta-pan mon-fa- “man” Man-lan-tien mano- “child” Fasu, Beami, mana, mauko, monol- “man” Torricelli mandu- “man” Buang manua- “man” Dobu, Duau mun- “child, offspring, person” Dumut mwanua- “man” Kakabai manu- “man” Motu, Suau manas “mind, intellligence, knowledge” Sanskrit EIEC *men- “think, consider” *memónH2e (perf.) “think, remember” memini “think, remember” Latin muna (pres. man) “think” Old Norse munan (pres. man) “think” Old English munan (pres. man) “think, believe” Gothic mémona “yearn” Greek i-manam “understands” Armenian mamne “thinks” Sanskrit *mnyétor “thinks” do-moinethar “believes” Old Irish miniù “remember” Lithuanian minjõ “think” Old Church Slavonian maínomai “rage, be mad” Greek mántis “prophet, diviner” New Greek mainyeite “thinks” Avestan mányate “thinks” Sanskrit *mnéH2ti mnêma “remembrance” Greek m(a)ná- “see, look upon” Luvian mémnemai “be mindful of, remember” Greek a:-mna:- “commit to memory and hand down” Sanskrit other formations moneo: “remind, warn” Latin TP: monstrum “portent, monster” Latin manan “remind, warn, conjure, use magic” Old High German EIEC: menù “consider” Lithuanian mine:t “mention” Latvian mineti “think, seem” Old Church Slavonian mniti “mean” Old Russian *mimne/o > mimma- “regard, favour” Luvian mánati “mentions” Sanskrit *ménmn “thought” menmae “spirit, sense” Old Irish ma:nman- “mind, perception” Sanskrit *ménes- “thought” ménos “thought” Greek manah- “thought” Avestan manas- “thought” Sanskrit *méntis (gen. mntéis) “thought” me:ns “thought” Latin ge-mynd “thought” Old English gi-munt “thought” Old High German mintìs “thought” Lithuanian pa-mêti “thought” Old Church Slavonian -maiti- “thought” Avestan mati- “thought” Sanskrit PMA mana- “mind” Lau mana biric- “mind” Kate mana-wa, mana-va- “mind” Maori and other Polynesian mana-ta- “mind” Lau mana'o- “knowledge, thought, opinion, mind” common Polynesian mana-tu- “to think” Tahiti mana-ta- “to advise, teach, learning, education” Melanesia man-ta-na- “wisdom, common sense” Are'are mana-mana- “to bring to mind, remember” Samoa manaua-nawa- “to think, ponder” Marquesas mana-wa- “top part of head of adults, anterior fontanelle of children (as entrance point of spirit)” common Polynesian/ Melanesian mantua- “to think” Fila mindondoa “to think” Woraviu, Sesake manatunatu “to think” Mele mentua- “to think” Aniwa, Futuna mantra “prayer, chant, mystic formula” Sanskrit mana- “address used for deities and at close of prayers and rituals, supernatural power, omen” Polynesian mana- “sign, wonder, miracle” Fiji ho'o-mana-mana- “to use magical incantations” Samoa mana-mana- “to impart power to idols, images” Hawai'i manatala- “mantra” Philippines mantera- “mantra” Malaysia, Indonesia manata, manatu- “mind, thought, to think, to advise, teach, wisdom, learning” Melanesia/Polynesia manawa- “to cause death by magic” Are'are manata-si - “to train, tame” Arosi manawangi- “to cast spell” Arosi manawa-si- “to impart supernatural power” Arosi mana-wa- “incantation” Maori manatu- “remembrance” Maori manatunga- “expression in song” Maori ma-mana- “spiritual power, to impart spiritual or magical power” Lau manata oli- “to repent” Lau manata luki- “to forgive” Lau manata mamana- “to believe” Lau manata toli- “to think earnestly” Lau mantua- “to think” Fila mindondoa- “to think” Woraviu, Sesake manatunatu- “to think” Mele mentua- “to think” Aniwa, Futuna manatunatu- “to think” Mele manata- “to intuit” Malaitan HSED 1841: *nam “man” *nam- “people” East Chadic nemi-nam “people” Tumak Old collective, cf nom-to: “woman” Kwang nam-de (pl.) “woman” Sibine *num- “man” Saho-Afar nuum, nuumuu “man” Afar prob. *u < *a before *-m- *nam-/*nim- “man” Lowland East Cushitic nin “man” Somali nama “man” Oromo nama “man” Konso nama “man” Busso nama “man” Gidole Regular Somali -n < *-m. Vocalism of Somali has no support in other forms. *nam- “man, son” Omotic anaamoo “man” Kaffa naamo “son” Mocha HSED 1831: *nagac^-/*naguc^- “ruler, man” *nVgus^- “ruler” Semitic niga:s^- “ruler” Arabic n&gus^ “ruler” Geez Arabic may be a Geez loanword or a deverbative. cf. also ngs^wn “king's title” South Arabian *ma-nVgas^- “bridegroom” Central Chadic mangas^ “bridegroom” Gisiga Prefix *ma- *?angas^- Lowland East Cushitic ugaas “tribal chief” Somali angafu “eldest son” Oromo Note *-ng- > -g- in Somali *?angus- “first-born son” Omotic angussaa “first-born son” Ometo As in Lowland East Cushitic, initial *?Vn- corresponds to Chadic and Semitic *nV-. *-s- < Hamito-Semitic *-c^- is not quite regular. CELR III 20: *wan- “man” West Chadic wnny.w “people” Egyptian CELR III 26: *mwan- “slave” West Chadic mnh, id. Egyptian CELR III 29: *mwan “son-in-law” East Chadic mnw “son” Egyptian CELR IX 112: *mun- “stay” West Chadic *min- id. Central Chadic mn “be left” Egyptian CELR IX 113: *wunya- “stay” East Chadic ín id. Egyptian CELR IX 114: *z^amVn- “stay” West Chadic zmn id. Egyptian TP: How do you reconcile all these different meanings of *m-n-? Watch: UUASI: inh meat classifier Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand oth “penis” Uw Olkola oth “penis”? Uw Oykangand ek(a) “head” Uw Olkola eg “head” Uw Oykangand onmom “egg, seed” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand inh onmon “egg” Uw Olkola, Uw Oykangand oth onmon “testicle” Uw Olkola odh onmon “testicle” Uw Oykangand ek onmon “head or brain”? Uw Olkola eg onmon “head or brain” Uw Oykangand TP: "ek onmon" “head egg, seed” or “head testicle” means “brain”. This might be a starting point for the development of *m-n- > “sexual power” > “intellectual power, magic”, *m-n- > “staying power” > “(burial?) mound” > “abode”. From "onmon" we might get both *n-m-n- > *m-n- and *n-m-n- > *n-m-. Uw Olkola and Uw Oykangand are spoken on the Cape York Peninsula, thus close to the sunken Sundaland. } vansa/vamsa “bamboo or other cane”, and also from idea of lines: “lineage, family, descent, race, clan, tribe” Sanskrit bansa- “people, nation, tribe, clan” common Philippines Indonesia also bangsa whaanau- “family, family group, offspring” Maori, Nanumea panau- “to give birth, be born” Anutan panaunga- “birth group, siblings” Anutan fanau- “to be born, give birth” East Futuna Marquesas, Tikopia fanau- “offspring” Samoa faanau “offspring” Tonga wanat- “bamboo” Proto-Malaitan wayway- “sugar, bamboo or other cane” Tagalog ka-wayan- “bamboo” Tagalog bantang- “bamboo” Proto-Philippine bansi- “bamboo flute” Proto-Philippine pinso- “reed” Proto-Oceanic binso- “reed” Proto-Oceanic bungbung- “reed” Proto-Philippine bun.a- “shoot” Proto-Indonesian -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= LEXICON -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *Y.-p- “water” EIEC *H2e:p, *H2ep- “living water, river” Proto-IndoEuropean ape “river” Old Prussian ùpe “river” Latvian a:fs^ (gen. apo:) “water” Avestan áp- (nom. pl. ápas, acc. pl. apás) “water” Sanskrit ap- “river” TokharianAB PMA: ap- “water” Sanskrit VMPSIE: ap- “water” Sanskrit a:pas “water” Sanskrit a:b “water” Persian abo abo “rain” Tagalog áwa “river” Maori side form AHDIE: *akWa:- “water” Western IE with suffix *agwjo: > *aujo: “thing on the water” Proto-Germanic ig, ieg “island” Old English igland, iegland “island” Old Enlish aqua “water” Latin cf with suffix d- cuid “portion” Gaelic *gW(î|â)d- “land” Proto-Afrasian IENH 23: *b(i|e)- “in addition to, with, together with” Proto-Nostratic *(-)b[h](i|y|o)- “in, with, among” Proto-IndoEuropean *b(a|&) “in, with, within, among” Proto-AfroAsiatic bi “in addition to, with, together with” Sumerian -bi, bi-da, -bi-(da) “and” Sumerian IENH 392: *h^[a|&]p(h)- “to go, move along, flow” Proto-Nostratic *h^h[e|a]p(h)- “water, stream” Proto-IndoEuropean AfroAsiatic h^pi “to go, travel, march, sail (of a boat), fly away (of birds), flow (of water)” Egyptian hpi “flowing” Egyptian SIG, IESSG, VISW, (WORDS): Alternative forms *Y.-B.- > Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *ob- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *âb- Proto-IndoEuropean *abni-s > amni-s “river (real/personified), stream; current; (running) water; the river Ocean” Latin Abona Britannic abann “river” Old Irish -apa in river names Old Low German -affa in river names Old High German : *Y.-b- > Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *op- “water, drink” Proto-IndoEuropean extended grade *o:p- > Proto-IndoEuropean *o:pes > á:pas f. pl. apa:m gen. pl. Sanskrit ápavant “abundant in water” Sanskrit a:p- f. a:fs^ nom. “water” Old Persian a:fant “abundant in water” Old Persian reduced in inlaut -Y.p- in prati:pá- “(moving) against the stream” Sanskrit half redupl. Alternative forms *Y.-b-Y.- > *Y.abáY.- *po:- “drink” Proto-IndoEuropean pépo:ka Greek pôma Greek po:tus “drink” n. Latin : *Y.aB.áY.- *bo:- “drink” Proto-IndoEuropean pi-ba:-mi Sanskrit bibo “drink” Latin extended with -y- *po:y- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *pi:- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:yana “drenching” Sanskrit -pa:yin- “drinking” Sanskrit pi:ti “a drink” Old Church Slavonic pí:no: Greek piti “drink” Old Church Slavonic *Y.-b- Semitic aba:ya “a waterfowl” ? Assyrian also known as ummi me: “water mother” Assyrian single redupl. *Y.-b-b- Semitic Y.abba “he drank (water) without taking breath and without interrupting the swallowing” Arabic Y.ububuN “waters pouring forth copiously” Arabic Y.uba:buN “the main body and the height and abundance of the waves (of a torrent or flow of water)” Arabic ta-Y.bu:buN “a river that runs in a vehement manner or abounding in water” Arabic abu:ba, -a:ni pl. “flood, the Flood” Assyrian with originally suffical -l- ma:Y.bal “wave, flood” Ethiopian denominative 'a-ma:Y.bala “to flood, overwhelm by flood” Ethiopian extended with -r-; relativity suffix (?) (= -r of PIE *p&-t-er “father”, *bhra-ter “brother”), see *Y.-b-r- Pre-IndoEuropean *Y.ánap- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *omb- “swell” Proto-IndoEuropean ambu “water” Sanskrit amp “cloud” Armenian ómbhros “rain, downpour” Greek : *Y.-n-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ombh- “swell” Proto-IndoEuropean ómphax “unripe grape” Greek = Y.-n-b- Semitic unnubu II 1 inf. “grow abundantly, bear fruit” Assyrian inbu “fruit” Assyrian Y.inabuN “grapes (while fresh), the grape vine” Arabic Y.inabatuN “a single grape” Arabic 3e:naB “grape” Hebrew 3enb&þå: id. Syrian 3inBa: m. 3EnaBta: f. id. Jewish Aramaic single redupl. Y.unbabuN, Y.unbubuN “abundance of water” Arabic : Y.-n-p- Semitic Y.unfuwa:nuN “the juice that flows from grapes without their being pressed, the force or strength (of wine)” Arabic *Y.-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *op- Proto-IndoEuropean opó-s “juice of plants, esp. of the fig tree, resin” Greek ópo-bálsamon “resin of the balsam plant” Greek ópo-kárpason “juice of the kárpason plant” Greek ópo-kinnamo:mon etc Greek ópo-pánaks Greek opóeis “juicy, succulent” Greek = Y.-b- Semitic single redupl Y.-b-b- Semitic Y.abi:batuN “the exudation of a gum, a beverage obtained from the exudations of the Y.urfut. (a species of mimosa)” Semitic + y- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *op-y- Proto-IndoEuropean opi:mus “fat, well-fed” Latin *p-y- 1) “fat” 2) “juicy, resinous” Proto-IndoEuropean *Y.abáy- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *poyd- > Proto-IndoEuropean feitr “fat” Old Norse veiz id. Middle High German + laryngeal, reduced *pi:- Proto-IndoEuropean + w- pí:vas n. “fat” n. Sanskrit pí:van- fem. “fat” adj. Sanskrit pió:n Greek pi:melé: “fat (of sacrificial animals), cream” Greek pi:tu-da:ru type of pine, lit. “resin tree” Sanskrit pi:nus “pine, fir” Latin + k- reduced pik- “tar” Proto-IndoEuropean pix id. Latin píssa id. Greek pìkis id. Lithuanian pIklU id. Old Bulgarian = *Y.-b- Semitic + y- “be fat” Semitic outside of Arabic merged with 3-b-y- “be tight” 3a:Ba: “was fat” Hebrew niph “become fat” Modern Hebrew 3ABi: “fatness” Hebrew 3EBi: “was fat” Syrian pa “made fat” Syrian 3aByå: “fat” Syrian 3ABya: id. Jewish Aramaic 3abya “grow, become bigger” Ethiopian = + k^- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + y- Proto-IndoEuropean + h- Proto-Semitic + r- (relativity > IndoEuropean comparative-suffix) Y.abharuN “having a good body” Arabic píeira Greek pí:vari: Sanskrit UEW: pišä- 'braten, kochen' FU L a p p. N bâsse- -s- 'roast without using a pan or cooking-pot, roast on a spit', L passê- 'braten' | ostj. (785) VJ. päl- '(durch Kochen im Kessel) schmelzen (Fett, Harz)', DT pa.t 'braten (in Fett)', O pa.l- 'schmelzen, kochen (Fett), in Fett kochen (Brot)' | wog. (Kann., mitg. Liim.: FUF 22:169, 168) TJ pīt- 'kochen, brühen (z. B. Fisch, Brei, Zunder)', KW VNK So. pēt- 'anfangen etwas aufzuwärmen (KU), etwas (in den Kessel) hineinlegen (VNK), etwas zum Kochen, zum Brühen in den Kessel legen (So.)'. Wotj. S piž-, K p^əž- 'backen, braten', syrj. S P pež- 'blähen (P: z. B. Schlittenkufen), brühen;schmoren (intr.), gar werden (Speisen)', PO pu..ž- 'паpить (молоко в нечке, прутья в пeчи пepeд кpучeниeм, вєник иа каменке бани); пeчь, жаpить (о солнце); высиживать яйца' (Toivonen: Qvigstad-Festskr. 302; Liimola: FUF 22: 170; FUV; Lytkin, VokPerm. 146, SFU 5:121; ESK) können wegen des ursprünglich velaren Vokalismus nicht hierzu gestellt werden. Zu dem irrtümlich hiermit verbundenen ung. fő- 'kochen, sieden', főz- 'kochen (tr.)' und seinen Entsprechungen (MUSz. 539; ÁKE 280) s. *peje- 'kochen, sieden' U. Toivonen: Qvigstad-Festskr. 302; Liimola: FUF 22:170; FUV. piška 'Baumharz' FU Finn. pihka (Gen. pihkan, pihan) 'Baumharz, Harz'; est. pihk (Gen. piha) 'klebrige Flüssigkeit (im Euter einer trächtigen Kuh, als Harz od. Gummi aus einem Baume fließend)' (ostseefinn. > lapp. K Nol. pihk 'Harz') | ostj. (676) Trj. piγəл 'Flicken an einem Boote, gew. einem Einbaum', V piγli- 'mit Harz verstopfen (Spalten in einem Boot), mit erhitztem Harz dichten'. Ostj. i ist ein denom. Verbalsuffix. In ostj. piγəл 'Flicken...' kann ein Bedeutungswandel 'Harz' -> 'Harz zum Dichten des Einbaumes' -> 'Dichtung, Flicken' stattgefunden haben. pečä ~ peпčä 'Kiefer, Föhre; Pinus sylvestris' FP Finn. petäjä (dial. petäjäs) 'Föhre, Kiefer'; est. pedajas (Gen. pedaja), pedakas (Gen. pedaka), pädajas (Gen. pädaja), pädakas (Gen. pädaka) 'sehr harzige, harte, nicht hochgewachsene Kiefer; Pinus sylvestris' [ lapp. N bæcce -æ:3- 'Pinus silvestris', l. piehtsē, pä:htsē 'Kiefer, Föhre', K (1525) T piecce, Kld. pie1cc, Not. piehe 'Kiefer, Fichtenrinde (zur Speise)' [ mord. E piče, M pičä 'Kiefer; Pinus sylvestris' | tscher. (E. Itk.: FUF 31: 177) KB pənčə 'Kiefer', U püńćö 'Kiefer, Föhre' | wotj. S pužim, pužim, K pužə^m 'Fichte, Tanne, Kiefer; Pinus sylvestris', (Wichm.) G pužî.m 'Fichte, Kiefer, Föhre' | syrj. S požem, P požu.n, poži.m, PO po.žөm 'Kiefer'. Finn. jä, est. jas, kas, wotj. und syrj. m sind Ableitungssuffixe. Das Finn., Lapp. und Mord. weisen auf *č, das Tscher. auf *nč und die perm. Wörter auf *č oder *пč hin. Das irrtümlich hier eingeordnete ung. fenyő 'Tanne, Fichte' (Setälä: FUF 2:222; Wichmann, TscherT 87; Paasonen, MordChr. 110 mit ?; Dul'zon: VJa. 1971/1 : 82) s. unter *p8¨nз 'Fichte' FU. NCED: *pinc.wĂ resin; juice: Nakh. *mutta (-ţţ-); Av.-And. *pinc.:i; Lal. pic.; Darg. *penc.; Lezg. *pi(n)c.; W.-Cauc. *bzə. | Nakh. *mutta (~-ţţ-) juice: Chech. mutta. | Av.-And. *pinc.:i resin: Av. pic.:; Chad. pic.; And. pic.: Akhv. mic.:i; Cham. bis.; Tind. mic:i; Kar. bic.:i. Av. paradigm B or C (gen. pic.:í-l). Voiced b- in Kar., Cham. is not quite clear cf. also Kar. Tok. pic.:i, Cham. Gig. mic.:i). | Lak. pic. dew; perspiration. | Darg. *penc. resin: Ak. penc.. | Lezg. *pi(n)c. resin: Ag. pic.. Isolated in Ag. (Arch. pig, erg. pic:.i < Av.), but having good external parallels. | W.-Cauc. *bza 1 water 2 juice: Abkh. a-3ə´ 1, 2; Abaz. 3ə 1,2; Ad. psə 1; Kab. | Ub. bzə 1. PAT *3ə (cf. also Bz. a-3ə´); PAK *psə; Ub. def. a-bzə´. Shagirov (2, 16) suggests that PAT *3ə should be separated from the AK and Ub. forms and prefers to compare them with PAT *p(ə)sə *water, *river' (reconstructed on hydronymic names). There exists indeed a PAT root *pəsa 'to become wet, soak* (e.g. Abaz. psə-ra id., Abkh. (a-3ə´) a-psá-la-ra, Bz. (a-3ə´) a-psə´-la-ra 'throw into water') which could be compared with PAK *psə ( - but not with voiced bz- in Ub.!). Still it is very hard to separate the AA root *3ə from Ubykh (with which it correlates even in what concerns accent), and the Ubykh one from AK. We think that in PAK here could have occurred a contamination of two original roots: *bzə 'water' and pasə 'river, liquid' - this would be the best explanation of the whole situation. Abdokov (1983, 185) compares PAT *3ə with PAK *p:c:a- in *p:c:a-n-tħá 'glue' Ad. pcāntħa, Kab. b3āntħa). This would be fine in view of the EC data, but Shagirov (1, 81) is probably right in treating *p:c:a-n-tħa as 'fish glue' (with *p:c:a  Av. pic.: > Arch. pic. 'resin'. The EC-WC comparison see in Abdokov 1983, 185: it seems rather probable if we take into account the archaic meaning 'juice' preserved in AT. SIG, IESSG, VISW: + l- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *op-l- Proto-IndoEuropean afol “power, strength” Old English afl id. Old Norse avalo:n “work” Old High German afla “carry out, prepare, procure, obtain” Old Norse opulentus “wealthy, sumptuous” Latin Y.-b-l- Semitic '-b-l- “be in strutting fullness” Assyrian ablu:tum “strutting fullness” Assyrian Y.abula, Y.abila “was fat” Arabic Y.abluN “fat” Arabic l- > r- after labial ebu:ru “crop” Assyrian ebu:r (ma:ti) “fruit of the land” Assyrian 3ABu:r (ha:' à:ræs.)“crop (of the land” Hebrew 3ABu:r “grain” Modern Hebrew 3ABu:ra: id. Jewish Aramaic *Y.-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *op- “operari” Proto-IndoEuropean *ópos (e-grade, o < Y.e) Proto-IndoEuropean opus “work” Latin ápas “work, action, sacred action” Sanskrit uoben “do, carry out, take care of” Old High German üeben id. Middle High German uobo “farmer, cultivator” Old High German uop “agriculture” Middle High German *op- “be abundant” Proto-IndoEuropean ope:s pl. “resources, wealth” Latin in-opia n. “lack, need”, “poverty, destitution”, “dearth, want, scarcity” Latin in-opia adj. “weak, poor, needy, helpless”, “lacking, destitute (of), meager” Latin co-opia > copia “plenty, abundance, supply”, “troops, supply”, “forces”, “resources”, “wealth” Latin Ops Goddess of fertility Latin cops, copis “well/abundantly equipped/supplied”, “rich, swelling (of chest with pride)” Latin with nasal infix (*Y.-b-n- > *opn > omp ?) ómpne:, pl. -ai “fruit of the land” Greek + n- *opn-, *p-n- Proto-IndoEuropean efnan “commence, carry out” Old English efna id. Old Norse ápnas “property, possession” Sanskrit pénomai “work” v. Greek pónos “work” n. Greek + d- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAaiatic + t- Proto-IndoEuropean *opot-, *opet- Proto-IndoEuropean eafoþ “strength” Old English opitulor “bring aid/relief to” Latin *optus partcp. “created” > optumus Latin optare “choose, select”, “wish, wish for, desire” Latin optio “option, free choice”, “power/act of choosing”, “right of hero to pick reward” Latin = *Y.-b- Semitic + d- (Proto-IndoEuropean t-) 3a:Bað “work, serve” Hebrew niph. “be worked on, built on, worshipped” Hebrew hiph. “make work” Hebrew pi. “process (esp. tan)” Modern Hebrew niph. hithp. “be carried out” Modern Hebrew 3EBað “did, carried out, completed” Modern Hebrew 3ABað “made, crated” Jewish Aramaic 3EBið id. Syrian 3ABi:ða: “action” Modern Hebrew 3EBiðþå: “deed, crime, outrage” Syrian 3ABi:ðþa: “work, affair, service” Jewish Aramaic Y.abada “he served, worshipped” Arabic Y.àbd- “slave, servant, worshipper” Common Semitic Y.abduN id. Arabic abdu “slave, servant” Assyrian 3bd (= Y.abd) “slave” Phoenician 3æ`Bæð id. Hebrew 3abdå: id. Syrian 3abda: id. Jewish Aramaic 3ABo:ða: “work, service, field work, acriculture” Hebrew 3EBå:ðå: “work, creation” Syrian Y.abadatuN “strength” Arabic + t.- 3-b-t.- “plan to carry out” Ethiopian + A- (cf. Proto-IndoEuropean *o:pa f., Old High German uoba?) Y.aba'a “he prepared and made, set in order” Arabic : (old alternation b : m) *Y.-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic extended with -l- *Y.-m-l- “work hard” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *m-l- Proto-IndoEuropean *mò:l- Proto-IndoEuropean molestus “annoying, troublesome” Latin mõ:lo-s “labor, toil” Greek *mò:li- Proto-IndoEuropean mo:les “trouble” Latin mo:lior “labor” Latin = *Y.-m-l- Proto-AfroAsiatic Y.-m-l- “work” Arabic and West Semitic Y.-m-l- “toil” Hebrew whence Y.amaluN “work, labor” Arabic Y.amlå: “labor” Syrian Y.a:ma:l “toil, laborious work” Hebrew Y.&milå: “tired” Syrian + g- mogos “toil” Greek mogéo: “toil” v. Greek with s-preformative smags “heavy” Latvian smagus “difficult to carry or pull” Lithuanian + g^h- mokhlós “handle” Greek + Y.- (half reduplication?) *Y.-m-Y.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *Y.ámaY.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ómY.- > Proto-IndoEuropean ami:- Sanskrit ámi:va: “hardship, trouble” Sanskrit ámi:-ti “troubles” v. Sanskrit *Y.amáY.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *mó:- Proto-IndoEuropean muoen “toil” Old High German af-mauiths, part. “tired” Gothic muot “toil” Old High German mo:dhi “tired” Old Saxon muodi “tired” Old High German + d- : D.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + t- : d- Proto-IndoEuropean *Y.ámad- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *(o)mt- Proto-IndoEuropean a-moton “incessantly” Greek : *Y.amáD.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *om-d- Proto-IndoEuropean emazzig, emizzig “keen, incessant” Old High German emizzic id. Middle High German diminutive with i-infix *omoid- Proto-IndoEuropean ameiza “ant” Old High German = *Y.-m- Semitic + l- Y.amila intr. “he worked, (the camel) was swift, agile, (the lightning) was continual” Arabic Y.amiluN “carrying out the work, (man) suitable for carrying out the task, brisk, active, quick (she-camel), continual” Arabic Y.amaluN “work, action” Arabic + d- Y.-m-d- Semitic Y.amada “he intended or purposed (-hu it, the affair), did (it) purposely, made (it) his object” Arabic Y.amida intr. “he kept or clave (bi-hi to it)” Arabic Y.amdaN “given tasks” Arabic + g- Y.amaga “he hastened, was quick (in his pace or course)” Arabic +s´- Y.amisa intr. “was heavy, oppressive” Arabic 3a:mas tr. “raise, carry, load” Hebrew AKc 42467: 1) *H2ep- “water, river” > amë “water, river”, pl. emna, Alb. from suffixed form *H2ep-no-; amull “backwater” probably from further suffixed form *H2ep-no-lo; shtamë/shtambë “potbellied clay water” < *StH-ap-no; mashtr-apë “tankcard” < *ambhi-ag's-tro – H2ep. To my [AK's] view it is closely related to *H1op- “back, again, backward”, which thematic form *H1op-o have yielded hap “open” Alb., prapë “again”, prapa “backward” (cf. amnis “id.” Lat. < *ab-nis). *H3ep- “to work” > ama “give it to me” < *op-ma identical with jep-ma “id.”. AR: ambu- n. “water” Sanskrit amm id. Kur.ux, Malto am, a:m id, Tamil AE: ãm/ë,-a ãma,-t pl. f. “river bed, riverine area, fount” North Geg Albanian (h)ãm,-i m. “fount” Central and South Geg Albanian (h)ãmull m. “pond; stagnant water” Geg Albanian ámull m. id. Tosk Albanian dial. whence ãmti f. “fondiglio, deposito” Albanian ãmullí f. “recession” Albanian i ãmët, (h)amullt adj. “stagnant” Albanian RHA: *hWap- > h_apzi “abounds” Hittite h_appinant- “rich” Hittite r/n-stem > h_appar “trade” Hittite h_appina “rich” Hittite *hWop- opus “work” Latin *openont- > opulentus id. Latin not, because of lacking laryngeal epirijeti “sells” Lycian TP: but if it's a loanword, the missing laryngeal is not a problem HSED 1027: *`ab- “drink” *`Vb- Semitic `bb “gulp, swallow in one draught” Arabic *`ab-/*`ub- “drink” South Arabic a`ab-, a`ub- “drink” Afar o:`ob- “drink” Saho `abb- “drink” Lowland East Cushitic `abb- “drink” Somali DSDE: *innuBlia- Proto-Germanic innelfe, in(n)ielfe, inifli n. “innards, inner organs” Old English innouvilu, innubli pl. id. Old High German innyfli, innifli, innylfi n. pl. id. Old Norse inulf, inuluæ pl. id. Old Danish indvolde pl. id. Danish innvoller pl. id. Norwegian inälvor pl. id. Swedish The Danish and Norwegian forms have been transformed later; in a number of forms there is metathesis -fl- > -lf- 1st elmt. is 'in'. 2nd elmt. is prob. related to *apelo- “power” Proto-IndoEuropean *aB(a)la- Proto-Germanic afol “power” Old English afli “strength” Old Norse afl “strength, power, activity” Old Norse avl “harvest yield, offspring” Danish avl id. Norwegian avel id. Swedish “strength, power” Swedish dial. (the sense “harvest yield, offspring” in Danish and Swedish is a later development, whereby 'al-', now surviving only in Norwegian, has been ousted) or rather to *ep- Proto-IndoEuropean *ep-elo- > Proto-IndoEuropean epulum “religuous task” > “meal” Latin o-grade *op- “work” Proto-IndoEuropean opus, operis “work, action” Latin Thus = “inner workings”? TP: *awil- > *al- DSDE: *al- “(make) grow), nourish” Proto-IndoEuropean ala “nourish, produce” Old Norse alan “grow up” Gothic, Old English allen “grown up(?)” Jysk alim “nourish” Old Irish alere “nourish, breed” Latin alimentum “nourishment, entertainment” Latin TP: The root vowel /a/ in a Latin word might indicate it's a loan. DSDE: an-ala- “the insatiable” > “fire” Sanskrit ala “nourish” Old Swedish + -ster alster “creation, product” Swedish, Danish dial. + to- *altos- Proto-IndoEuropean *alþaz- Proto-Germanic alt “grown” > “old” Crimean Gothic, Old High German, German alt “high coast” Middle Irish altus “grown big” > “hill” Latin + ti- *alti- Proto-IndoEuropean *alði- Proto-Germanic alds “timespan, life(time)” Gothic ield “timespan, lifetime, age” Old English transformed *alðo:- Proto-Norse o,ld “epoch” Old Norse old “epoch, ancient times” Danish old id. Norwegian old “crowd of people” Norwegian dial. + *-tro- *altro- Proto-IndoEuropean altram “nourishment” Old Irish altru “foster father” Old Irish *alðra- Proto-Germanic framaldrs “gotten on in years” Gothic ealdor “life” Old English aldar “age, life(time), long timespan” Old Saxon altar id. Old High German aldr id. Old Norse Alter “age” German aldær id. Old Danish alder id. Danish alder id. Norwegian ålder id. Swedish *wera-alði, -alðo:- “man's age” Proto-Germanic werold “earthly life, epoch, era” Old Saxon weralt id. Old High German weorold id. Old English vero,ld id. Old Norse (loan from Old English?) wæræld “world” Old Danish wærælz, wærlds gen. wærælden def. form > verden indef. form id. Danish verd, verden id. Norwegian värld id. Swedish 1st elmt. *wiro-s “man” Proto-IndoEuropean 2nd elmt. belongs to alder (q.v.) old Semantic development “human lifespan” > “world” influenced by saeculum “human lifespan, epoch, century” Latin kosmos “world” Greek VISW: *H.-y- “live” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ay- “live” Proto-IndoEuropean + d- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + t- Proto-IndoEuropean *ayt- Proto-IndoEuropean dí-aita “way of life” Greek oet “age” Old Welsh *ayttu- Proto-IndoEuropean a:es “age” Old Irish oes “century” Welsh o-grade *oyt- Proto-IndoEuropean oîtos “(unfortunate) event” Greek *H-y- “live” Semitic + n- (the old alternation n : d) Semitic H.a:na “its time came, he was tested by calamity, he perished” Arabic II “he apppointed a time (-hu for him)” Arabic IV “(God) caused him to die” Arabic H.inuN “a space, period of time” Arabic H.aynuN “calamity, death, the time of the appointed term (of life), time of death” Arabic (exact correspondence H.ayn- : oît- with n : t) + w- H.-y-w- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ayw- Proto-IndoEuropean *aevos “alive” Latin > aevita:s > aeta:s, aevum “life(time), age, epoch, time, eternity” Latin long-aevus “long-lived” Latin aivs “life(time)” etc Gothic ni aiv “never” Gothic with s-preformative saivala etc “life, soul” Gothic TP: saeculum “century, age” Latin VISW: e:-grade *a:yu- Proto-IndoEuropean ayú- “lively” Sanskrit m. “living creature” Sanskrit a:yu- “age, duration” Avestan + n- *ayu-n- Proto-IndoEuropean aió:n “life(time), long time, eternity” Greek aién loc. Greek + s- *aió:s “life(time)” Greek aio: acc. aieí loc. á:yus.- n. id. Sanskrit H.-y-w- “live” Semitic H.aywa perf. “lived” Ethiopian -yw- > -yy- H.aya: id. Hebrew H.ayya id. Arabic H.ayyuN “living, having life, alive, quick, lively, (applied to God) deathless” Arabic H.ay “living, fresh, (of water) running” Hebrew H.ayyi:m pl. “life” Hebrew H.ayyatuN “live thing, serpent” Arabic H.ayya: “animal, life, soul” Arabic ta-HiyyatuN “continuance, endurance, everlasting existence” Arabic H.aya:tuN “life” Arabic H.ayawa:nuN “animal, animated/live/everlasting thing, ever-flowing well” Arabic H.aywa:nuN “living creature, animal” Arabic + g- (g^- ?) *ayug- Proto-IndoEuropean in ajukduþ Gothic e:ce “eternally” Old English *yug- Proto-IndoEuropean ju:gis “everlasting, ever flowing water/well/spring” Latin TP: *áywg- > *áwg- Proto-IndoEuropean DSDE: *aweg-, *wo:g-, *aug-, *ug- “increase” Proto-IndoEuropean auge:re id. Latin áugu, áugti “grow” Lithuanian ugrá- “mighty” Sanskrit *aukan “increase” Proto-Germanic aukan id. Gothic aíauk redupl. pret. o:kian id. Old Saxon oucho:n id. Old High German auka id. Old Norse jók redupl. pret. økæ id. Old Danish øge id. Danish øke id. Norwegian öka id. Swedish e:acian id. Old English eke English + s- *awek-s-, *auk-s- *wek-s, *uk-s- “increase, grow” Proto-IndoEuropean aéxo “increase” Greek auxilium “aid” Latin oks- “grow” Tocharian A vaks.áyati “lets grow” Sanskrit *wahsan, *wahsian “increase” Proto-Germanic wahsjan id. Gothic wahsan id. Old Saxon, Old High German wachsen id. German vaxa id. Old Norse óx pret. waxæ, woxæ id. Old Danish vokse id. Danish vokse id. Norwegian vaksa, veksa id. Norwegian dial. váxa id. Swedish weaxan id. Old English wax English OE: avil-s gen. “at years” Etruscan avi-s gen. id. Lemnian MP: aper, apir-e, apir-es, apir-ase, apirthe, apir-the-s, aper-ucen “sacred, funeral or sacrificial act” Etruscan cf. parentare “to honor or avenge a relative” Latin apir- act associated with religion Etruscan aprensais, aprenSaiS “the gods intending” Etruscan aprinthu, aprinthvale “sacred title” Etruscan AZ: aprensais, aprenSaiS “the gods intending” Etruscan “in the last” Etruscan aprinthu, aprinthvale “next, last” Etruscan aprinth-vale “last good-bye” Etruscan aua “welfare” Etruscan ausaz “eager, desirous” Etruscan av “to desire” Etruscan aut “wealth, fortune” Etruscan autle “relative to destiny, weaver” Etruscan avcva “welfare, health” Etruscan ave “to be propitious, beneficient” Etruscan aveini “propitious” Etruscan avequ “favor, grant, greeting” Etruscan avhircina “occurance, happenstance” Etruscan avi “propitious” Etruscan avulni “favorable” Etruscan ave “farewell” Latin aveo “to be well, long for” Latin various writers according to EG: avil “year” Etruscan “year(s)” Etruscan “years; aged xxx years” Etruscan “per year” Etruscan avils, avilS “years” Etruscan “years of age” Etruscan avilxva, avilxval “anniversary, yearly” Etruscan “to the year-count” Etruscan avil + adjectival suffix -xva > avilxva “annual, yearly” Etruscan avil “year” Etruscan avils “year, season” Etruscan cf. aviz Lemnian avis Lemnian aiws “eternity” Gothic aevus “time, eternity” Latin ayôn “lifetime” Greek eshë “timespan” Albanian aes “life, age” Old Irish *aiwon “lifetime” Indo-European *h.aju “to live” Nostratic sval, sval-as, sval-asi, sval-th-as, saval-, saval-thas, sval-en “to live, alive” Etruscan “alive, sibi?” Etruscan svalas, svalasi “for life” Etruscan svalce “s/he lived” Etruscan svaltha “alive” Etruscan svel-, Svel-, Svel-eri, Svel-S-treS “to be alive” Etruscan cf. valeo “I am well, I am strong” Latin veliji “great” Old Baltic swell English swal-, wal- “to be strong, to be big” Proto-IndoEuropean DED 5153: ya-, a- *av- “year” Dravidian DED 5437: vil- “to mature, ripen, grow ripe, grow big, person to grow up” Dravidian SIG, IESSG, VISW: Prepositions *Á-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ep- Proto-IndoEuropean + i- (cf *À-n- + i- > Proto-IndoEuropean *eni) *epi, *pi “in, by” Proto-IndoEuropean épi, epí id. Greek api, api- pi- id. Sanskrit aipi “by” Avestan Proto-IndoEuropean *pi in unstressed syllable > bi “by” Gothic ápi adv. “further, also” Sanskrit aipi id. Avestan apij id. Old Persian + (Pre-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic d- >) t- *ept- Proto-IndoEuropean iftumin daga “te~: èpaúrion” Gothic = *A-b- >? Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic b- prep. “in” Semitic bE id. Hebrew bE id. Aramaic ba id. Ethiopian *A.-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *aw- “mouth” Proto-IndoEuropean + s- *aws- Proto-IndoEuropean s + Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic t- > sth ós^t.ha- m. “lip” Vedic Sanskrit dual “lips” Vedic Sanskrit u:sta: pl. n. “lips, mouth” Old Church Slavonic aos^tra “lip” Avestan dual “both lips” Avestan ausculum > o:sculum “kiss, mouth, lips, mouthpiece” Latin austium > o:stium “door (w/frame); front door, starting gate; entrance to underworld; river mouth, mouth, entrance; doorway” Latin o-grade *o:ws- > Proto-IndoEuropean *o:s Proto-IndoEuropean o:s “mouth” Latin á:s id. Sanskrit o:ss “mouth of river” Old Norse originally the same word as *o:ws, *aws- (“opening” >) “ear” Proto-IndoEuropean = A-p- “mouth (of river)” Semitic 'af id. Ethiopian 'af “mouth” Tigre p- id. Semitic pu: nom. id. Assyrian fu: id. Arabic + y- pæ: Hebrew pi: stat. constr. Hebrew + m- *A-p-m- > p-m- Semitic single redupl. p-m-m- Semitic fammuN, fumuN “mouth (of river), opening” Arabic p m id. Old Aramaic pumma: id. Biblical Aramac puma: id. Jewish Araaic + n- li-phEne: “face to face with, facing, before” Hebrew extended *A-pa:n- > pa:nu “face” Assyrian pa:n stat. constr. Assyrian la-pa:n “facing” Assyrian *A.-w- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *aw- “lighten, dawn” Proto-IndoEuropean *aw-trom >?, *awg-trom >? u:tro, ju:tro “morning” Old Bulgarian + k- or G.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + g- Proto-IndoEuropean aúgé: “shining” Greek ju:gU “south” Old Bulgarian + s *'áwas- intr. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *aws- Proto-IndoEuropean *awso:s Proto-IndoEuropean auro:ra “dawn” Latin auster “south wind” Latin austr “east” Old Norse o:star id. Old Saxon o:star id. Old High German *'awás- tr. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *w-s- Proto-IndoEuropean a-vasran 3rd pl. aor. med. “they shone” Sanskrit vasantá “spring” Sanskrit vesna: id. Old Bulgarian *wesr. > éar id. Greek extended grade *we:sr.- > ve:r id. Latin va:r id. Old Norse reduced *us- Proto-IndoEuropean us^á:s- “early light” Sanskrit either + r- : l- (r- > l- after the labial w) *au-r- Proto-IndoEuropean aúrion “morning” Greek árkh-auros ? Greek or *ausr- > Proto-IndoEuropean *aur- Proto-IndoEuropean *w-l- Proto-IndoEuropean with s-preformative sa:u-l- “sun” Proto-IndoEuropean = *A-w- Semitic + r- áwru > Semitic 'o:r “morning-, day-, sun-light” Hebrew *A.-f- “back, hind, obverse part, other side” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ápo Proto-IndoEuropean ápa Sanskrit ápo Greek apó Greek ab Latin aba-, ab Old High Gefman af Gothic af Old Norse apios “far, distant” Greek apataram adv. “far off, elsewhere” Old Persian apóteros “more distant” Greek apótatos (superl.) “most distant” Greek zero grade *po Proto-IndoEuropean po- Latin pa- Avestan + n- fona “from” Old High German o-grade *op- Proto-IndoEuropean op-ó:ra: “late summer, autumn” Greek ópithe, ópisthe, opísso: “behind, after” Greek + u- apú Aeolian zero grade *pu- Proto-IndoEuropean púnar “back, again” Sanskrit púmatos “the last” Greek + (Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic d- >) t- afta Gothic aftana Gothic aftar “after” Old High German æfter id. Old English aftero “rear” Old High German = A-X- (X < f) Semitic common Semitic for “brother”, originally “alter”, eg. “the other” and “the following, the next” 'aXuN “brother, companion, ally” Arabic aXu “brother, comrade, friend” Assyrian a:H id. Hebrew + w- 'eXw, 'eXW Ethiopian fem. 'uXtuN “sister, female companion” Arabic 'eXt id. Ethiopian aXa:tu id. Assyrian aXu - aXu “alter - alter”, “one - the other” Assyrian ('i:s^-) 'a:Hiw “(one -) the other” Hebrew ('is^s^a -) 'AHo:þa:h “(one -) the other” Hebrew extended aXu:, aXi:tu f. “stranger, foreigner” Assyrian : (old alternation f:p) *A.-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *áwo- “away” Proto-IndoEuropean áva Sanskrit ava Avestan ava Old Persian au- (eg au-fero) Latin aù- (Hesychios) Greek au- Prussian au- Lithuanian au- Latvian u:- Old Bulgarian o:, ua Old Irish *aw “again” Proto-IndoEuropean aû- (aû-te, aù-t-ár) Greek autem Latin *À-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ebh- “down, sink, go under” tr. “make go down” Proto-IndoEuropean kat-e:phéo: “be defeated, ashamed, lower (gaze)” Greek kate:phé:s “with lowered gaze, defeated, ashamed” Greek katé:pheia “the lowering of the gaze, shame, being defeated” Greek : *À-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ep- Proto-IndoEuropean ib-, ibns Gothic ib-dalja “descent” Gothic + n- *epnó-s partc. Proto.IndoEuropean ibns “pedinós” Gothic eBan “even” Old English eban id. Old Higherman jafn id. Old Norse ebano:n “even, make equal” Old High German jafna id. Old Norse extended grade *e:pn- (or *e:bh-) Proto-IndoEuropean æ:fen “evening” Old English eve, evening English + t- a:Band id. Old Saxon a:band id. Old High German + (Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic d- >) t-, o-grade *opt- Proto-IndoEuropean ópsi-, opsé Greek + n- æften(-ti:d) id. Old English aptann id. Old Norse = *A.-b- Semitic + d- A-b-d- “perish” West Semitic 'a:Bað perf. id. Hebrew 'ABað id. Aramaic 'eBað “perished” Syrian 'aBda: “ruin, destruction” Aramaic 'o:Beð “ruin, destruction” Hebrew 'ABaddo: “place of destruction, realm of the dead” Hebrew + n-suffix 'ABaddo:n id. Hebrew 'obda:n, 'uBda:n “destruction, annihilation” Modern Hebrew 'uBda:na: id. and “place of banishment” Jewish Aramaic + t- aba:tu tr. “throw onto the ground” > “destroy, annihilate” Assyrian SL: appo “away, from” Hittite apa id. Sanskrit apó id. Greek [on the evidence for the laryngeal theory in Hittite:] On the other hand there are difficulties: although /h_/ appears where the thery demands in h_ant : Greek antì it is absent in appa : Greek apó where the theory equally demands it. TP: The alternative is that the ancestor of appa was borrowed into PIE with a- and without an initial laryngeal. That would explain the differing initial laryngeals of the Semitic cognates of the root: The root had alternating initial vowels *ap-/*op- and Semitic added an appropiate laryngeal in front of that initial vowel to make the root conform to its consonant-based root structure PMA: ava- “downward indicator” Sanskrit ipo- “to descend, downward indicator” Anutan ibaba- “to descend, downward” Tagalog ifo- “down” Nanumea papa- “downward, to descend” Proto-Oceanic abhi- “towards, to” Sanskrit, also abhi-gama “approaching”, upa “near, next to”. ofi- “to approach, near” Tonga ofi- “to enter” Samoa ipaka- “near” Isiai apena- “near” Raga abeti- “near” Numi upotpotet “near” Aneityum l-apit- “near” Tagalog opi- “near” Rempi op- “near” Gal api-na - “near” Are'ar SIG, IESSG, VISW: *H.-n-p- : *H.-n-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *amb- Proto-IndoEuropean ámbon “the protruding rim (of a bowl or shield), mountain ridge” Greek : *ambh- “circle” Proto-IndoEuropean àmphí “around” Greek ambi- id. Latin amb- id. Gaulish a:mpi (a: < a, p < bh) id. Tokharian *n-bh- “nave, navel” Proto-IndoEuropean *n.bh- > *m.bh- in umbi “around” Old High German umbi id. Old Saxon ymb id. Old English umb id. Old Norse abhí-tas id. Sanskrit (merged with, abhí < obhi abhí-tas “before” Sanskrit ) o-grade *ombh- Proto-IndoEropean umbo “shield buckle” Latin + l- omphalós id. Greek Demp38: ´umban, “drift on the water, float (tr.)” Proto-Austronesian `umban, “float (tr.)” Indonesian, Toba-Batak `umban, “sound of something floated” Malay SSIRG: u-po Mycenean Greek hupo “under” Greek s-ub “near,under” Latin sub- Umbrian sup Oscan hipa Messapic zup Thracian uf “on, under” Gothic up “up from under” Old English up English auf “on” German úpa “at” Sanskrit vo- preverb “under” Celtic fo id. Old Irish up-zi 3sg. athem. (sun) “rises” Hittite suppus “upwards” Old Latin hup “near” Armenian säpa > Proto-Tocharian spe, sape “nearby” Tocharian B hupér “over” Greek s-uper id. Latin s-upra: “above” > “beyond” Latin s-uperi: “gods” (lit. “the above ones”) Latin supruis d.pl. id. Oscan supru “above” Umbrian ufar “over” Gothic yfer Old English over English über “over” German ober id. German úpari id. Sanskrit for id. Old Irish *ewp-/*owp- > *u:psa- Proto-Slavic vysokU “high” Old Church Slavonic *owp-su > úas/ós “up, above, over” Old Irish uch id. Welsh *owp-s-leh2 úasal “high” Old Irish iupa “above” Gothic iup “above, after” Gothic huptios “thrown under”, “under-side up” > “lying on one's back” Greek hupsi loc.pl. “aloft” Greek *(s)ups-e(os- > hupsos “height” Greek Locational adverbs: *(s)ups-o- > hupsóthi Greek hupsóse Greek hupsóthen Greek hupsoû Greek (Footnote: Suffixed *up-s-, attested in Slav., Celt., Gk. and Gmc., eg. Greek /up-s[-]i-/ cpds. (unless is a true loc. pl. and this cpd.-stem is built straight to it) would seem to point to possible Caland suffix-alternant system here, with adjectival compound-suffix *-i- alternating with simplex-suffix *re/o- Cf. to *h2erg^- [“shine”] ... zero-gr. *h2rg^-ros “shining, white” ~ zero-gr. *h2rg^-î- [in compounds] ) TP: So this might be the origin of the suffixed -r-. has Basque connections to. Interesting SSIRG: On the prefixed s- : Meillet makes the reasonable ... suggestion that the s- of Latin s-uper, sub, sine might not merely be one and the same morph, but that in fact this Latin preverb s- is identical to the IE "adverbial" final *-s. Whatever the latter is in terms of linguistic classification within IE, there certainly is no dearth of examples amphi-s “around” Greek oúto:-s “thus” Greek patiy Old Persian patis^ Old Persian khori-s “separate, without” Greek áneu “without” Greek áneus id. Elean áni-s id. [proximate] Megaria abs- compositional “from-” Latin *ud- úd- “up” > “out” Vedic Sanskrit u:t “out” Gothic, Old English u:z id. Old High German *(s)ud-teros “upper” > hústeros “later” Greek *ud-s- us- preverb Vedic Sanskrit uz- preverb Avestan uz preverb “out of” Proto-Germanic us- Gothic ór, or- Old Norse ur[-], ar[-], ir[-] Old High German usque “up to” Latin uz^- “up on” Lithuanian uz id. Latvian vUz[-] “up to” Old Church Slavonic SIPE: hupèr “over, across” Greek upari id. Sanskrit *hupéri > hupeir id. Greek (Homer) AE: áfër + dat. “by, at” Albanian adv. “near; almost” Albanian whence afrój v. “approach” Albanian (i) áfërt, áfërm adj. “near, neighbour-, (blood-)related” Albanian afërí “(blood)relatedness, Gemeinschaft” Albanian PIEL: pul, epi, pi “into, toward, till” Etruscan *per(i) “forwards, through” Proto-Indo-European er Breton fair- Gothic pe Albanese per Latin per Lithuanian per Greek pari Sanskrit pairi Avestan par Hittite TP: What is the connection between the words for “water” and the various ad-/pre-verbs? It is this: The water words were mainly used in compounds (one might say as a suffix); *-apa, *-aha, *-ud etc together with a river name. But such a compound at the same time is a locative, “on, at {that river}”, or directions with respect to the river, cf that those adverbs are used in German as postpositions 'flussauf/flussab' “upriver/downriver” (and 'bergauf/bergab' “uphill/downhill”). Cf. that in some stationary cultures various locative expressions are not general, but relative to local rivers and mountains. Cf. EWBS: auñ, ahuñ “north east wind” Basque after a direction-giving mountain Ahuñe (lit. the goat kid), the Pic dAnie, also called Ahuñemendi As to the developments of preverbs from adverbs, Møller proposes that it went this way: 'das meer-bi segeln' “to sail on the sea” > 'das meer besegeln' “to be-sail the sea” SSIRG: C1.4 *[s]peh1-y- “thrive” / *peyH- “be fat”, with laryngeal metathesis *peyH- > “be fat, swell” Proto-IndoEuropean *faitaz id. Proto-Germanic feitr “fat” Old Norse veiz id. Middle High German ve:t id. Middle Low German fæ:tt ptc “fattened” Old English fat English feizzit “fat” Old High German feist id. German *spi-kaz > “bacon” Proto-Germanic Speck id. German spec id. Old High German spec id. Middle High German spik id. Old Norse spo:diz > Proto-Germanic spe:d “success” Old English speed English spa:ti “late” Old High German spät id. German spe:diza “later” Gothic C2.17 *[s]peh1-y- “thrive” / *peyH- “be fat”, with laryngeal metathesis *pi- “fat” Proto-Germanic + “supplied with” + individualising n-suffix *pi-þa-n > “supplied with fat” Proto-Germanic piða > “the insides, pith, marrow” Old English pith English *pittan Proto-Germanic pitte “marrow, pit, kernel” Middle Dutch pitte “marrow, strength” Middle Low German pit English with "sound-symbolic softening" of tt > dd piddaka- > Proto-Germanic ped[d]ik “marrow” Middle Low German HTV: ibai “river” Basque ibi “ford” Basque *ibara Vasconic ibar(a) “valley, estuary, [mouth of a] river” Basque cf. *Y.-b-r- HB: ibai “river” Basque *hibaie indef. “river” > hibaiea def. “the river” Basque, 1741 ibaso “river” Basque, Lapurdi dial. ur ibaia “ford, fordable river” Basque, 17th cent. (Labordeau) ibar “water-meadow, valley” Basque ipar-haize “north wind” Basque ipar “north” Basque pike, bike “pitch” Latin loanword in Basque Iberus name of river Ebro, which is outsuide Basque territory in Latin Baia tributary of river Ebro, in Basque territory Basque? Ibaiuda id. Basque? Bainona Bayonne Basque? Baigorri < ibai gorri, “red river” Basque A few scholars have tried to claim for the word ibai some kind of ancient pan-European existence by imputing it to an early 'Mediterranean' or 'Old European' substrate, but convincing evidence for such a suggestion has not been forthcoming. TP: *peCe > Pre-Basque HTV: behe, bei, be, pe “below” Basque *baika > Pre-Latin vajka, vayca > vega “water meadow, fertile land beside a river” Spanish, Portuguese, Sardinian EWBS: beira “edge, river bank, beach” Portuguese EBAE: Germany and Austia Iba river Ibra id. Ibenbach id. Ibichbach Ybbs/Ips (975 Ibisa) id. Eiba Eyb Eibingen (1074 Ibingen) Eibenwag a/d Ybbs England Ibeshol Ibesley Ivelcestre > Ilchester (on Ivel) Gallia Belgica Ibliacum Ibliodurum Spain, near Basque contry Ibarus > Ebro river Serbia Ibar (to Morava) river Thrace Ebros Ibar, its source today Serbia IbrU river Ukraine Ibra river Germany Ibra river (to Aula to Fulda) Ipf (a. 777 Ipfa) river (to Danube) Ipfgau district Ipfhofen town Flanders Yper (a. 1086 Ipra) EIEC *mu:- “dumb” mu:tus “dumb” Latin mua “be silent” Norwegian mukós “dumb” Greek (Hesychius) munj “dumb” Armenian mú:ka- “dumb” Sanskrit "To be dumb is, in fact, to be seen as dead" PMA: mo “to be faint, lose consciousness” Sanskrit muka “dumb” Sanskrit, also maukya “dumbness” RVCFRN *mo: < *H2meH3 “become tired” muodi “tired” Old High German af-mauith-s “éreinté” Gothic *H2ómH3 ami:-va- “épreuve, angoisse” Sanskrit ami:-ti “er bedrängt” Sanskrit IR 17: may “worn out” Sechelt *maHjV “lose strength, weaken, perish” Proto-Nostratic PMA: moe “lie down, fall, prostrate, sleep” Hawai'i moe “to sleep” Samoa moe “to forget” Tahiti mutu- “dumb, stupid” Marquesas mute-ki- “silent, dumb” Rarotonga mua- “dumb, foolish” Malagasy PMA: ip- “water” Mendi ipa- “water” Kewa, Enga, Ipili iba- “water” Huli ibo- “rain” Awa obe- “water” Dorig ebe- “rain” Nengone ubata- “rain” New Georgia abo-abo- “rain” Tagalog afa- “storm” Samoa afu- “waterfall” Samoa TP: *Y.-bh/p-g- “bind; pole; catch; to divide, apportion” + r-/l- *Y.-p-r- “(break on through to) the other side” + A- *(Y.-)bh-A- “(make) appear from the beyond” + y- *Y.-m-y- “urinate; cloud” + t- *(Y.-)p/bh-t- “under, next to (water)” *(Y.-)p/bh-t- “flat (land); foot” *(Y.-)p/bh-t- “lord, mistress” + H- *(Y.-)p-H- “feed, protect” : + H- *w-H- “lack; empty, waste” + d- *w-d- “water” + d- + s- > + s- *w-s- “water” + gh- *w-gh- “boat, carry, road”, (Vehicle of the Sun?) + r- *w-r- “water” *Y-p-r- “break on through to the other side” PMA bala “strength, stoutness” Sanskrit bal “to live, be strong” Sanskrit phal “to bear fruit” Sanskrit, also phala “fruit” phalya “flower” PMA plava “boat” Sanskrit, probably related to pluta “bathed, wet” aplu “to bathe, wash” BLW plewe “boat” Tocharian B plava “boat” Gurung plyog “boat” Archaic Chinese plyow “boat” Ancient Chinese OOL 18: *pal- “two” Proto-World badi “two” Proto-Bantu bar(-si) “twin” Nubian *pol “half” Proto-IndoEuropean (ka-)palam “half” Sanskrit pol “half” Russian pälä “half” Proto-Uralic fél “half” Hungarian pal “side, half” Votyak pâl “part, portion, share” Tamil -pol “two” Andaman *bula “two” Proto-Austalian bar “two” Munda pir “two” Khmer ber- “two” Orang Asli ke-bar “doubled” Javanese palo(-l) “two” Wintun bor “two” Chiripo pula “both” Quechua OOL 19: *par “to fly” Proto-World fo “to fly” Yoruba par “to fly” Dinka parr “flee” Aramaic farra “flee” Arabic far “jump, hop” Beja p'er “to fly” Georgian parNa “feather” Sanskrit parena “feather, wing” Avestan parr- “to fly” Persian parr “wing” Persian perie “feathers” Yukagir por “to fly” Khanty paRa “to fly, hover, flutter” Tamil parpar “to fly, hover about” Gilyak *pirV “to fly” Proto-Caucasian pir “to fly” Abkhaz *pir-pir- > pimpirina “butterfly” Basque *phur “to fly” Proto-Sino-Tibetan *pjwer Archaic Chinese fei “to fly” Chinese 'phur-ba “to fly” Tibetan par “to fly” Khmer OOL 3. *BUR--'ashes; dust' ---- barr “dry land” > barrio Arabic pöly “dust” Finnish pori “mud” Estonian podi “dust” Telugu bur-di “the ground” Burushaski bur “ashes” Altai bor “chalk” Kazakh bur “clay” Buriat buraki “dust, sand” Manchu IENH 2: *b(u|o)r- “to bore, pierce” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h][o]r- “to bore, pierce” Proto-IndoEuropean *b(a|&)r- “to bore, pierce” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pura “borer, auger” Proto-FinnoUgric *bur- “to bore through, pierce” Proto-Altaic bùr “to bore through, pierce” Sumerian IENH 4: *b(a|&)r- “to swell, puff up, expand” Proto-Nostratic *b[h][e|o]r- (*b[h]ar-) “to swell, puff up, expand, bristle” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h]rst[h]-i-s “bristle, point” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h]r(e|o)ws- “to swell, swelling” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h][e|o]rw-, *b[h]r[e|o]w- “to bubble up, boil” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h]ard[h]eA (> *b[h]ard[h]a:) “beard” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h]r[e|o]nd[h]- “to swell up” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[h]r[e]w- “to sprout, swell” Proto-IndoEuropean *ber- “to blow, inflate, puff out” Proto-Kartvelian *b[a|&]r- “to swell, puff up, expand” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par- “to swell, grow, expand” Proto-Dravidian bar “to blow, stretch or spread out, ferment, blow out” Sumerian bàr “to spread or stretch out, lay out” Sumerian bàra “to spread or stretch out” Sumerian bara “to spread or stretch out, open wide” Sumerian bar7 “to blow at or upon” Sumerian > IENH 5: *b(a|&)r- “projection, bristle, point” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h](a|o)r- “projection, bristle, point” Proto-IndoEuropean *b&r- “cypress, pine, fir” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 6: *b(a|&)r- “to bring, bear, carry” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h][e|o]r- “to bear, carry, bring forth” Proto-IndoEuropean *b(a|&)r- “to bear, carry, bring forth” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par “child, young one” Proto-ElamoDravidian bar “origin, descent, ancestry; family, descendants, offspring” Sumerian IENH 10: *b[u|o]l- “to swell, expand, spread out, overflow, puff up, inflate” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h](e|o)l- “to swell, puff up, inflate, expand, bubble up, overflow” Proto-IndoEuropean Kartvelian *blom- “multitude” Georgian blomad “in a crowd, mass, mob, multitude” Georgian *b[a|&]l- “to swell, expand, spread out, overflow” Proto-AfroAsiatic bul “to blow, breathe, puff” Sumerian IENH 11: *b[u|o]l-u?- “to ripen, to blossom, to sprout, to mature” (extended from 10) Proto-Nostratic > *b[h][u|o]l?H-/b[h]lo?H- (> *b[h]lo:-, later also *b[h]le:-) to blossom, to sprout” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|&]l[a|&]?- “to grow, to mature” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pol- “to increase, flourish, prosper, abound” Proto-Dravidian *bo:l- “to become” Proto-Altaic bulug3 “to grow, to make grow” Sumerian IENH 13: *b(a|&)l- “to be or become dark, obscure, blind” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h]l[e|o]nd[h]- “to make blind, to blind” Proto-IndoEuropean *b(a|&)l- “to be blind” Proto-AfroAsiatic Altaic balai “dark, obscure, ignorant; intellectually or morally blind; stupid” Mongolian balar “dark, obscure, blind, unclear, ignorant; primitive, primeval; thick, dense, impenetrable” Mongolian balu “blind” Manchu IENH 14: *b(u|o)l- “to become worn out, weak, tired, old” Proto-Nostratic *b[h]ol- “worn out, weak; misfortune, calamity” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|&]l- “to become worn out” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pul- “to wither, fade, become weak, decrease” Proto-Dravidian IENH 15: *b[a|&]ly- “to shine, be bright” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h][e|o]l- “shining, white” Proto-Indoeuropean *b[h]l[e|o]s- “to shine” Proto-Indoeuropean *b[h]l[i|e]yC- “to shine” Proto-Indoeuropean > *b[h]l[i|e]:- *b[h]l[i|e]yV- “to shine” Proto-Indoeuropean *b[h]lu(H)- “to shine” Proto-Indoeuropean *b[h](e|o)lk'-, *b[h]l[e|o]k'- “to shine” Proto-Indoeuropean *b[a|&]l- “to shine, be bright” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pal- “to glitter, shine” Proto-Dravidian IENH 16: *b[a|&]r- “to shine, be bright” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h]erEk'-, *b[h]reEk'- (*b[h]re:k´-) “to shine, gleam, be bright” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[e]rc'q'- “to shine” Proto-Kartvelian *b[a|&]r- “to shine, be bright” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par- “to shine brightly, become dawn” Proto-Dravidian bar “to shine, light, illuminate, sparkle, glitter, glisten; bright, shining; light, brightness” Sumerian bar6-bar6 “light, white; to whiten, make white” Sumerian IENH 19: *b[u|o]r-gy- “to protrude, to be prominent” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h](e|o)rg[h]- “high; mountain, hill” Proto-IndoEuropean *brg- “strong, powerful, high, large” Proto-Kartvelian *b[a|&]r[a|&]gy- “to protrude, to stand out” Proto-AfroAsiatic *por- “mountain, hill, top” Proto-Dravidian *burga(n) “(wooded) mountain, (wooded) pasture, promontory” Proto-Altaic IENH 24: *b(a|&)r- “seed, grain” Proto-Nostratic *b[h]ars- “grain” Proto-IndoEuropean *b(a|&)r- “grain, cereal” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par- “grain, seed, pebble” Proto-Dravidian bar “seed” Sumerian IENH 29: *b(u|o)ry- “dark-colored” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h]er-, *b[h]ru- “brown” Proto-IndoEuropean AfroAsiatic (*bor? >?) *bo?r- “yellow, brown, red, dark-colored” Proto-EastCushitic *bory- (“dark-colored” >) “gray, brown” Proto-Altaic IENH 35: *p[h](i|e)ly- “to split, cleave” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]l- (*p[h]l-(e|o)y-; *p[l]l-(i|e)yC- > *p[h]l-(i:|e:)C- “to split, cleave” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h](a|&)l- “to split, cleave” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pily3- “to cleave, split” Proto-Uralic *pil.- “to cleave asunder; to divide; to crush; to be split, cleaved, rent, cracked; to cleave, rend, part asunder” Proto-Dravidian *pilay- “to butcher” Proto-Eskimo *pilaytuR- “to cut up” Proto-Eskimo IENH 37: *p[h](a|&)r- “to separate, divide” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]r- “to separate, divide” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h]ric'- “to tear, rend, to break or burst apart” Proto-Kartvelian *p[h](a|&)r- “to separate, divide” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par- “to separate, cut asunder, break off, rend, tear off” Proto-Dravidian *pir- “to separate, part, sever” Proto-Dravidian IENH 39: *p[h](i|e)r- “to bring forth, bear fruit” Proto-Nostratic *p[h][e]r- “to bear, bring forth” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h](a|&)r- “to bring forth, bear fruit” Proto-AfroAsiatic *per_- “to get, beget, bear” Proto-Dravidian *püre “seed, fruit; result, offspring” Proto-Altaic IENH 41: *p[h](a|&)r- “to precede, surpass, outstrip, overtake” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]r- “preceding, surpassing” (used as the base of prepositions and preverbs and a wide range of extended meanings) Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h](a|&)r- “to precede, surpass, outstrip” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 46: *p[h](a|&)r- “to spread, scatter” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h](e|o)r- “to spray, spread, scatter” Proto-IndoEuropean extended *p[h]r-eE- [> *p[h]r-e:-] *p[h]r-[e|o]w- *p[h](a|&)r- “to spread, scatter” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par- “to spread” Proto-Dravidian pàr- “to spread or stretch out” Sumerian IENH 47: *p[h](a|&)r- “to move swiftly, hasten, be in a hurry, be greatly agitated; to fly, flee” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]r- “to fly, flee” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h]r-in- “to fly” Proto-Kartvelian *p[h](a|&)r- “to fly, flee” Proto-AfroAsiatic *par_ “to fly, flee; to hasten, hurry” Proto-Dravidian *par- “to run, flow, move quickly” Proto-Dravidian *paRla- “to hurry eagerly towards” Proto-Inuit IENH 55: *p[h][a|&]l- “settlement, settled place” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h]lH- “citadel, fortified high place” Proto-IndoEuropean *palghe- “village, dwelling-place” Proto-FinnoUgrian *palli “settlement, hamlet, village” Proto-Dravidian *palaga “city, town, village” Proto-Altaic IENH 61: *p[h][e|i]r (?) “house” Proto-Nostratic Indo-European pi-ir (nom.acc. sg.) “house” Hittite parn- “house” Hieroglyphic Luwian Afro-Asiatic pr “house” Egyptian *puray “house, dwelling” Proto-Dravidian IENH 63: *p[h](a|&)ly- “to burn, be warm; to smart, be painful” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h](e|o)l-, *p[h]loH- (> *p[h]lo:-) “to burn, be warm; to smart, be painful” Proto-IndoEuropean *o-p[h]l- “sweat, perspiration” Proto-Kartvelian *palya- “to burn, be cold; to be freezing, smart” Proto-Finno-Ugrian IENH 64: *p[h](i|e)l- “to tremble, shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]l- “to tremble, shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h](a|&)l- “to tremble, shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid, awe-struck” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pelä “to fear, be afraid” Proto-Uralic IENH 68: *p[h](i|e)r- “to tremble, shake; to be afraid, fear” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e]rk[h]- “to be afraid, fear” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h]ert[h]x- “to shake” Proto-Kartvelian *p[h](a|&)r- “to tremble, shake, quiver” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pir_- “to tremble” Proto-Dravidian *pürk- “to be afraid” Proto-Altaic IENH 69: *p[h](a|&)r- “to go or pass; to go or pass over or across; to go forth or out” Proto-Nostratic *p[h][e|o]r- “to go or pass; to go or pass over or across” Proto-IndoEuropean AfroAsiatic prì “to go, come out, go forth; to go up, ascend” Egyptian prw “motion, procession, outcome, result” Egyptian prt “(ritual) procession” Egyptian pàr “to go or pass by; to go past” Sumerian IENH 487: *wal- “to be or become strong” Proto-Nostratic > *wal- “to be strong” Proto-IndoEuropean *val- “to be strong, hard; (adj.) strong, hard, forceful; (n.) strength, power, firmness” Proto-Dravidian SIG, IESSG, VISW: *Y.-b-r- Pre-IndoEuropean *op-r- Proto-IndoEuropean extended grade *o:pr- Proto-IndoEuropean o:fer “river bank, coast” Old English o:ver “river bank, coast” Low German oever “river bank, coast” Dutch uover “river bank, coast” Middle High German 2nd high tone form *Y.abár- Pre-IndoEuropean *p-r- Proto-IndoEuropean péran, pére:n “on the other side of” Greek pérathen “from the other side” Greek peráo: “take across the sea to be sold” Greek perai~os “being on the other side” Greek peraióo: “go, take across to the other bank, coast” Greek pa:rá- “the opposite bank, coast” Greek pa:ra n. “bank, coast” Avestan pa:ráyati “go, take across” Sanskrit fra-pa:rayeiti “takes across” Avestan *Y.-b-r- Semitic Y.abara “he crossed, passed over (namely a river)” Arabic Y.a:bar “cross (e.g. a river)” Hebrew ebe:ru inf. “cross (e.g. a river)” Assyrian Y.&ba:ra: “passing, ford” Hebrew *Y.ibr- Common Semitic Y.íbruN “bank or side (of a river)” Arabic Y.èbær “the opposite side of a river (or sea)” Hebrew Y.ebrå: “the opposite side of a river (or sea)” Syrian ebru “the opposite side of a river (or sea)” Assyrian ebirtu “the opposite bank of a river” Assyrian Y.iBra:'a: “the opposite area” Hebrew Originally without doubt signifying only the bank of a river or coast of a strait where the other side is visible, therefore most frequently connected with “the one, the other, the opposite bank”. [TP: Which is what one would expect in Sundaland, with straits ever widening, forcing people to learn to sail. ] Alternative forms *P.-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-r-, *bhr- “break forth, sprout” Proto-IndoEuropean > *bh-r- trans. “bring, carry” Proto-IndoEuropean phéro: “bring, carry” Greek fero “bring, carry” Latin beran “bear fruit, give birth” Old High German bern “bear fruit, give birth” Middle High German bera “bear fruit, give birth” Old Norse ur-bor “profit” Middle High German barn “child” Gothic berõ “take” Old Bulgarian bUrU “millet” Old Bulgarian borU “millet” Russian extended with -s- barizeins “barley” Gothic bóros^no “rye flour” Russian bra:s^Ino “food, fare” Old Bulgarian extended with -gh- (-g^h-?) with nasal infix bringan “bring” Old English bringan “bring” Old High German briggan “bring” Gothic extended with -A.- *bh-râ- bérnas “son, young man” Lithuanian extended with -s- *bh-râs- farr- “spelt, grits” Latin *bhr-s, with t-suffix Proto-IndoEuropean brustian “bud” v. Old Low German *P.-r- + w + Pre-IndoEuropean d : D., or rather *P.-r- + d : D. + collective-forming w-infix? Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *P.r-w-d- frutex “shrubs” Latin frutica:re “break out” Latin : *P.r-w-D.- briezen “to blossom, sprout” Middle High German broz “sprout, bud” Old High German broz “sprout, bud” Middle High German *sp(h)r-w-d- spriezen “to sprout, bud” Middle High German sproz “sprout, bud” Middle High German cf. *sp(h)r-g^h- springen “to blossom, jump” Middle High German cf. *P-r- + -w- + -H- + -g- fru:x “crops” Latin fru:ctus “produce” Latin fruor “enjoy, profit from” Latin bru:can Old English bru:can Old Low German bruhhan Old High German bru:kjan Gothic : *p-r- “break forth, through” Proto-IndoEuropean perõ intr. “be brought” Old Church Slavonian *pr-to- part. Proto-IndoEuropean whence porta:re “carry, bring” Latin (na:-)peryõ “penetrate, bore through” Old Church Slavonian peíro: “penetrate, bore through” Greek : *bh-r- “bore, drill” Proto-IndoEuropean peráo: “penetrate, go through” Greek póros “ford” Greek faran “wander” Gothic faran “go” Old High German faran “go” Old Low German faran “go” Old English *p-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic *p-r- + -Y.- p&raY. “sprouted, blossomed” Syrian p&råY.å: “fruit” Syrian single redupl. *p-r-r- intr. “break” Proto-AfroAsiatic iprur pret. “broke” Assyrian he:Pe:r hiph. “make break = break(tr.)” Hebrew full redupl. *p-rp-r farra perf. (“broke through”) > “fled” Arabic par (“broke through”) > “fled” Syrian with n-preformative *n-p-r- nafara “fled” Arabic extended with -y- p-r-y- IV “flee” Assyrian extended with -d- p&rað “fled” Syrian extended with -h- farha “fled” > “feared” Ethiopian *p-r- > *p-l- Semitic extended with -t- : -t.- falata V “fled” Arabic VII “escaped” Arabic IV “caused to escape” Arabic falatuN “flight” Arabic : pa:lat. “evaded, escaped” Hebrew p&lat “evaded, escaped” Syrian *p-r- “chicken” Proto-IndoEuropean póris, pórtis “young ox, calf of deer, young animal, young son, young daughter” Greek extended with -s- Germ. -rz- > -rr- far, farro “bull” Old High German var, varro “bull” Middle High German verse “young cow” Middle High German *p-r- Semitic redupl. furfu:ruN “lamb, youth, young man” Arabic single redupl. p-r-r- par “young bull” Hebrew pa:ra: “young cow” Hebrew fari:ruN, fura:ruN “lambkin, kid, wild calf” Arabic further extensions of *p-r- in numerous other names of young animals *p-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *p-l-, *pl- “fly” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -w- pláva-te: med. “flies” Sanskrit plu:ma “feater, plume” Latin lu:amain “flying” Old Irish extended fliogan “fly” Old High German fliu:ga “fly” Old Norse extended with -s^- p-r-s^- “fly” Assyrian extended with -H.- p-r-H.- “fly” Hebrew p-r-H.- “fly” Aramaic *p-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Afrosiatic Alternative forms bh:p, r:l *bh-r- Proto-IndoEuropean extended bhráNs^a-te: “falls” Sanskrit bhráNs^a- “fall” Sanskrit with laryngeal infix *pa:l- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *pâl- Proto-IndoEuropean -ln- > -ll- fallan “fall” Old High German fallan “fall” Old Saxon falla “fall” Old Norse o-grade púlu “I fall” Lithuanian with s-preformative causative *sphâl- Proto-IndoEuropean spállo: “I cause to fall” Greek *p-l- Semitic single redupl. p-l-l- hiþ-palle:l (Ezr. 10, 1) “throw oneself down” Hebrew with n-preformative (=? PIE suffix -n- in *pâln- > Germanic *fall-) n-p-l- Semitic na:Pal “killed” Hebrew n&Pal “killed” Syrian extended with Pre-Semitic -G^.- para:s.u “break” Assyrian p-r-s.- “break” Hebrew extended with -s- or -s´- parasa “he broke, bruised, crushed (esp. of predators)” Arabic extended with -X- para:Xu inf. “bud” Assyrian farraXa II “(the plant) began sprouting, (the bird) bred chicks, (the egg) produced a chick” Arabic pa:raH “sprout, bloom” Hebrew p&raH “bloom” Jewish Aramaic farXuN “young of birds and certain other animals” Arabic p`æraH “sprout, blooming” Hebrew “young bird, young man” Modern Hebrew parHå: “flower” Syrian parHa: “flower, fruit of Capparis Spinosa, young bird” Jewish Aramaic pirXu “young seed, sprout” Assyrian extended with -Y.- p-r-z- “flourished” Syrian extended with -y- *pr-y- Proto-IndoEuropean o-grade with w-suffix fraiv Gothic fræ:, frio: “seed” Old Norse *p-r-y- Semitic farya perf. “(plant) produced flowers, fruit” Arabic fere: “flower, fruit, offspring” Arabic p&ri: “was fertile, fruitful” Syrian aph. “(field) brought forth” Syrian peryå: “fruitfulness, progeny” Syrian pa:ra: “produce fruit, be fruitful” Hebrew p&ri “fruit” Hebrew extended with -A- p&ra: “sprout” Jewish Aramaic pir'u “offspring” Assyrian : *b-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic bar “son” Aramaic single redupl. *b-r-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic bar “(thrashed) grain” Hebrew burruN “wheat” Arabic extended with -A- *b-r-A- “bring forth, create” Semitic bara'a perf. “(God) created” Arabic ba:ra:' “(God) created” Hebrew b&rå: “(God) created” Syrian “make, build” Southern Arabic extended with -w- bara: perf. “(God) created” Arabic al-bari:yatu “the beings, things that are created” Arabic with w-preformative and r > l after the labials *w-b-l- Semitic ubbal pres. “bring, carry (away)” Assyrian u:bil pret. Assyrian III “let bring” Assyrian y-b-l- Hebrew hiph. “carry (of feet), lead, bring (tribute, gifts)” hoph. “be brought, lead, carried (to the grave)” y&Bal pa. “carry, bring” Aramaic aph. “carry, bring” Aramaic pa. “lead, carried, handed over” Syrian aph. “lead, carried” Syrian y&Bu:l “profit” Hebrew *biltu Assyrian bilat stat. constr. “tribute, tax, profit, burden, load, fruit of one's loins” Assyrian mu-wblå: “burden” Syrian b-r-r “penetrate” Ethiopian extended with -H.- *b-r-H.- “go through, flee” Semitic b-r-H.- “recede, flee” Arabic *b-r- > *b-l- Semitic extended with -t- : -t.- ba:lat.a “fled” Arabic Alternative forms *P.-r- (“penetrate”) > “bore, drill” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic fora:re “bore, drill” Latin boro:n “bore, drill” Old High German boro:n “bore, drill” Old English bora “bore, drill” Old Norse pháros “furrow” Greek pharóo: “plough” v. Greek extended with -d- or -dh- bredõ, bresti “wade, cross” Slavic bredù, brìsti “wade, cross” Lithuanian brodU “ford” Slavic *b-r- Semitic single redupl. *b-r-r- barara “crossed, penetrated, perforated” Ethiopian redupl. barbi:r “pit, cistern, well” Ethiopian extended with -k- birkuN, birkatuN “tank or cistern dug in the ground” Arabic b&re:Xa: “pond” Hebrew extended with -s.- “penetrated, pervaded” Syrian extended with -z- b&raz “drill through” Jewish Aramaic birza: “hole” Jewish Aramaic barzi:þa: “spear” Jewish Aramaic barde:k. “penetrate” Aramaic extended with -A- b&ra: “cut, drill through” Jewish Aramaic aph. “drill through” Jewish Aramaic with A-infix (*b-r-A- >?) *b-A-r- Semitic ba'ara “dug (pit, well)” Arabic bi'ruN “well” Arabic b&'e:r “well” Hebrew be'rå: “well, pit, grave” Syrian bu'ratuN “pit” Arabic bo:r “cistern, grave” Hebrew bu:ru “well, cistern, grave” Assyrian be:ru, bi:ru “deep” Assyrian be:ru:tu, bi:ru:tu “depression, mine, subterranean passage” Assyrian extended with -H.- ba:raH. “go through” > “flee” Hebrew b&raH “flee” Aramaic bariH.a “receded, fled” Arabic : *p-r- póros “ford” Greek ford “ford” Old English furt “ford” German -ritum “ford” Gaulish *p-r-r- *n-p-r- “flee” Semitic extended with -G.^- > Proto-IndoEuropean -g^- *P.-r-G^.- *P.aráG^. trans. *bhr-g- brikan “break” Gothic brecan “break” Old English brechan “break” Old High German giri-bhráj- “breaking forth from mountains”, really trans. “mountain-breaking” Sanskrit fre:gi perf. frango pres. “break” Latin *p-r-G^.- Pre-AfroAsiatic *paráG^. farad.a perf. “cut into” Arabic pa:ras. “break (a mine shaft), tear down (a wall), crack, break in” Hebrew p&ras. “break through” Jewish Aramaic para:s.u inf. “break, break through” Assyrian fard.uN “cut, inscription” Arabic p`æræs. “crack, gap, breach (in the wall), break-through (of water)” Hebrew pirs.a: m. “crack, hole, opening” Jewish Aramaic pirs.a: f. “crack, hole, opeening” Modern Hebrew furd.atuN “a gap or an opening in a wall, a gap or breach in the bank of a river” Arabic extended with -w- *bhr-w- Proto-IndoEuropean phréar “(dug-out) cistern, water tank” Greek Old parallel form *P.-l- “break forth” > “break up, sprout” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic extended with -y- *bh-ly- Proto-IndoEuropean folium “leaf” Latin with collective-forming w-infix *bh-wly- púllon Greek extended with -Á- *bhle:- Proto-IndoEuropean blæ:d “flower” Old English extended with -Y.- *bhlo:- “bloom” v. Proto-IndoEuropean pluon “bloom” v. Old High German bluojen “bloom” v. Old High German blo:wan “bloom” v. Old English bluot “bloom” n. Old High German *bhlo:to-, *-ta:- > bla:th “bloom” n. Irish flo:s “bloom” n. Latin flo:rere “bloom” v. Latin reduction of *bhle:- or *bhlo:- *bhlâ- > *bhlâ-tó- blað “leave” Old Norse blat “leave” High German with m-suffix *bhlo:m.- “bloom” Proto-IndoEuropean blo:m n. coll. “sprouting buds and leaves” Old Norse blo:ma “bloom” Gothic blo:ma “bloom” Old English blo:mi “bloom” Old Norse blo:mo “bloom” Old High German *b-r-Y.-m barY.ama “(the tree) grew flower buds” Arabic burY.u:muN “blossoms before they open, flowers, the flower of a tree before the opening, the calyx of the fruit of a tree” Arabic *b-l- extended with -s.- b&las. “sprouted, flourished” Syrian *P.-l- “swell (also of water)” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic (as in Goethe's “Das Wasser rauscht, das Wasser schwoll” > want to overflow *bh-l- Proto-IndoEuropean follis “hose, bellows, baloon” Latin *ballu-z (-ln- > -ll-) Germanic bollr “ball” Old Norse bal “ball” Middle High German ballo “bale” Old High German extended with -Á- *P.alá'- > *bh-le:- “swell” Proto-IndoEuropean bla:en “blow” Old High German blæjen “blow” Middle High German bla:wan “blow” Old English bla:-san “blow” Old High German ble:san “blow” Gothic bla:sa “bladder” Old High German bla:sa “bladder” Old English bla:tere “bladder” Middle High German fle:mina “growth on the knuckles” extended with -K^.- > PIE -g- *P.aláK^.- > *bh-l-g^h- intr. belgan “become swollen” Old English belgan “become swollen” Old High German bolginn part. “swollen” Old Norse balgs “bellows, hose” Gothic balg “bellows, shed skin, shell, pod” Old High German belgr “bellows, shed skin, shell, pod” Old Norse bylgja “wave” Old Norse upa-barha- m. “pillow” Sanskrit upa-barhan.a- n. “pillow (cover)” Sanskrit bar&zis^ “pillow (cover)” Avestan blàzina “pillow, feather bed” Serbian blazina “pillow, feather bed” Slovenian *bulXstra- > bolstr “pillow” Old Norse bolstar “pillow” Old High German bolster “pillow” Middle High German bolster “pillow” Old English *bh-le:- “overflow” Proto-IndoEuropean fle:re “weep” Latin extended with -A.- *P.aláA.- > *bhla:- Proto-IndoEuropean fla:re (caus. “make swell” > ) “blow” Latin extended with -p- (half redupl.) or with -w- identical to Semitic w-preformative *bhl-w- Proto-IndoEuropean *bhléwo: > phléo: “overflow” Greek phlúo: “flow, overflow” > “chatter” Greek phlúos “chatter” Greek ew > ow > u fluo: “flow” Latin fluvius “river, stream; running water” Latin extended with -gW- (or *bhl-g- with collective-forming w-infix?) *bhl-wg- flu:xi “flowed, streamed” Latin flu:c-tus “wave, disorder, flood” Latin flu:men “river, strem” Latin phluzo: “swell over” Greek oìno-phlux “drunk on wine” Greek phluktís, phlúktaina “bladder” Greek : *pl-w- Proto-IndoEuropean pláva-te: “swims” Sanskrit plovã “float, swim, ship” Old Church Slavonian pléo: Greek pluit “rains” Latin pluvia “rain, shower” Latin peri-plúo: “burn around” Greek peri-pleúo: “burn around” Greek *pl-wd- > Proto-IndoEuropean *flewt- Germanic fle:otan “flow” Old English fliozan “flow” Old High German extended with -n- èk-pla-íno: “well forth” Greek phle:naros “talkative” Greek extended with -d- plédo:n, pledó:n “chatterbox” Greek extended with -G.- or -k- > PIE -g- phlegmaíno: “swell, inflate, nourish” Greek phlegmoné: “tumor” Greek extended with -K^.- > PIE -g^h- with n-preformative *n-b-l- Semitic whence nèBæl, niBl- “hose, sack of wine” Hebrew niBle:(y) s^a:mayim (Hiob 38, 37) “hoses of heaven”, = “clouds” Hebrew whence ma-bbu:l “(Noah's) flood” Hebrew with w-preformative *w-b-l- wabluN, wa:biluN “violent rain, consisting of large drops” Arabic yible:(y) mayim “streams of water” Hebrew with w-infix (same as w-preformative) *b-w-l- Semitic ba:la “he urined, begat offspring” Arabic whence bauluN “urine, seminal fluid, offspring, a large number” Arabic buwa:luN “a disease occasioning much discharging of urine” Arabic *b-l-l- redupl. bala:lu II 1 “pour out, pour over” Assyrian II 2 “be poured over” Assyrian ba:lal “pour over” Hebrew intr. “be poured over” Hebrew balla “he moistened” intr. “it became moist” Arabic 'aballu “wetter, damper” Arabic billatuN “fluency (= facility, of the tongue)” Arabic extended with -t- *b-l-t- bala:tu “overflow” Assyrian baltu “abundant power, wealth” Assyrian *P.-r- > *P.-l- “break forth” > “appear” > “become (be) bright, shine” (and “be naked, bald”) Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-l- r > l after labial Proto-IndoEuropean belo- “bright, shiring” Celtic perhaps reduced *bh&l- phaló:-s “bright, shining, white” Greek phalakrós “bald” Greek phalákra: “baldness” Greek phala:rós “bright, shining, white” Greek phale:rós “bright, shining, white” Greek extended grade bæ:l “pyre” Old English ba:l “pyre” Old Norse balled “bald” Middle English extended with laryngeal *bh-lâ- “become bright” Proto-IndoEuropean -olâ- > Lithuanian -ál- o-grade bálti “turn white, pale” Lithuanian báltas “white” Lithuanian extended with -s- with r-suffix -asr- > -a:r- phala:rós “bright, of bright color” Greek phale:rós “bright, of bright color” Ionian Greek extended with -g^:G^.- > IndoEuropean -k^:g^- *bh-lâk^- Proto-IndoEuropean phalakrós “bald, bare, smooth, shiny” Greek phalákra “baldness” Greek : *bh-lâg^- Proto-IndoEuropean flagro “blaze, burn” Latin *bhlâg^ma:- > Proto-IndoEuropean flamma “flame” Latin blecchen “make visible, expose oneself” Old High German blecken “make visible, expose oneself” Middle High German extended with -s- (: AfroAsiatic -s.- or = AfroAsiatic -z-) *bhl-s- Proto-IndoEuropean blas n. “torch” Middle High German blæse f. “torch” Old English blysa “torch” Old English blysige “torch” Old English blys n. “torch, flame” Old Norse extended with laryngeal ? extended with -s- *bhl-âs- Proto-IndoEuropean blas-ros “horse with white spot on forehead” Old High German blasenhengst “horse with white spot on forehead” Middle Low German blare “(cow with) spot” Middle Low German blare “(cow with) spot” Middle Dutch blaar “(cow with) spot” Dutch blas “bald” Middle High German blaer “bald” Middle Dutch extended with -w- *bhl-w- (= *b-l-w- Arabic) with dental suffix bla:t “bare, naked” Old Frisian blo:t “bare, naked” Middle Low German blo:t “bare, naked” Middle Dutch blo:z “bare, naked” Middle High German blut “bare, naked” Dutch blutsch “bare, naked” Dutch blut “bare, naked” Middle High German extended with -k- (-k^-?) far-bluhita “was on fire, burned” Old High German verblohen “finished burning, burned out” > “extinguished” Middle High German extended -y- with w-suffix blaivýti-s “become clear (of sky)” extended with (-d- : -D.-) > PIE (-t- : -d-) bli:ði “shiny, bright, (of sky) clear” > “happy” Old English : ble:dU “pale” Old Bulgarian bla:t “pale” Old English extended with -G.- > PIE -g- extended with PIE -yg^- *bhl-yg^- Proto-IndoEuropean *blaika- “pale” Germanic bli:kan “blink” Old English bli:kya “blink” Old Norse *bhlig^sk- > *blIsk- Slavic *b-l- Semitic *b-l-w- (= PIE *bhl-w-) extended with -w- bala: trans. “was evident” Arabic 'abla: IV “he made (-hu it) manifest, apparent, evident, clear or plain” Arabic extended with -g:k.- Alternative forms *b-r- Semitic redupl. *b-r-r- Semitic bara:ru “be bright, gleam” Assyrian bar “pure, empty” Hebrew ba:rar Hebrew niph. “purify oneself” Hebrew hithp. “purify oneself” hiph. “purify” pi. “cleanse” cal. “sift, separate” ba:ru:r “clean” Hebrew in Arabic transferred onto the ethical field beru:r “silver” Ethiopian bari:ra: “clear, pure” Aramaic bari:ru “resplendent rising of the stars” Assyrian extensions *b-r-H.- barha “be luminous, shine” Ethiopian bariH.a “he was (became) white” Arabic bara:H. “bald” Ethiopian baru: “look, see” Assyrian whence baru: “look, see” Assyrian ba:ru: “clairvoyant, magic” Assyrian extended with -s^- baras^uN “a whiteness that appears upon the nails, white specks in the skin, small specks (in the hair of a horse) differing from the rest of the colour” Arabic 'abras^u “white (horse) speckled with black” Arabic extended with -s.- *b-r-s.- baras.uN “white leprosy” Arabic 'abras.u “leprous” Arabic baris.a “he was (became) leprous” Arabic ta-baras.a “twinkle, shine” Ethiopian birs.u “light (of stars)” Assyrian *b-r-A- bari'a “was (became) clear (of)” Arabic extended with -Y.- *b-r-Y.- baraY.a “he was (became) accomplished in every excellence” Arabic ba:riY.uN “excelling” Arabic -atuN “beautiful, goodly” Arabic b-r-H- “to become manifest, apparent” Arabic bara:HuN “what is open and wholly apparent (of land)” Arabic bara:Hu a name of the sun Arabic *b-r-z- baraza “he (it) appeared, became apparent” Arabic bara:zuN “an open tract of land” Arabic ba:rizuN “entirely apparent” Arabic : *p-r- Semitic extended with -Y.- p&raz “bare, uncover” Aramaic “bare, uncover (head)” Syrian pe:raz “uncover” Modern Hebrew pi. “uncover” hiph. “uncover oneself” extended parsi: “made naked, revealed” Syrian prusåyå: “making naked, revelatio, pudenda” Syrian extended with -G.- *P.álaG.- intr. “flash, shine, be bright” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-lg- Proto-IndoEuropean *P.aláG.- trans. “flash, shine, be bright” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bhl-g- Proto-IndoEuropean bhárgas “splendor” Sanskrit bhrágavas “mythical beings who brought fire to Man” Sanskrit phlé:go “burn” Greek phlóx “flame” Greek phlegmaíno: “inflame” Greek phlegmoné: “inflammation” Greek *bhlog- Proto-IndoEuropean *blak- Germanic blecken “flash” Middle High German *P.aráG.a- trans. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *P.áliG.a- intr. ? Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *b-r-k.- Common Semitic barak.a perf. “flashed, twinkled, shone” Arabic barak.a perf. “flashed, twinkled, shone” Ethiopian ba:rak. “flash” v. Hebrew bara:k.u inf. “flash” Assyrian ba:rak. “flash, shine, twinkle” Modern Hebrew b&rak. “flash, shine, twinkle” Aramaic b&rak. “flash, shine, twinkle” Syrian hiph, “be visible” Modern Hebrew ba:ra:k. b&ra:k.i:m pl. “lightning” Hebrew b&rak. “lightning” Aramaic bark.a: “lightning” Biblic Aramaic bark.å: “lightning” Syrian birk.u “lightning” Assyrian bark.uN “lightning, billiance, thunderbolt” Arabic baràk.t “emarald” Phoenician (>máragdos “emerald” Greek ) ba:r`æk.æþ “emerald” Hebrew with originally suffixal -l- bark.ala “there was lightning without rain” Arabic : *b-r-g- intr. bariga “it was (became) apparent” Arabic baraguN “clearness of the white (and back parts) of the eye” Arabic *b-l-g- original -l-, in PIE Semitic baliga “he was (became) bright (in countenance), joyful, glad” Arabic balaga “(the sun, the dawn etc) shone, was bright; it was (became) manifest, apparent, clear” Arabic 'ablaga “he made (-hu it) apparent, clear, he made (-hu him) glad” Arabic b-l-g hiph. “let lightning strike (of God)” Hebrew intr. “become joyful, glad” Hebrew baliguN “joyful, glad” Arabic balgatuN, bulgatuN “the light (of the dawn)” Arabic : b-l-k.- Proto-AfroAsiatic b&lak. “appeared, was evident, visible shone, was bright” Syrian bulåkå: “splendor” Syrian phléo: “overflow” Greek phlúo: “flow, overflow” > “chatter” Greek phlúos “chatter” Greek ew > ow > u fluo: “flow” Latin fluvius “river, stream; running water” Latin extended with -gW- (or *bhl-g- with collective-forming w-infix?) *bhl-wg- : *pl-w- Proto-IndoEuropean plovã “float, swim, ship” Old Church Slavonian pléo: Greek pluit Latin pluvia Latin *pl-wd- > Proto-IndoEuropean *flewt- Germanic fle:otan “flow” Old English fliozan “flow” Old High German fulgeo “shine, flash” Latin fulgur “lightning, flashing” Latin extended with laryngeal if -A.- or -H.- *bhrâ- Proto-IndoEuropean if -Á- *bhre:- Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -g^:k^- > PIE -k^:g^- (retained r before extension with laryngeal and k^) *bh-râk^- Proto-IndoEuropean bhrá:s^a-te: “shines” Sanskrit phorkó-s “bright” Greek (Hesychios) : *bh-râg^- Proto-IndoEuropean bhrá:jati, -te: “radiates” Sanskrit bhra:zaiti “radiates” Avestan bérs^-ta “the crop begins to turn white” Lithuanian bairhts “bright, apparent” Gothic biart-r “bright, apparent” Old Norse beorht “bright, apparent” Old English beraht “bright, apparent” Old High German *bherâg^o-s, *bherâg^a:- “birch” Proto-IndoEuropean bardhë “white” Albanian b-r-H- (b-l-H-) Proto-AfroAsiatic b-l-H hiph. “flicker” Modern Hebrew bariH.a intr. perf. “it became apparent” Arabic bara:huN “clear, distinct (thing)” Arabic bara:H.u a name of the sun, so called because of the spreading of its light and its conspicuousness Arabic *bh-l- “become white” > “having a white spot, cataract in the eye” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic albu:go “cataract” Latin leúko:ma “cataract” Greek be:lImo “cataract” Old Church Slavonian extended *P.alá'- > *bhle:-, *bhlâ- *bhlent- part. blind-s “blind” Gothic *P.-r- : *p-r- > Pre-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic *bh-r-, *bhr- “shine” Proto-IndoEuropean bryne “fire” Old English brand “fire” Old English brand-r “fire” Old Norse brant “fire” Old High German brinnan “burn” Gothic brinnan “burn” Old High German bronU “white, variegated” Russian Church Slavonic bradhná- “reddish, yellowish; sun” Sanskrit bero “bear (brown one)” Old High German bero “bear (brown one)” Old English bjorn “bear (brown one)” Old Norse bêras “brown (of horses)” Lithuanian bêris “brown horse” Lithuanian *bru:na- “shiny, brown” Germanic redupl. babhrú- “reddish brown, brown; beaver” Sanskrit *bhebh-r-, *bhibh-r- “beaver” Proto-IndoEuropean bawra-, bawri- “beaver” Avestan bebrU, bIbrU “beaver” Slavic fiber “beaver” Latin bibar “beaver” Old High German beofor “beaver” Old English *b-l- Semitic single redupl. *b-l-l- Semitic whence t&Ballul Lev. 21,20 “albuginem habens” Vulg. Hebrew (be-Ze:no:) “in oculo” Hebrew *b-r- Semitic extended bark.a: “cataract” Aramaic bark.i:þ “cataract” > “blindness” Modern Hebrew ba:rak. hiph. “blind” v. Modern Hebrew *P.-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-l- “break through” > “split, cut, divide” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -g:G^.- > PIE -g^- *P.àlG^.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-lg^- Proto-IndoEuropean *bholg- balz^éna Lithuanian bolozno “plank” Russian balcho “beam” Old High German bjalki “beam” Old Norse balk-r “dividing wall, division” Old Norse *balku-z > Germanic bolkr “division” Old Norse balca “ridge between furrows” Old English balka “ridge between furrows” German *bh-lg- Proto-IndoEuropean balke “beam” German with s-preformative *sp(h)-lg^- Proto-IndoEuropean : *p-r- Proto-IndoEuropean extended with laryngeal reduced *p-râ- Proto-IndoEuropean with t-suffix part-, pars nom “beam” Latin : *p-l- “burst, be split, break (forth)” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -d- or -ð- > PIE -t- pálad- or pálað- *p-lt- “be split” Proto-IndoEuropean -lt- > -t.- pát.a-ti “bursts” Sanskrit with s-preformative *sph-lt- Proto-IndoEuropean spalden “cleave” Middle Low German spaltan “cleave” Old High German sphát.a-ti intr. Sanskrit *p-l-ð- Semitic falaða trans. “cut” Arabic fallaða II “cut to pieces” Arabic filðatuN “part, segment” Arabic extended with -k^- péleku-s “axe” Greek *b-l- Semitic extended with -t- balata “cut, divided” Arabic extended with -s.- ta-ba:las.a refl. (p > P. after ta-) ta-fa:las.a “split little by little” Ethiopian extended with -X- balXa intr. “be pointed, sharp” Ethiopian extended with -H.- belhe “separate” Tigre : extended with -g- *p-l-k^- Proto-IndoEuropean péleku-s “axe” Greek paras^ú-, párs^u “axe” Sanskrit *p-l-g- Proto-AfroAsiatic falaga “he divided in halves, he furrowed (the land for sowing)” Arabic p&lay “divided” Aramaic p&lay “divided” Syrian pillay pi. “divide, split” Hebrew ni-Play niph. “be divided” Hebrew p&lay “half” n. Hebrew falguN “half” n. Arabic p`ælæy “half” n. Modern Hebrew palgu “canal” Assyrian p`ælæg “canal” Hebrew falag “wall, canal, stream” Ethiopian extended with -k.- *p-l-k.- Proto-AfroAsiatic falak.a “he split, clave, divided lengthwise” Arabic falk.uN “a fissure, cleft” Arabic filkatuN “a fragment, the half of a thing” Arabic pilak.k.u “axe” Assyrian extended with -H.- pa:laH. “furrow, turn over (earth)” Hebrew p&laH. “tilled (field)” Syrian p&laH. “tilled (field)” Jewish Aramaic falaH.a “furrowed, ploughed” Arabic falaH.atuN “(field or land) furrowed or ploughed for cultivation” Arabic falla:H.uN “plougher, peasant” Arabic fella:H. “plougher, peasant” Modern Arabic extended with -X- falaXa “split, divided” Arabic *p-r- “break forth” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic > (r > l after labial) Alternative form *p-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic falfala “rush forth (of spring)” Ethiopian falfal “spring” Ethiopian palpel “sprinkle, taint” Syrian extended with -H.- *p-l-H- falH.a “bubble, boil” Ethiopian extended with -y- fala: “(sword) stroke (head)” Arabic *P.-r- > *P.-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-l, *bhl- “break” > intr. “become weak, soft, wither” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -w- and -d:t- blautr “soft” Old Norse blotna “become soft” Old Norse : ble:oþ “weak, powerless” Old English blauð-r “timid” Old Norse blo:ði “fragile, shy” Old English blo:di “fragile, shy” Old High German blæ:de “fragile, shy” Middle High German blauþjan “weaken” Gothic with the original -r- bro:di “weak, fragile” Old High German bræ:de “weak, fragile” Middle High German with s-preformative *sp(h)r- spreþe “fragile” Middle English spröde “fragile” German extended with laryngeal *bhlu:- reduced blú:kti “become lax, atrophy (of muscles)”Lithuanian with laryngeal extension flaccus “withered” Latin *b-l- Semitic full redupl. balba:le:, belba:le: “worn-out garment” Ethiopian single redupl. bellele “lose color (clothes)” Tigre: extended with -y- *b-l-y- Semitic baliya intr. “it withered, wasted, decayed, it was (became) old and worn out” Arabic balla: II 'abla:(y) IV “he wore out (as^-s^awba the garment)” ba:liN “old and worn out” Arabic balya “be worn out though age and use, rot, pine away” Ethiopian belu:y part. “old, ancient” Ethiopiam belyat “ancient, aged” Ethiopian ba:la: “be worn, wither” Hebrew ba:læ: “worn (of people and clothes)” Hebrew b&elo:yi:m “rags” Hebrew b&li: “annihilation, destruction” Hebrew b&la:, b&li: “become decrepit, worn, wither” Aramaic b&li: “wore down, grew old, was destroyed” Syrian pa. “wore out (garment), made rot (meat)” ibéli “be annihilated, perish” Assyrian extended with -t.- 'aBlet. “rotted (wood)” Syrian balt.itu “wood worm” Assyrian b<.iþå: “wood worm” Syrian balt.iþa: “worm damage” Aramaic extended with -k.- belk.e “wear down” Tigre: bellek.e “wear oneself down” Tigre: with n-preformative na:Be:l intr. “wither, crumble” Hebrew n-b-l- trans. “destroy” Assyrian (denom.)VIII “died” Arabic nabaltu “corpse” Assyrian n&Be:la: “corpse” Hebrew nabi:latuN “corpse” Arabic *P.-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-r- “swell” Proto-IndoEuropean fermentum “yeast, sourdough” Latin berme “yeast” Middle Low German beorma “yeast” Old English extended with -w- *bh-rw- intr. Proto-IndoEuropean fervo, ferveo “seethe, boil” Latin *bhr-w- trans. Proto-IndoEuropean broþ “broth” Old English prod “broth” Old High German bre:ad “bread” Old English bro:t “bread” Old High German briuwan “brew” Old High German bre:owan “brew” Old English with w-infix *bh-w-r- “seethe, boil” Proto-IndoEuropean bior “beer” Old High German be:or “beer” Old English transferred sense furo “rave, rage” Latin furio “enrage” Latin furia “frenzy, fury” Latin *p-w-r Semitic fa:ra perf. “made boil, made seethe” Arabic intr. “boiled, (water, oíl) boiled, bubbling, (liquor) fermented, (water) welled came forth (from the earth or ground), (the vein) became in a state of commotion and flowed forth (with blood), (nafsu-hu his soul) heaved, (his stomach) became agitated with a tendency to vomit”, transferred sense “(fa:'iru-hu his anger) boiled” Arabic 'afa:ra IV “he made (-hu it) to boil or estuate” Arabic 'ett&Pi:r “he became enraged” Syrian fawruN, fawratuN “summer heat” Arabic transferred sense “a ebullition of anger, rage or passion” Arabic purþå: “rabies, anger” Syrian puruþå: “anger” Syrian extended grade (-w- > -'-) fa:'iruN “swollen in the sinews” Arabic n. “anger” Arabic (fa:ra fa:'iru-hu “his anger boiled, he was or became angry” Arabic) fuwaratuN “the froth, foam that boils over (of a cooking-pot)” Arabic fawwa:ratuN “a source or spring of water” Arabic redupl. purpårå: “ebullition” Arabic extended with laryngeal reduced *bhru:- Proto-IndoEuropean bru~tos, -ton “barley beer” Thracian extended with -s- *bhr-ws- Proto-IndoEuropean briust “breast” Old Low German breost “breast” Old English bryo:st “breast” Old Norse brust-s “breast” Gothic brust “breast” Old High German *b-r- Semitic extended with -A- or -y- baru: “strut, be full” Assyrian biru: “abundant plant growth” Assyrian tabru: “verdant fullness” Assyrian bitru: “strutting, fat, plentiful” Assyrian extended with -A.- b-r-A- hiph. “make fat” Hebrew ba:ri:' “well fed” Hebrew b&ra: intr. “be powerful” Aramaic aph. “feed oneself, become strong” Aramaic caus. “feed” Aramaic : *p-l- Semitic extended with -k- falikat, falakat intr. perf. f. “(a virgin) had rounded breasts” Arabic fallakat II “(a virgin) had rounded breasts” Arabic fallaka “(a girl's breast) became round” Arabic falikuN “large in the buttocks, thick or coarse of make, in the joints” Arabic (> “become round” in general, whence falakuN “round part (of whatever)” Arabic) al-faliku “the skies, orbis caelestis” Arabic falkatuN “something round, the whirl of a spindle” Arabic pilku “district” Assyrian pilakku “spindle” Assyrian p`ælæX “circle, district, spindle” Hebrew p`ælæX “circle, district, spindle” Hebrew Assyrian >? p&laX denom. “spin” Hebrew *P.-r- : *p-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-r- “split” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with Proto-IndoEuropean -dh- or -t- bred “board” Old English bret “board” Old High German bret “board” Middle High German -baurd “board” Gothic borð “board” Old Norse bord “board” Old English bord “board” Old Low German extended with -y- with laryngeal extension feri:re “hit, strike” Latin bhri:n.á:-ti “injures” Sanskrit bri:naiti “cuts” Avestan bri-ti “cut” v. Old Churh Slavonian extended with -w- brUvno “beam” Old Bulgarian brevnó “beam” Russian br^evno “beam” Czech *b-r- Semitic single redupl. *b-r-r- ba:ru:r part. “sharpened” Hebrew hiph. “sharpen (an arrow)” Hebrew extended with -A- pi. “clear (forest), cut to pieces” Hebrew extended with -y- bara: perf. “he formed by cutting, shaped out (applied to an arrow, but not feathered nor headed” Arabic mi-bra:tuN “the knife with which one forms or pares a bow” Arabic extended with -w- bara: “he formed by cutting, shaped out (a piece of wood)” Arabic barwatuN “cuttings, chips” Arabic AKc 42741: *bhel-1 “to shine, flash, burn”. I. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-eH2: 1a. balë “white blaze on the face or body of a domestic animal” b. balash “with blazed face or spotted body” Alb.; c. bal “dog with white spots; sheepdog”; d. baliskë “patch of white on the face or body of domestic animal”; 2a. In many compounds as a first or second element: balë•drenjë “goat with long straight horns and a white blaze on the forehead”, also bal•fllorë; b. balë•mushk “goat with dun-colored hair”; c. bal•dosë “badger” also dosëbalë; d. balë•sorrë “black ewe with a white blaze on the forehead”; e. balë•krocë “evergreen rose”; f. balgjosë “dark goat with white lines”; g. bal•mëllenjë “dark goat with a white blaze on the forehead”, etc (cf. phalaros “having a white spot” Gr.). (It was rightly supposed that the name of Belisarius' hors Balias could be explained through Albanian.). 3a. Extended root *bhol-t-a: > Alb. baltë “mud, dirt” Alb. (cf. blato, Sl. present also in balta Rom.); b. balt-ak “muddy, slimy”, c. balt-ovinë “muddy place”; d. balt-inë “muddy ground”; e. balt-omë “mud, filth” etc. 4. bajzë “coot” (cf. fulica Lat., phaleris/phalaris “id.” Gr.), probably from *bhol-dya:. II. Extended root *bhleH1-, contracted to *bhle:- 1a. blozë “smock-black, lampblack, smut”, Alb., probably from *bhleH1-dya:; b. i/e blozët “charred” (cf. *blewaz Gmc). III. Zero-grade form *bhl.H1- 1. blini/bliri “lime-tree, linden” Alb., probably derivev from suffixed form of zero-grade *bhl.-nu, even to some my research *r.H1 as well as *l.H1 have yielded in Alb. /ur/ and /ul/. IV. Extended root *bhleg- 1. bjeg-zë Alb. with metathetic variant bjezgë “Phlomis fruticosa”, probably from *bhleg-dya:. Same formation was found also in South Slavic belica “id.” from bel “white”. (Pokorny 1. bhel- 118, bheleg- 124. SIPE: é:peiro “seashore, mainland” `ibr|un “shore, bank” Arabic `éBer id. Hebrew `ubr|un id. Arabic `abr|un id. Arabic accusative construct of the last one: `abr|a “across, beyond” Arabic So much variation is unusual in Arabic, though not unparalleled. e-bi-ir-tim, a-bar-tim “(the other) bank” Akkadian e-bi-ir-tam anni:tam acc. “(on) the near bank” Akkadian ina e-be-er-tum nom. “on the (other) bank” Akkadian e-bi-ir-ti, a-bar-ti gen. “across” Akkadian e-bi-ir-ta acc. id. Akkadian e-bir-tu nom. id. Akkadian HTV: ibai “river” Basque *ibara Vasconic ibar(a) “valley, estuary, [mouth of a] river” Basque cf. *Y.p- EWBS: ibei, ibeni “land grown between two furrows” Basque ibeni “place, put, (stat) set” Basque ibili “go, walk” Basque basterr “edge” Basque ibei + basterr > iberts “steep bank” Basque ibi “brook, ford” Basque IEIE: pari “go on campaign, march” Elamite póros “passageway” Greek portus “harbour” Latin AR: Foreign cultural influences: phá:la- “plough share” Loanword in Sanskrit bíla- n. “cleft, hollow” Loanword in Sanskrit CELR I 64: *buri- “horse” West Chadic *b(a)war- id. East Chadic ìbr “steed” Egyptian CELR V 14: *pyalan- “coast” West Chadic npr.t id. Egyptian CELR V 98: *p.ar- “partridge” West Chadic *par- “turtle-dove” Central Chadic pr “kind of bird” Egyptian CELR V 106: *('a)mbi- “water” West Chadic *mbwa- id. East Chadic by3 “water in the sky” Egyptian CELR VIII 19: *m-bur- “boil” East Chadic brbr “be boiling” Egyptian CELR VIII 67: *par- “climb, rise” East Chadic pry id. Egyptian CELR VIII 191: *p.urya- “jump” West Chadic *fyar- id. Central Chadic *par- id. East Chadic pry “rise” Egyptian CELR X 4: *far- “first” West Chadic nfr “beautiful” Egyptian G: -bád- “shine” Proto-Bantu -bád- “speckle” id. -bádà “spot; speckle” id. -bàdÉ “two” id. -bádok- “burst open” id. -bàdok- “burst open” id. -bàdù “rib; side of body” id. -bèd- “come to the boil” id. -bíád- “bear a child” id. -bód- “hit and kill” id. -bótÒ “seed” id. -bùd- “be plentiful or numerous” id. -pàc- “to separate” id. -pácà “twin” id. -pádá “baldness” id. -pànd- “to split” tr. id. -pándà “fork in road or tree” id. -pÈn- “flash, as lightning” id. -pótÉ “boil, carbuncle” id. -pÓn- “fall from a height” id. IELS: Unlike the word for 'sister', we have no means of analysing the name for 'brother', apart from isolating the final -ter itself, as in the case of 'mother' and 'father'. But we can offer no explanation for the root *bhra:-. It is useless to connect it with the root *bher- of Latin fero because we know of no use of the forms of this root which would lead to the sense of 'brother'. We are not in a position to interpret *bhra:ter any more than we can *p&ter and ma:ter. All three are inherited from the most ancient stock of Indo-European. TP Not so. CAD: *báliw “exchange” Proto-Austronesian *baRéq “swell(ing); abscess, boil” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *bê+láq “split” Proto-Austronesian *bêRas “husked rice” Proto-HesperonesianFormosan *bêRáy “give” Proto-Austronesian *bêRék “pig” Proto-Austronesian *beRsay “canoe paddle, oar” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *biras “scar” Proto-Hesperonesian *birás “sibling-in-law” Proto-Hesperonesian *biRaq “taro, giant arum, Alocasia sp.” Proto-Austronesian *biRaS “roe, fish eggs” Proto-Austronesian *búlaN, *bulay “albino” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *buláR “cataract of the eye” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *buléR “cataract of the eye” Proto-Hesperonesian *bulún, “leaf” Proto-Hesperonesian *buR “scatter” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *kam+buR “scatter (seed)” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *qa(m)+bud2 “scatter” Proto-Hesperonesian *sa(m)+beR “scatter seed” Proto-Hesperonesian *sa(m)+buR “scatter seed” Proto-Hesperonesian *burak “white” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *panaq “bow and arrow, to shoot an arrow” Proto-Austronesian *pánaw “walk, go, depart” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *panaw “skin disease leaving white patches” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *pan+tek “spotted, dappled” Proto-Hesperonesian *para[qh]u “boat” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *piRah “roe, fish eggs” Proto-Hesperonesian *piRsah “abscess, boil” Proto-Hesperonesian *hi-paR “sister-in-law” Proto-Hesperonesian cf. *p-r-k- “pig” FMV: #mblut “unhulled rice, sticky rice” Proto-Miao-Yao *m-lut “glutinous millet” Old Chinese *Ba:? “rice (general)” Proto-Austro-Asiatic *bra:s “husked rice” Proto-Chamic ACH: *beRas “husked rice” Proto-Austronesian SPNFL: *beRat “husked rice” Proto-Austronesian SAMP: *B&Ras “husked rice” Proto-Austronesian PPNR: *beGás “husked rice” Proto-Austronesian FMV: "Once down the A[ustronesia]n family tree as far as P[roto-]M[alayo-[Polynesian], words associated with rice become very numerous and reconstruction more certain. This situation would be best explained by supposing that the early A[ustronesia]n migrants to Formosa had both upland rice and millets, but that the millets were central to their agriculture and indeed their ritual calendar(LCMY, LF). There would be nothing very surprising about this; hill-rice is a minor opportunistic crop among many mountain peoples in Southeast Asia up to the present. The earliest rice occurs archaeologically at 2,500 BC, first in the Taiwan straits and then in Taiwan proper, rather late for it to be a key A[ustronesia]n crop." CAD 09.250 “axe”: parakul Isnag palakol Tagalog parakul\ Aklanon blakas “chopper, or small machete with long heavy blade” Balinese 'pan,kulu Konjo (Coastal) pilagis Takia pila-kiavi Lewo perhaps composed of CAD 09.250 “axe”: balyun, “axe handle driven into head” Sarangani Blaan buli:n,o Gorontalo baliu Da'a bali-bali “small axe” Wolio CAD 09.251 “adze”: buliyon, Aceh baliu&n, Minangkabau b&liun, Indonesian baliun, Sundanese paleppen Konjo (Coastal) bali-bali Wolio CAD 20.222 “battle axe”: bior Tolai pa:rau Tahitian and *H.-g^- “sharp” EIEC *pelH- “fort, fortified place” Proto-IndoEuropean pilìs “fort, castle” Lithuanian pils “fort, castle” Latvian pólis/ptólis “city; citadel; state or country” Greek pú:r “wall, rampart, palisade” Sanskrit EIEC *bhleg- “burn, shine” *bhlégti sg. *bhlgénti pl. fulgo: “lighten” Latin *flagma: > flamma “flame” Latin *bhlgmen- fulmen “lightning, thunderbolt” Latin (*bhlogo- “burned” >) blæc “black” Old English black English blecchen “be visible” Old High German phlégo “burn” Greek phlégma “flame” Greek phlóx “flame, torch” Greek bra:zaiti “gleams, shines” Avestan brá:jate “gleams, shines, glitters” Sanskrit pälk- “shine” TokharianAB Widespread and old in IE EIEC *bhergh- “height = fort” burg “fortress” Old High German baúrg-s “city, town” Gothic púrgos “town, fortress” Greek (Homeric) unexpected, should have been **párkhos burgn “town” Armenian unexpected, should have been **barjn EIEC therefore concludes: loan, Indo-European or not. I concur : Austronesian burgana- “bulwark, fortress” Urartian (Semitic) bu:rga: “tower” Syriac cf. for(c)tus “strong, hard” Old Latin for(c)tis “strong, hard” Latin brmháti “fortifies” Sanskrit präkär “hard, solid” TokharianA präkte “hard” TokharianB *bhergh- “keep, protect” bjarga “keep, preserve” Old Norse beorgan “keep, preserve” Old English bergan “keep, preserve” Old High German bairgith “keeps” Gothic birginti “be parsimonious” Lithuanian brestî “care for” Old Church Slavonian *bhrghús “high” barjr “high” Armenian parku- “high” Hittite parraya “high” Luvian in parrayanza “high mountains” Luvian pärkär “long” TokharianA pärkare “long” TokharianB bulyza “long” Khotanese brz- “long” Sogdian *bhrghént- “high” Brigit feminine proper name Old Irish Borgundarholm-r Bornholm Old Norse EIEC: an island that rises high from the sea. TP: Sort of. The south coast is pretty flat. Many Danish islands have names end in -ind, -und. They are generally considered Pre-IndoEuropean (but some believe the suffix to be Proto-IndoEuropean *-went). Oldest known name Present name Selund Sjælland, Zealand Burghund Bornholm Ekund Jegind-ø Anund Anholt Lavind Langeland And there are some in -s. Mors Sams Sams-ø Als It is is well known that there are a number of pre-Greek place-names in Greece ending in -inth-os, -unth-os, -ss-os, eg. Korinthos, Labyrinthos, Knossos, Parnassos. Burgunt feminine proper name Old High German b&r&ant- “high” Avestan brhánt- (fem. brhatí) “great, high” Sanskrit *brgh- bri: (acc. brig) “hill” Old Irish bre “hill” Welsh *brgh-a: -briga “hill” Gaulish *bhergh- (gen. *bhrghós) “height” *bhrgh- “high, hill, mountain” bjarg - berg “mountain, rock” Old Norse borg “height, wall, city, castle” Old Norse beorg “hill” Old English barrow English burg / burh “fortified place, castle, city” Old English borough English berg “mountain” Old High German burg “fort” Old High German *berga- bairgahei “mountaineous area” Gothic baúrg-s “tower, city” Gothic bars^ (gen. barazo:) “height” Avestan bærzond “high, mountain” Ossetic with a problematic -g : bregû “river bank” Old Church Slavonian bereg “river bank” Russian *wri- (*wrtyo/eH2 - *wrtyen-) “fort” bria “fort” Thracian ri-jo “promontory” Mycenian Greek rhíon “promontory” Greek ri “town” TokharianA riye “town” TokharianB from *wer- ? EIEC *bherH^g- “shine, gleam” berth “shining” Welsh bjartr “light” Old Norse beorht “shining, brilliant light, clear” Old English bright English beracht “shining” Old High German bairhts “bright, shining” Gothic (Celtic and Germanic < *bherH^gto-) breks^ta “dawns” Lithuanian (with apparent *-g- instead of *-^g-) brzark “dawn” Polish *bhrH^g- > bardhë “white” Albanian perhaps bra:zaiti “shines” Avestan brá:jate “shines, beams, glitters” Sanskrit Widespread and old in IE. Related to the word for birch. TP day-break ? English EIEC ?*plowos appr. “water-craft” plov “boat” Russian plewe “raft” TokharianB *plowyom appr. “water-craft” fley “ship” Old Norse ploîon “ship” Greek *plewós > ploûs “time for sailing” Greek plavá- “boat” Sanskrit *pleu- “float, swim; wash” luid “moves” Old Irish pluit “it's raining” Latin perplovere “rain through; admit rain” Latin flo:wan “overflow” Old English flow English flouwen “wash” Old High German plovõ “flow” Old Church Slavonic ple(w)o: “swim” Greek luanam “wash” Armenian us-fra:vaya- “swim away” Avestan fra-fra:vaya- “swim toward” Avestan plávate “swims” Sanskrit pla:vayati “causes to swim” Sanskrit plu- “soar” TokharianAB plus- “float” TokharianB RDS, DRV plyv-, plava- “swim, float” Russian EIEC *bélos “strong” de:bilis “weak, infirm” Latin bolîjî “larger” Old Church Slavonian bélteros “better” Greek bálam “power, strength” Sanskrit This is the strongest etymology containing the very rare initial *b-. I suggest it must be a loan. HSED 8: *`abol- “genitals” *`abal- “genitals”, “body” Semitic `aba:l “genitals” Geez h.ab&l “genitals” Tigre abal “body” Tigray abal “genitals; body” Amharic abal id. Gurage *HVbwal- > *b.wal- “penis” West Chadic b.wel id. Bokkos *bwal- “penis” Central Chadic bolle id. Bata HSED 207: *balag-/*balug- “shine” *bVlug- Semitic blg “shine” Hebrew blg[-u-] “dawn” Arabic *balag- “shine, sparkle” Lowland East Cushitic balag “shine, sparkle” Oromo Cf. a deverbative in bilig “sparkling” Somali HSED 213: *bar- “child” *bar “son” Semitic brw “son” South Arabian ber “son” S^h.eri ber “son” Mehri bar “son” Soqotri ber “son” Harsusi partial redupl. *barar- “son” Berber a-barar “son” Ayr a-burir “son” Ahaggar irregular vocalism barar “son” Tawlemmet *bar-/*byar- West Chadic be:ra “young girl” Hausa indicates *e in the first syllable par “child” Angas baryawa “young girl” Galambu HSED 215: *bar “take” *bVr- “take (in handfuls)” Berber a-b&r “take (in handfuls)” Tuareg *mV-bwar- “seize, grasp” Central Chadic mbwor^ “seize, grasp” Sukur *-wa- may be explained by the infkuence of the preceding labial consonant. bari “get, collect, have” Beja *bar- “grasp, hold” Saho-Afar bar- “grasp, hold” Saho HSED 219: *bar- “fly” v. *bar “son” Semitic brw “son” South Arabian ber “son” S^h.eri ber “son” Mehri bar “son” Soqotri ber “son” Harsusi partial redupl. *barar- “son” Berber a-barar “son” Ayr a-burir “son” Ahaggar irregular vocalism barar “son” Tawlemmet *bar-/*byar- West Chadic be:ra “young girl” Hausa indicates *e in the first syllable par “child” Angas baryawa “young girl” Galambu HSED 223: *bar-/*bur- “morning” *bur- “morning” East Chadic buri “morning” Ndam burburu “morning” Mubi *ber- “morning” South Arabian beeraa “morning” Saho beeraa “morning” Afar The root vowel is irregular. Cf. also *bar- “night” South Arabian baar “night” Saho baar “night” Afar *bar- “dawn, morning” Lowland East Cushitic bärii “dawn, morning” Somali barii “dawn, morning” Oromo barri “dawn, morning” Arbore *bar- “day” High East Cushitic barra “day” Bambala barra “day” Kambatta b.urra “morning” Dahalo Alternation *a ~ *u HSED 224: *bar-/*bur- “grain, cereal” Semitic *barr-/*burr- Semitic burru “cereal” Akkadian bar “cereal” Hebrew ba:r “cereal” Hebrew burr- “wheat” Arabic br “wheat” South Arabian bor “wheat” Soqotri barr “wheat” Mehri barr “wheat” S^h.eri *bVr- Berber a-Bar-&n “flour” Ghadames &Br-u:n “sorghum” Awjila a-bora “sorghum” Ayr a-bo:ra “sorghum” Ahaggar a-bo:ra “sorghum” Tawlemmet bu:ru “bread” Zenaga *bar-/*bur- West Chadic biri “kind of flour” Hausa with assimilation of vowels > buri “kind of flour” Hausa redupl. barbari “gruel” Ngizim *bar-/bur- East Chadic bura “flour” Sumray bar^ “flour” Tumak derivative with *ku- ku-b&ra “flour” Kabalay ku-bra “kind of millet” Lele *bur- “groats” Agaw bura “groats” Xamir *bur- “wheat” Lowland East Cushitic bur “wheat” Somali b.uru “maize” Dahalo *bar- “grain” Rift baru “grain” Burunge Alternation *a ~ *u. HSED 226: *barak- “lightning” *bark- “lightning” Semitic berq-, birq- “lightning” Akkadian brq “lightning” Ugaritic ba:ra:q “lightning” Hebrew barqo: “lightning” Aramaic(Syr) barq- “lightning” Arabic brq “lightning” South Arabian berq “lightning” S^h.eri bo:req “lightning” Mehri ba:rq “lightning” Tigre ba:rqi “lightning” Tigray *barak- “lightning” Central Chadic barak “lightning” Logone *barak- “lightning” Highland East Cushitic banko, birako “lightning” Sidamo balaka “lightning” Darasa banku-ta “lightning” Kambatta Irregular changes of *-r- in the cluster *-rk-. Related to *barik- “shine”. A parallel formation *birik- “lightning” seems to be preserved in birik'ina “lightning” Dahalo *birVk- “lightning” Agaw birqa “lightning” Xamir HSED 230: *barih.- “run, go” *bVrih.- Semitic brh. “leave, run away” Phoenician brh. “leave, run away” Pun brh. “run away” Hebrew b&rah. “run away” Aramaic (Palestine) brh. [-u-] “leave” Arabic ba:ra:yya “run in awe” Amharic Semitic *i of the second syllable is typical of verba movendi *HVbar- West Chadic bar “escape” Angas bar “go out” Tangale bo:r&- “return” Gera bar- “return” Galambu var “go out” Warji Metathesis. *barya- > *bir- East Chadic bire: “go” Dangla bire “go” Dangla *bariH >? bariy- “go out, depart” Dahalo HSED 231: *barik- “shine, be bright” *bVrik- “shine (of lightning)” Semitic bara:qu Akkadian bere:q, beraq Aramaic brq Arabic brq Geez ba:rra:qa: Amharic b3k “be light, be bright” Egyptian (pyramids) *[b]arik- “shine” Omotic pariqq(i)- “shine” Mocha Secondary p- < *b- influenced by *k? The present root may be further related to HSED 223: *bar-/*bur- “morning” HSED 234: HSED 213: *bar- “child” > *barVt.- “boy” *barat.- “boy” Berber a-barad. “boy” Ghat b.ooret_e “boy” Dahalo VMPSIE: vara “man” Sanskrit birun “man” Kavi vîra “hero” Sanskrit vir “man” Latin vair “man” Gothic HSED 258: *bel- “blood” *`Vbyal- “vein” West Chadic vel “vein” Ankwe prefix implied by the anlaut *byal- “blood” Central Chadic be:li “blood” Gidar cf. fel “blood” Musgum fal “blood” Mbara *bill- “blood” Agaw bir “blood” Bilin bir “blood” Xamir bera “blood” Xamta bir “blood” Kwara bir “blood” Dembea birr “blood” Kemant beri “blood” Aungi beri “blood” Damot *bil “blood” Saho-Afar biilo “blood” Saho bil “blood” Afar HSED 259: *bel- “weapon” with laryngeal prefix *HVbyal- “arrow” West Chadic b.elu “arrow” Karekare *byal- East Chadic bo:la “axe” Migama bela “knife” Sumray *bil- “knife” Lowland East Cushitic billaa “knife” Oromo *bil- “knife” Highland East Cushitic billawwa “knife” Kambatta HSED 260: *belal- “rivulet” *byalal- “rivulet” Central Chadic belle “rivulet” Gulfey In this case, the vowel is reconstructed in the second syllable as a single possibility in which the first syllable is not influenced. *byalal- “rivulet” East Chadic bellali “rivulet” Sumray Archaic reduplicative root widely preserved in derivatives, cf. HSED 314: *bolan “rain, cloud” The original form of root was *bVl- as it is continued in *byal- “pond” East Chadic be:li “pond” Mubi See also HSED 312: *bol- “flow, be wet” HSED 265: *ber- “cereal” partial redupl.? *y vowel brry “bread” Egyptian (new) partial redupl. *ba-byar- “maize” Central Chadic ba:bera: “maize” Logone HS *e > Omotic *a in certain contexts? *bar- “maize” Omotic baaro “maize” Mocha baro “maize” Anfilla HSED 266: *ber- “cut” *bVr- > *bVrVg´- “cut, cut down” Semitic br´ “cut, cut down” Hebrew br´ “cut, cut down” Arabic *bVr- > *bVrVy- “cut” Berber bri “cut” Semlal *byar- “cut off” Central Chadic ber “cut off” Tangale b.ir- “cut grass, mow” Dahalo HSED 293: *bir “bird” *bVr- “quail” Berber ta-b&rr-ut “quail” Tawlemmet b3 “kind of bird” Egyptian (ancient) *bir- “quail” West Chadic redupl. birabira: “quail” Hausa burabura: “quail” Hausa HSED 294: *birVg- “be high” *bVrVg- “rise” Berber burg-&t “rise” Tuareg birga “high” Bed HSED 312: *bol- “flow, be wet” with secondary *u *bul- Semitic bll “moisten” Aramaic bll [-u-] “rain” Arabic cf. wbl [-u-] “fall (of rain)” v. Arabic deverbative ya:ba:l “heavy shower” Hebrew wabl- “shower” Arabic with prefix *HV- *HV-bwal- “rain” Central Chadic b.ole “rain” Bachama HSED 313: *bol- “lead, follow” *wVbVl- “lead” Semitic ybl “lead” Hebrew ybl “lead” Aramaic *wV- may be a prefix *byal-/*bwal- West Chadic bel “come” Gerka bol “follow” Bolewa bol “come” Sha *bol- “run” Central Chadic mbule “run” Higi Nkafa mbule “run” Higi Ghye mb&lo “run” Higi Futu HSED 314: *bolan- “rain, cloud” *bVlan- East Chadic belani “rain” Sumray b&lan “rain, sky” Tumak b&la:n “sky” Ndam *bolan- “cloud” Lowland East Cushitic boolan “cloud” Arbore Related to HSED 260: *belal- “rivulet” HSED 329: *bul- “lake, river” related to HSED 312 and HSED 260 Proto-Semitic status of this words subject to doubt *bal “lake” Semitic bal “lake” Gurage HS *l > Egyptian *n Initial w- stands for a rounded root vowel wbn “spring, source” Egyptian (new) with ?-infix *bul-/*bu?ul- “river” West Chadic b.wula?yi “river” Zul bullai “river” Zul b.ul “river” Boghom *bul-ay- “sea, lake” Central Chadic bulay “sea, lake” Gisiga b&lay “sea, lake” Mofu redupl. bilabila “lake” Buduma HSED 331: redupl. of HSED 329 or HSED 332 *bul-bul- “pour, flow” bnbn “let flow, pour” Egyptian (gr) *bul-bul- “pour out” West Chadic bulbula: “pour out” Hausa HSED 332: *bul-/*bulal “pit, well” partial redupl. *bVlVl- “breach, opening in the rock” Berber e-b&l&l “breach. opening in the rock” Ahaggar *bul- “hole” Central Chadic bulu “hole” Logone *bul- “hole” East Chadic bullo “hole” Bidiya bu:le “hole” Migama HSED 336: *bur “boat” br “kind of Nubian ship” Egyptian (new) *bur- “boat” East Chadic buro: “boat” Ndam HSED 338: *bur “boil” redupl. brbr “boil” Egyptian (n) *berber “boil” Coptic berber “boil” Bohairian *bVr- “boil” Berber ab&r “boil” Mzab ab&r “boil” Nefusa with prefix *mV- *mV-bur- “boil” Central Chadic mbur “boil” Mandara HSED 343: *buram- “(be) particolored, (be) yellow” *barm “particolored” Semitic barmu “particolored” Akkadian *bVram- “yellow straw” Berber i-bram “yellow straw” Ayr *burum “yellow” West Chadic burum “yellow” Dafo-Butura Assimilaton of vowels. HSED 344: *b[u]ray- “grain, corn” *bVray- Berber b&rri “pounded grain” Baamrani i-bri-n “flour” Semlal i-brai-n “flour” Segrushen a-br&i “pounded barley” Senhaja *r > *3 b3y “kind of pastry” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) HSED 359: *bür- “fortified place, building” *bi:r- “fortress, palace” Semitic bir-t- “fortress, palace” Akkadian bi:ra: “fortress, palace” Hebrew byrt` “fortress, palace” Aramaic (Emp, Nap) bi:rta: “fortress, palace” Aramaic (Palest) *bur- West Chadic mbura “place” Paa b&ri “place” Siri ib&ri “place” Buli bur “hut” Fyer *bur- “town” Central Chadic b&re “town” Mandara vura-c^i “town” Gudu v&ra-c^i “town” Nzangi vura “town” Mwulyen vura-to “town” Bachama HSED 791: *fedik.- “split” *fdk. “divide, split” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) *fedik.- > fed.ig- “split, separate” Beja HSED 794: *ferik.- “dig, divide” *pVrik.- Semitic para:qu “split” Akkadian prq “break” Ugaritic prq “divide” Syrian Aramaic frq [-i-, -u-] “split, divide” Arabic frq “divide” Geez Secondary *u as a variant of *i in Arabic *pVrVg- “dig” East Chadic f&rgi “dig” Kera -g- may continue -k.- in the intervocalic position ferik. “dig” Beja cf. HSED 791: *fedik.- “split” HSED 830: *ful- “bore a hole” deverbative *pul- “big hole” East Chadic pu:l “big hole” Tumak *ful- “break through, pierce through” Lowland East Cushitic ful-a'a “break through, pierce through” Oromo *ful- “bore a hole” Rift ful- “bore a hole” Iraqw HSED 833: *furVh- “fear” v. *pVrVh- “fear” Semitic frh “fear” Geez färra “fear” Amharic An Ethio-Sem archaism? metathesis *fuHVr- > *fu:r- “fear” Lowland East Cushitic fu:r “fear” Konso hu:r “fear” Gidar HSED 845: *fVl- “divide, pierce” *pVl- Semitic extended with -y- ply “divide” Hebrew ply “divide” Jewish Aramaic fly “divide, (be) split” Geez fa:la “(be) split” Tigre fly “(be) split” Tigray extended with -l- fälläl “(be) split” Amharic *fVlVw- “pierce” Berber flu “pierce” Kabyle HSED 846: *fVr- “boil” *pu:r- “boil” Semitic fwr [-u-] “boil” Arabic 3fr “boil” Egyptian (Greek papyri) Both in Semitic and Egyptian derivatives of *fVr- are presented . Probably, the original root should be reconstructed *fVwVr-/*fV´Vr- or *´VfVr-/wVfVr- HSED 1915: *pa`us “axe” *pa`s~- “axe” Semitic pa:s^u id. Akkadian fa´s id. Arabic fo´s id. Soqotri fu´s id. S^h.eri fos id. Mehri *pa´as “axe” East Chadic fas id. Jegu pas id. Sokoro bas id. Sumray Borrowed from Semitic? *fa´as “axe” Highland East Cushitic faase id. Sidamo Borrowed from Semitic? fat'so “axe” Daholo Phonological details are not quite clear. HSED 1936: *pal- “fall” with prefix *nV- *nVpVl- “fall” Semitic napa:lu “fall” Akkadian npl “fall” Ugaritic npl “fall” Hebrew nfl “fall” Aramaic (Syrian) *pal- “fall” West Chadic pal “fall” Sura pal “fall” Chip with prefix *yu- yupele “fall” Dera HSED 1937: *pal- “break” *pVl- “break, crush” Semitic pll “break, crush” Aramaic (Syrian) *pal- “break stone” Central Chadic pal “break stone” Mafa Connected with HSED 1938 *pal- ? HSED 1938: *pal- “cut, divide” *pVl- Semitic fly “strike with a sword, behead, wean” Arabic flw “strike with a sword, behead, wean” Arabic fly “divide, separate” Geez fälläl “cut, split” Amharic *pal- “cut off” West Chadic pal “cut off” Hausa *pal- “cut” Central Chadic fal “cut” Zime *pal- “carve, cut, peel” East Chadic pa:l “carve, cut, peel” Tumak fal “carve, cut, peel” Sokoro *fVl- “separate” Saho-Afar -ifli- “separate” Saho *fil- “separate, comb” Lowland East Cushitic fil- “separate, comb” Arbore Vocalism is not clear. *fal- “divide” Agaw fa:l- “divide” Bilin fa:l- “divide” Kwara fäl- “divide” Dembea HSED 1949: *par- “house, enclosure” *far(r)- “enclosure” Berber a-farra “enclosure” Ahaggar a-farra “enclosure” Tawlemmet pr “house” Egyptian (Old Kingdom) *par- “hangar” East Chadic para “hangar” Migama HSED 1951: *par- “break, thresh” *pVr- “break” Semitic para:ru “break” Akkadian prr “break” Hebrew pwr “break” Hebrew prr “break” Jewish Aramaic fry [-i-] “break” Arabic redupl. färäfärä “crumble” Amharic firäfära “crumble” Harari *fVr- “thresh, be threshed” Berber fruri: “thresh, be threshed” Snus fruri “thresh, be threshed” Semlal *par- West Chadic par-p “smash” Angas pwure “break into pieces” Tangale HSED 1952: *par- “jump” *par(ya)- “jump” Central Chadic fer “jump” Buduma p&r “jump” Musgum bara “jump” Musgum far “jump” Beja *pVr- “jump” Agaw p&rr-ing “jump” Aungi *pVr- “jump” Saho-Afar p&rr “jump” Saho p&rr “jump” Afar HSED 1955: *par-/*pir- “go out” pry “go out” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) Infinitive in -y- fira “go out” Beja *far- “go out” Saho-Afar far “go out” Saho *fir- “go out” Highland East Cushitic fir “go out” Hadiya HSED 1956: *para´- “knife, axe” *para:´- “axe” Semitic farra:´-at- “axe” Arabic Secondary formation *fVr- “dagger, sharp tool, sword” Berber te-feri “dagger, sharp tool, sword” Zenaga ta-f&ru-t “dagger, sharp tool, sword” Figig *paHar- “knife” East Chadic pe:ru “knife” Migama HSED 1957: *parVm- “cut, split” *pVrim- “cut” Semitic frm [-i-] “cut” Arabic deverbative *param- “sickle” East Chadic pa:ram “sickle” Kera *param- “split (wood)” Rift param-es- “split (wood)” Asa HSED 1959: *paruc.- “cut, break through” *pVrus.- Semitic para:s.u “make a hole” Akkadian prs. “break through (a wall)” Hebrew prs. “break through (a wall)” Jewish Aramaic frs. “cut, pierce” Arabic *pVrVc.- “cut” Central Chadic p&rc^- “cut” Mofu HSED 1971: *per- “bird” *pirr- “quail” Semitic firr-at- “quail” Arabic redupl. f&rf&r-t “quail” Geez *pyar- “small bird” West Chadic fe:ru: “small bird” Hausa HSED 1979: *pilak.- Semitic pilaqqu “dagger” Akkadian pelq- “axe, hoe” Syrian Aramaic irregular Proto-AfroAsiatic *p > *b *bVlVk.- “blade” Berber ta-bl&q “blade” Ahaggar HSED 1980: *pilic.- “divide” *pVlVs.- “divide, split” Semitic fls. “divide, split” Geez fls. “divide, split” Tigre fls. “divide, split” Tigray fls. “divide, split” Amharic *filic.- “divide” Agaw felec- “divide” Aungi HSED 1983: *pir- “fruit, corn” *pir- “fruit” Semitic pr “fruit” Phoenician pr “fruit” Ugaritic p&ri: “fruit” Hebrew pe:ra: “fruit” Syrian Aramaic f&re “fruit” Geez cf. ferra:t “unripe fruit” Harsusi ferra:t “unripe fruit” Mehri ferrot “unripe fruit” S^h.eri *far- “corn” Berber a-faro “corn” Guanche The vocalisation may reflect a different alternation grade. pr.t “fruit, crop, seed” Egyptian (Old Kingdom) *fir- Agaw fir “fruit” Bilin fira “fruit” Xamir fira “fruit” Kwara fira “fruit” Demben fir “corn” Kemant *fir- “fireworm, fruit” Saho-Afar fire “fireworm, fruit” Saho *fir- “fruit” Lowland East Cushitic firi “fruit” Oromo HSED 1984: HSED 1983 *pir- “fruit, corn” > *pirah^- “sprout, flower” *pirah^- Semitic per´u “sprout” Akkadian prh^ “sprout” Ugaritic perah^ “sprout” Hebrew parh.o: “flower” Syrian Aramaic farh^- “sprout” Arabic farh^a “sprout” Geez prh^ “flower” n. Egyptian (new) HSED 1985: *pirat.- “break, split” *pVrVt.- “break” Semitic färrät.ä “break” Amharic *pirVt.- “split (firewood)” West Chadic irregular *-rt.- > *-rd.- fird.e “split (firewood)” Hausa cf. fard.a: “crack (nuts)” Hausa fard.o “crack (nuts)” Hausa furd.a “crack (nuts)” Hausa *pirat- > *pyarVt- “break, crack” East Chadic perte “break, crack” Kera *fir(V)t.- “cut, prune” Highland East Cushitic firt. “cut, prune” Bambala HSED 1986: *piric- “break, grind” *pVris- Semitic prs “break” Syrian Aramaic frs [-i-] “break, tear” Arabic *pVrVc- “grind” Central Chadic pîrs “grind” Mofu *pirVs- “crush (grain)” East Chadic pirza “crush (grain)” Mokilko *firis “be destroyed” Agaw feres-&ng “be destroyed” Aungi HSED 1987: *pirig- “separate” *pVrig- “open, enlarge, separate” Semitic frg [-i-] “open, enlarge, separate” Arabic *pirVg- “separate” East Chadic pirgay “separate” Bidiya HSED 1999: HSED 1938: *pal- “cut, divide” > *polik.- “split” *pVlik.- Semitic pala:qu “kill, slaughter” Akkadian flq [-i-] “cut” Arabic *folVk.- “break off” Lowland East Cushitic folloqa “break off” Oromo HSED 2009: *pur- “cut” *pVrVy- “cut” Semitic parû “cut” Akkadian fry [-i-] “cut” Arabic redupl. frfr “cut, split” Arabic *fVr- “shave, cut hair” Berber &fr-&n “shave, cut hair” Ahaggar *pur- “prepare field by cutting trees” West Chadic pure “prepare field by cutting trees” Tangale HSED 2011: *pur- “tear” extended *fVrVy- “tear” Berber fri “tear” Kabyle *pur- “tear” Central Chadic pur “tear” Daba with secondary laryngeal *puru`- “strip off” Rift puru`-us- “strip off” Iraqw puru`- “strip off” Alagwa HSED 2012: *pur- “flower, grass” *fVr- “kind of grass” Berber a-f&r “kind of grass” Semlal friw “kind of grass” Friw *pur- West Chadic fure: “tobacco flower” Hausa pure “flower” Paa p&re “flower” Cagu pure “grass” Pero *fwar- “flower” Central Chadic f&ra “flower” Dghwede pho:rio “flower” Buduma far pl. “flower” Beja Note the modified vocalism of pl. *fur- “kind of grass” Lowland East Cushitic fura “kind of grass” Oromo *pur- “flower” Omotic furaa “flower” Yamma Connected with HSED 1983: *pir- “fruit, corn” HSED 2014: *purVs- “cut, separate” *pVrVs^- “separate” Semitic prs^ “separate” Syrian Aramaic *fVrVs- Berber f&rs “separate, cut” Semlal &fr&s “cut” Tawlemmet &fr&s “cut” Ahaggar *purVs- “split” East Chadic purse “split” Sokoro HSED 2025: HSED 1938: *pal- “cut, divide” > *pVlah.- “split, cut” *pVlah.- Semitic plh. “split” Hebrew plh. “till, cultivate” Aramaic flh. [-a-] “split, till, cultivate” Arabic *fVlVh- “cut, split” Berber &-fl&h “cut, split” Arabic Irregular laryngeal HSED 2026: *pVlVs- “split, pierce” *pVlVs^- “pierce” Semitic pala:s^u “pierce” Akkadian Proto-AfroAsiatic *-l- > -n- pns “cut” Egyptian (pyramids) HSED 2027: *pVriz^- “cut, separate” *pVriz- “separate” Semitic frz [-i-] “separate” Arabic fero:z “separate” Mehri *fVrVz^- “cut” Berber &fr&z “cut” Snus IEIE: *ber- “blow, inflate” Kartvelian ber- “blow; have gas” Georgian bar- id. Mingrelian bar- id. Laz be:l- id. Svan *bHel- “blow, inflate” Proto-IndoEuropean IEIE: pari “go on campaign, march” Elamite NMNW: bêlah “split, gap (n.); split, cleft” Malayan bêlah doewa “split in two” badjoe bêlah dada “jacket split, open in the front” bêlah boeloeh “striped, as colored cotton” bêlah loseng tjêkak. êmpat “a special way to split bamboo” kadoewa bêlah “both sides” kadoewa bêlah mata “both eyes” and so on of all paired body parts barang barang pêtjah bêlah “fragile wares, glass and pottery” sabêlah “one of the sides” mata sabêlah “one of the eyes” and so on of all paired body parts orang sabêlah “neighbor (opposite)” sa'orang sabêlah “everybody on one side” sabêlah sana “on yon side” disabêlah “on one side, on the other side” kasabêlah “to (that side)” sabêlah mak. “from mother's side” mêmbêlah “split, cleave” doewit sakêping dibêlah toedjoeh “a coin split in seven (for the smallest amount)” mêmbêlahkan badjoenja “tear one's clothes deliberately” mêmbêlah bêhagi “distribute unevenly, give one a bit more, and the other a bit less” halilintar mêmbêlah “the splitting, cleaving lightning, before a powerful thunderclap” sabêlah-mênjabêlah “from both sides” but if there is a water between then sabêrang-mênjabêrang bêrsabêlahan “on the same side, each on his own side” têrbêlah “split, to split, able to split” sa'orang pon tidak. têrbêlah “no one was able to split it” bêlahan “split, cleft, crack” pêmbêlah kajoe “wood-cleaver” pêmbêlah intan “diamond cleaver” pêmbêlahan “splitting, cleaving” mênjabêlahkan “put someone or something to one side” boelar “with whitish discoloratation of the iris, of eye, whether blind or not” Malayan boeloes “naked, without antlers, leafless, childless” Malayan bolos “broken (of battle line), hit (when defending)” Malayan bolong “black, dark blue, everything black, i.a. coal tar” Malayan beler “extremely, superfluous, incessantly” Malayan bilis, beles “red, inflamed of eyes with excretion of fluid” Malayan bilah “chip, thin piece of split bamboo, of flat and sharp objects, such as swords, knives, daggers, arrows, lance points, (bamboo) needles etc” Malayan bêras “husked rice and further any grain or seed with husk” Malayan bêras majang pinang “kernels from the blossom of the pinang” Malayan bêras boenga nijoer “the same of the coco blossom” Malayan NPMPPD: *hipaR “opposite side of a river” dipag “other side, opposite side” Mansaka dehipag “the opposite side of a canyon or valley” Manobo difar “the other side, in the sense of the side facing the speaker” Tiruray 'ifar “to cross over to the other side (as of a river or street)” se'ifar tamuk “to negotiate formally the terms of a brideprice” dipah “opposite bank of a river” Mukah dipah “opposite bank of a river” Kayan (Baluy) dipar “opposite side” Kelabit dipah “either of the sides of a river” Uma Juman “It thus seems likely that the dual divisions of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian society were at least traditionally, if not physically, associated with settlements on either side of a river” (R. Blust) ILN: With N-ablaut of the second consonant (Nb > m): **(?-)Nb-l h.aml “portage, gestation, foetus, fruit (of a tree)” Arabic h.amala “carry, bear” Arabic h.amli “vegetables” Tigrinya, Tigre ham&l “garden” Amharic With H-umlaut of the third consonant (lH > r): **(?-)p-lH- farya “bear fruit” Geez With H-ablaut of the second and third consonant (pH > p?, lH > r): p?eryonin “exile, emigration” Geez Geez -p?- is said to be used only for loanwords, primarily from Greek. TP But this is not Greek FV: aeppel “apple” Old English appel id. Dutch apful id. Old High German epli id. Old Norse ubull id. Old Irish afal id. Welsh abluko id. Old Slavonic obuolas id. Lithuanian abuols id. Latvian woble id. Old Prussian jablko id. Polish malus id. Latin Abella town, called malifera 'apple-bearing' by Virgil (Aen VII 740) Umbrian(?) CEA: *ablu- “apple” Proto-Celtic aballo id. Gallic ubull id. O.Irish afal id. Welsh aval id. British *ablu- id. Proto-Slavic ablu-ko id. Old Church Slavonic jablo id. Old Polish jablu-ko id. Old Russian *a:bl- id. Proto-Baltic woble id. Prussian obuolas, obuolys id. Lithuanian abuols id. Latvian *aplu- id. Proto-Germanic apel id. Gothic (=Crimean Goth.) *aplya- > id. Proto-Germanic epli id. Old Norse aeppel id. Old English apful, afful id. Old High German *ablo- id. Proto-Italic *ablo-na > abella id. Oscan *Saml- id. Proto-Anatolian sam(a)lu- id. Hittite sawat- (t < l) id. Hattic *aml- id. Proto-IndoIranian a:mra “mango” Sanskrit am'&r “pomegranate” Askun, Kafir (u)mar “apple” Mordvinian (< Iranian) umar id. Livonian marja “berry” Finnish Avalon Island of the Blessed Irish Avallon centre of Avallonais (pagus Avalensis) in Low Bourgogne (Yonne) Gallic Aballo a town of the Haedui in Gallia Lugodunensis Gallic Aballava a castle Latin Abalus an island Latin Abellinum a town near Abella Latin Abellio a god Latin HB: sagar id. Basque W, Quince: supurgillu “quince” Akkadian safarjal “quinces” Arabic ayva “quince” Turkish IEIE: *alma- “apple” Proto-Turkic mé:lon “apple” Greek (Homer) méléa “apple tree” Greek (Homer) mâ:lon “apple; pear, fruit (of tree)” Doric Greek móllë “apple” Albanian ma:lum “apple” Latin ma:lus “apple tree” Latin IEIE posits two roots for “apple”: *s^amlu- and *maHlo-, possibly to preserve their claim that their phoneme disappears outside of Anatolian, I think they are too similar not to be related. s^amaluwanza “apple tree” Hittite *marna- “apple” Proto-Pamirian mu:n id. Shugni ma:wn id. Rushan mawn id. Yasgulami mend. id. Ishkashmi mel. id. Sanglechi aming´a id. Munjan man.a id. Pashto *amru- amru;d “pear” Persian a:mrá- Sanskrit a:mráh. m. “mango tree” Sanskrit a:mrám n. “mango” Sanskrit Kafir: am´&r “pomegranate” Ashkun am´¨ar, amrä~ id. Kati am´&r id. Prasun umàr “apple” Livonian umar´, mar´ id. Mordvin *s^amlu- “apple” Proto-IndoEuropean *was^l.- id. Proto-Kartvelian was^l- id. Georgian us^kur- id. Mingrelian os^kur, us^kur- id. Laz wisk'w/usk'w id. Svan NS 1: *bal'ka “shine, gleam” Proto-Nostratic *Põk “white” Sino-Tibetan NS 3: bor´a “grayish-brown” Proto-Nostratic bHu:rV id. North Caucasian NS 4: *bulV “mix, stir up” Proto-Nostratic *pual\ id. Sino-Tibetan NS 126: *moLV “break, crush” Proto-Nostratic *mial id. Sino-Tibetan NS 127: *murV “crush, pound, break” Proto-Nostratic *muar “bite, gnaw” Sino-Tibetan NS 138: *palGV “a fortified dwelling” Proto-Nostratic *bU_ll'V “house, home” Sino-Caucasian */p/u:k Sino-Tibetan *bu_ll'V North Caucasian NS 143: *p'är´/a/ “split, break” Proto-Nostratic *phraj “split, divide” Sino-Tibetan NS 145: *p'erV “bear, produce” Proto-Nostratic *p(h)ria-n, id. Sino-Tibetan NS 152: *p'arV “fly” Proto-Nostratic *pUrV id. Sino-Caucasian *phur (/*bh-) Sino-Tibetan *purV North Caucasian NS 156: *p'a/rj/ “spread, scatter” Proto-Nostratic *phra id. Sino-Tibetan NS 159: *p'alV “many; full” Proto-Nostratic *p-lai-n, “full” Sino-Tibetan CAAA 4: pe “water” Ainu *piak “damp, wet” Proto-Tai *(ma/)payak “wet” Proto-Austronesian (Formosa) PMS: bul, bil “to sprout” Sumerian PMA: mula “to plant” Ilokano bira “to sprout, grow” Lau piro “to shoot, sprout” Are'are bila “to sprout” Kwaio bila'o “to grow” Kwaio pariri “to shoot up, grow” Maori pula-pula “to sprout, shoot” Hawai'i bora “to grow, sprout” Efate vara “to grow” Motu biri “to grow” Oba vora “to grow stout” Fiji PMS buru “fruit” Sumerian PMA vulu- “fruit” Paiwan puru- “bundle of fruit” Selepet para- “to blossom, to flower” Tuamotu pele, peli- “fruit” Malay phle- “fruit” Khmer plei- “fruit” Bahnar felan “to blossom” Malagasy fola- “to spread out like vegetation” Tonga bluak- “flower” Tai blook- “flower” thai bula-k “flower” Indonesia, Malay bulak-lak- “flower” Philippines fua- “fruit” Polynesia pua- “flower” Polynesia bua, vua- “fruit” Melanesia, Indonesia PMA balu-balu “strength” Lau pola-pola “to grow strong” Hawai'i pula-wa “strong” Hawai'i pori “fat, bulky” Tahiti vora “to grow stout, bulky, fat” Fiji bora-bora “fleshy” New Georgia pula-pula “to multiply, to procreate” Hawai'i para “bravery, spirit, talent” Maori pori “abundance” Maori pariri “to shoot up, grow” Maori balue “enormous” Kapingamarangi val-ak “to swell, rise” Paiwan bulia “a corpulent person” Efate barua “fat, large” Efate bari-bari, bari “large, full, well-built” Malagasy balebale-a “bellied, large” Efate bora “to grow” Efate pele “fat stomach, to grow fat” Hawai'i pura “protruding fat” Anutan porapora “spread out” Anutan PMA: pulu “wet, wash, bathe” Hawai'i, Samoa, Tonga fufulu “wash hands” Fiji pari-pari “wet” Hanuabada apre “to bathe” Isabi abri su “to bathe” Emerum pra “to bathe” Paynamar piram “to wash” Madang PMA: palwa “small boat” Philippines parao “canoe” Tagalog folau “canoe” Polynesia barau “canoe” Efate farau “canoe” Tahiti volau “canoe” Fiji poruku “canoe” Futuna palahu “canoe” Indonesia prau “canoe” Indonesia broa “canoe” Formosa *bH-rs- “copper, iron” SI, ISG: *bH-rs- Proto-IndoEuropean *bHérso-m Proto-IndoEuropean ferrum “iron” Latin *bHróso-m Proto-IndoEuropean bræs “ore, copper” Old English bras id. Middle English brass English *P.-r-z- Proto-Semitic b-r-z- Semitic : p-r-z- Semitic plus l- parzel “iron” Aramaic parzlå: id. Syrian pl. “iron chains” Syrian parzillu “iron” Assyrian bi:ra:ti parzillu “iron shackles” Assyrian firziluN “fetters” Arabian denom. farzala “fettered” Arabian with r > l after labial filizzuN, fullizuN “white copper” Arabian Probably ancient loanword HSED 290 *bir- “metal” by3 (Vocalic -y-) “ore, copper” Egyptian (XVIII dynasty) *HV-bir- “iron” Central Chadic b&rey id. Mofu b.ire. id. Gisiga Prefix *HV- reflected in the Gisiga initial emphatic. *bir- “iron” East Chadic biri id. Sumray *bir- “metal” Agaw birr id. Kemant *bir- “metal” Lowland East Cushitic bir id. Somali *bir(r)- “silver” Highland East Cushitic birri id. Bambala bira-ta id. Kambatta *bir- “metal” Omotic bir-ewo id. Kaffa Cf. derivatives *birit- "iron" Saho-Afar birtaa id. Saho birtaa id. Afar belet-iko id. Kwadza (of Rift) HSED 1967: *pa3- “metal” *paz- “pure gold” Semitic paz id. Hebrew *pa3- “iron” East Chadic paaz^ id. Tumak One more example of semantic synchretism in the early vocabulary of metallurgy. DUS: *was´ka Proto-Uralic vaski “copper, bronze” Finnish væi'ke id. Saami vies^'ke id. Kola Saami vis'kä, us^ke “metal wire” Erzya Mordvin us'kä id. Moks^a Mordvin waz^ “ore, metal” Cheremiss -ves´ Votyak azves´ “silver” Votyak uzves´ “tin, lead” Votyak -ys´ Zyryan ezys' “silver” Zyryan ozus' “tin” Zyryan -wõs, -fs^ Vogul aatwõs, atfs~ “tin, lead” Vogul wa^g “iron” Ostyak (in metal names)“metal; money” Ostyak vas “iron” Hungarian -üst ? Hungarian ezüst “silver” Hungatian jeese “iron” Tundra Yurak Samoyed weese id. Forest Yurak Samoyed basa “iron, metal” Tavgi Samoyed bese id. Yenisei Samoyed k&&zy id. Selkup Samoyed båzå, basa “iron” Kamass Samoyed TP: If -k- of the (mainly) Finnic words is a suffix, we'd have *was´a Proto-Uralic IEIE: Dagestanian (with probable *w- > m-) mesed “copper” Avar misidi id. Andi mis^idi id. Akhvakh murhi id. Dargi musi id. Lak *misid-ttu > misir-ttu id. Archi mis id. Udi mis id. Xinalug *(a)wes(k). “gold” Proto-IndoEuropean CAD 09.670: bosi? “iron” Palawan balan id. Palawan bos? id. Molbog basi? id. Ba:ngingi Sama bUso& id. Aceh bosi id. Batak Toba basi id. Minangkabau b&si id. Indonesian bïsi id. Sundanese w&si id. Javanese b&ssi id. Madurese b&si id. Balinese b&si id. Sasak wu-wate id. Gorontalo bïssi id. Bugis bassi id. Konjo (Coastal) b&c^i id. Manggarai *bari[] id. Proto-HesperonesianFormosan? *besi id. Proto-Hesperonesian? TP: The -rs- and -z^- of some of the Semitic words may be from *-ri- > *-rz^i- > *-rzi-, cf similar developments in West Slavic. Semitic prefers triliteral (three-consonant) roots and has extended almost all of the originally biliteral roots of AfroAsiatic by adding a third consonant. If the -rs- of 'parzel' etc was understood as one consonant, the -l would be such a third consonant, not an unusual (for Semitic) fourth root consonant. Finno-Ugric has almost exclusively -s- (if -k-/-g- is a suffix). AfroAsiatic has exclusively -r- and -rs-. Austronesian has both -s- and -r-. That points to Austronesian being the donor. *p-l-d- “lead” DEO: *bhlei- “radiate” Proto-IndoEuropean plus *-wa, Proto-Germanic a color suffix (eg. in blue, grey) > *bli:wa- id. Proto-Germanic bly “lead” Danish, Norwegian, Swedish blý id. Old Norse bli: id. Old Saxon, Middle Low German bli:o (for *bli:w) id. Old High German bli: (gen. bli:wes)id. Middle High German Blei id. German ble:o n. “color, form” Old English bli: “color” Old Saxon *pl-w-d/dh- Proto-IndoEuropean plumbum id. Latin mólibos, molúbos id. Greek supposedly from a Mediterranean substrate language *loudia: > luaide “lead” Middle Irish loaned in Germanic as *lauða Proto-Germanic lod “weight, plumb bob, lead” Danish, Swedish lodd id. Norwegian loan from lo:t (gen. lo:des)“lead, bullet, weight unit” Middle Low German corresponding to lo:t “weight unit, soldering metal” Middle High German Lot id. German la:d “lead” Old Frisian le:ad id. Old English MCVc: molubdos “lead” Greek bolubdos id. Attic Greek molibos id. Greek (Homer) bolimos id. Greek, Epidauros bolibos id. Greek, Rhodos berun id. Basque CAD 09.630: moluwan,o (tuwan,o + moN-) lit. “fill” “cast (metals)” Gorontalo balïbbï? id. Bugi CAD 09.660: bolavana “copper, bronze” Rukai CAD 09.640: voawan “gold” Yami balitu? id. Isnag bula:wan id. Kalinga Limos bul\a:wan id. Aklanon bulawan id. Palawan bulawan id. Molbog blawan id. Kagayanen blaw&n id. Sarangani Blaan bulawan id. Ba:ngingi Sama bulawan (obs.) id. Murut (Timugon) hulawa id. Gorontalo bulava id. Da'a bulaBa id. Uma ulawïn, id. Bugi bulaen, id. Konjo (Coastal) Bulawa id. Wolio flawan id. Buru *buLa:w-an Proto-HesperonesianFormosan CAD 09.660: bolavan& “copper” Rukai CAD 09.670: vaculYayan “iron” Paiwan varalan, id. Yami balayya:n, id. Isnag ba:lyan, id. Kalinga Limos momol id. Buru CAD 9.680: buli “lead” Isnag buli id. Kalinga Limos b&ra mita-n, id. Sika bel?bel id. Sawai beblate id. Sawai pulu id. Tongan *bH-A- “(make) appear from the beyond” from IELS: fas The existence of two derivatives in "*-to-", Latin "fastus" and "festus", of diametrically opposite meaniing, is sufficient to demolish the connexion often proposed between "fas" and the group of "fanum", "feriae". It is perfectly evident that "fas" must be brought into connexion with the Latin "fari" (Greek "phemi", IE "*bha:-"). Irreproachable from a formal point of view, this etymology requires semantic justification: how can a connexion be established between “to speak” ("*bha:-") and divine law (fas)? It is shown [in the text following in IELS] that in fact the root "*bha:-" designates speech as something independent of the person uttering it, not in virtue of what it means but in virtue of its very existence. Thus what has been said, Latin "fatum", or what is being said "fama", Greek "phéme", Homer "démou phêmis", i.e. "vox populi", is charged, as impersonal speech, with a positive religuous value: "phéme" is itself a god ("theós ... tís") (Hesiod, Works 764). In Latin the conditions in which "fas" is used - "fas est" + infinitive “the "fas" exists that ... ” explain why (divine speech provided the expression for (divine) law. In the pair Greek "thésphatos : athéspatos" “limited (by destiny)” : “not limited” the verbal adjective of "phemi", "-phatos" clearly reflects the specific value which has been recognized in the root "*bha-". TP: Benveniste does not take IE *bh-H2- “shine, appear” into consideration here. From this root, Møller claims, a causative *bh-H2- is formed, which is the root Benveniste discusses. Assume we have to do with a society which distinguishes between this secular side and the other, spiritual side. Then we could posit a meaning for the non-causative *bh-H2- such as “appearing into this world from the other side, numinous”. That would account nicely for its present meanings “shining, resplendent” and the causative *bh-H2- would then mean “to make appear from the other side”, therefore “telling truth by holy speech”, since you are causing immutable holy truth to appear through you. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= PMA bha “to shine, light, sun” Sanskrit PMA bhas “to speak, talk, say” Sanskrit, also bhasa “language, speech, talk” van “sound, ask, beg” Sanskrit, also bhan “speak sound” IENH 20: *b[a|ë]h- “to shine” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h]eh- (*[b[h]ah-/*b[h]oh-]) (> *b[h]a:-/b[h]o:-) “to shine” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|ë]h- “to shine” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 21: *b[a|ë]h- “to say, to speak” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h]eh- ([*b[h]ah-]) (> *b[h]a:-) “to say, to speak” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|ë]h- “to say, to speak” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, IESSG, VISW *P.- “sound” Pre-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic *bh-n- “sound” Proto-IndoEuropean bhána-ti Sanskrit *bh-l- “sound” Proto-IndoEuropean bellan “bark” Old High German bellan “bell, grunt” (of deer and boar) Old English belle “bell” Old English belle “bell” Middle High German extended *bh-l-s in *bhél-se-ti Proto-IndoEuropean bhás^ati “barks” Sanskrit *n-b- Proto-Afroasiatic (with n-preformative, identical with the PIE determinative n-, so that n-b- = PIE bh-n-?) fully reduplicated nabnaba said of buck in heat Arabic half reduplicated nabba said of buck in heat Arabic n-b-b- “murmurare, fremere > loqui” Ethiopian with numerous extensions n-b-H- “bark” West and South Semitic n-b-' “bark” Arabic n-b-g- “bark, utter a loud voice” Arabic n-b-r- “to utter a sound, speak in a high tone” Arabic from *P.- > Alternative form -Á:A.- *P.-Á- “shine, be evident” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic Á: *bhé:-, reduced *bhâ- “shine, be evident” Proto-IndoEuropean bhá:ti “shines, appears, is luminant” Sanskrit extended with -l- bhá:la-m “splendour” Sanskrit be:lU “white” Old Church Slavonian bæ:l “pyre” Old English ba:l “pyre” Old Norse reduced *bhâ- phalós “bright, luminant, white” Greek phálios “bright, luminant, white” Greek *b-A- “be clear, evident” Proto-AfroAsiatic extended with -r- (= Proto-IndoEuropean comparative suffix) *b-A-r- be:'e:r pi. “make evident, clear, to explain” Hebrew ( : pe:'or) mebho:'a:r part. pu. “clear, obvious” New Hebrew extended with -l- Alternating forms -P.:p- *P.-Á-l- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bhe:-l- Proto-IndoEuropean fe:l-ic-, fe:lix nom. “fortunate” Latin *p-Á-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic f-'-l II “effecit ut aliquis bene ominaretur ex re” ta-fa'ala V “he regarded it as a good omen” Arabic fa'luN “a good omen” Arabic whence causative *P.-A.- “sound, say, prophesy”, originally “make evident” Proto-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic *bhá:- Proto-IndoEuropean phe:mí “speak, talk; say” Greek fa:ri “speak, talk; say” Latin fa:bula “story, tale, fable” Latin fa:ma “rumour; reputation; tradition; fame” Latin phé:me: “speech” Greek pro-phé:-te:s “interpreter of the gods, prophet” Greek o-grade *bhoA.- > *bho:- Proto-IndoEuropean *bho:na Proto-IndoEuropean pho:ne: “voice, sound” Greek bo:n “prayer, request” Old Norse be:n “prayer, request” Old English reduced *bhâ- Proto-IndoEuropean fa-teor “admit, confess” Latin pha-mén Greek -phatos Greek pha-sko Greek extended with -n- bhánati “speaks, shouts” Sanskrit bannan “ban” Old High German bannan “ban” Old Low German banna “ban” Old Norse fa:s Latin is perhaps PIE *bha:s with circumflex from *bhéAos. with n-preformative *n-b-'- Proto-AfroAsiatic nabu: “announce, prophesy” Assyrian nibba:' niph. “prophecy” Hebrew naba'a “he uttered a low voice or sound” Arabic II “announced, made known” Arabic IV “he announced, told (him, of it)” Arabic naba'uN “messenger, message” Arabic na:Bi: “prophet” Hebrew neBu:'a: “prophecy” *p-A.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic with s-preformative *s-phe:- Proto-IndoEuropean spe:-ti “accomplish” Slavic spe:-s “hope” Latin with suffixal -r- spe:-ra:re “to hope” Latin *sphe:ro- Proto-IndoEuropean *spharé- Proto-IndoEuropean spha:rá- “extensive, wide” Sanskrit reduced sphirá- “abundant, fat” Sanskrit spa:- Avestan *pro-sparo-s > pro-sper “fortunate, favorable, lucky, prosperos” Latin sporU “sufficient” Old Church Slavonian spar “sparing; scanty” Old High German spær “sparing; scanty” Old English sparr “sparing; scanty” Old Norse sparo:n “spare, save” Old High German sparian “spare, save” Old English spara “spare, save” Old Norse *pâr- Proto-IndoEuropean parvus “small, little; unimportant” Latin parcus “sparing, frugal; scanty, slight” Latin parco “spare, be lenient; economize” Latin o-grade in spuon “leave, set off, succeed” Old High German spe:d “success” Old English *sphò:ti Proto-IndoEuropean spuot “success” Old High German extended with -y- *sphe:i- Proto-IndoEuropean sphá:ya-te: “increases, becomes fat” Sanskrit reduced *sphi:- Proto-IndoEuropean sphi:ta-, sphi:ti “success” Sanskrit EIEC *bheH2- “shine” ba:n “white” Old Irish bo:nian “ornament, polish” Old English ?bas “ornament, decoration” Russian ba:- “shine” Avestan ba:nu- “light, ray of light” Avestan bhá:ti “shines” Sanskrit bha:nú:- “light, appearance, ray of light” Sanskrit *bhH2-nye/o bej “make, do” (< “bring to light”) Albanian phaíno: “bring to light” Greek phaínomai “appear” Greek *bhéH2(e)s- “light” pho:s “light, daylight” Greek bhás- “light” Sanskrit bhá:sati “shines, is bright” Sanskrit cf. (*bhleH2- >) piha- “splendor, might” Luvian *bhéH2tis (gen. *bhH2téis) “light” phásis “star rise” Greek bhá:ti “splendor, light, perception” Sanskrit Widespread and old in IE EIEC *bheH2- (pres. *bhéH2ti) “speak” for “speak” Latin fa:tum “utterance, prophetic declaration, oracle” Latin *bhH2-nw-e/o- banna “prohibit, curse” Old Norse bannan “summon, proclaim” Old English ban English bo:gan “boast” Old English baju “relate, pronounce charms” Russian phe:mi “say” Greek bay “says” Armenian *bhH2ti- “word” phásis “word” Greek bay “word” Armenian *bheH2meh2- “saying” phéme “saying, speech” Greek fa:ma “talk, reputation, fame” Latin *bhoH3no/eH2- “sound, something said” pho:né: “voice, sound” Greek bo:n “prayer, request” Old Norse perhaps bha:s^ate “speaks, sells, tells” Old Indic -s^- for -s- is problematic with -k^ extension SSIRG 1.5 a pás´yati non-aor. “look” Vedic pa-spas´-e “see” Vedic pas^n-e “in view of” Avestan pashë “I saw” Albanian paz-iti “pay attention” Old Church Slavonic with s-preformative spasiia-, spasiieIti ipf. “look, see” Avestan spas´ root noun “spy” Vedic specio: “consider” Latin -spex “viewer” Latin specie:s “appearance” Latin speho:n “look, watch” Old High German spa:hi “clever” Old High German, Old Saxon *spaho: (prob. from a root-stressed derivative) Proto-Germanic > spá “prophecy” Old Norse by metathesis skeptomai Greek IEW *wekW- “speak” *wekWos- “word” *wokW-s “word” vákti “speaks” Sanskrit vak- “speak” Avestan vacas “speech, word” Sanskrit vacah “speech, word” Avestan (w)epos “word” Greek vac- “voice, speech, word” Sanskrit vo:c- “voice” Latin gochem “shout, call to me, invite” Armenian giwahanen “mention” Old High German wak “voice” Tokharian A AKc 42669: *bha:-1 “to shine”. Oldest form *bheH2-, colored to *bhaH2-, contracted to *bha:-. 1a. Suffixed o-grade form *bho:-sko > Palb. *beh in zbeh “to make pale, fade; literally to loose the light” (z-privative suffix, probably voiced variant dz- of *ts-); b. Variant form *bef in i beftë “sudden, unexpected; literally like lightning”, befas “suddenly” adverb, befasi “surprise” abstract noun. 2a. Suffixed and extended zero-grade form *bhH2-n-ya > Alb. bânj/bënj “to do; literally to bring to light” (cf. Gr. phainein “id.”); b. suffixed zero-grade form *bhH2-ti > bas “creator; literally the light, appearance (cf. Gr. phasis and one of Jesus' sentence "I am the light"). 3. Extended basic root *bha:t-eH2 > botë “world, white clay” Alb. (same formation we may notice in Sl. svijet “world” and svijetlo “light” as well as in lumina “world, light”) Romanian. 4. Prefixed participle form t-ban “herdsman's camp for dairy animals”, probably from *bhH2-no, that was later substantivized. 5. Deverbative of this substantivized partiple is ban-oj “to dwell”, ban-esë “apartment”, ban-or “inhabitant” etc. (Pokorny 1. bha:- 104.) *bha:-2 “to speak”. 1. Alb. z-boj, dë-boj “expel, banish, excommunicate”, probably from suffixed extended form *bhH3-n-yo of *bho:-, meaning preserved in Old Norse banna “to prohibit, curse”. 2. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhH2s-ko > bashkë “together”, bashkëshort “spouse, husband” second part of compound is probably Lat. sors, -tis “fate, destiny”, so literally means to have together same destiny”, bashk-i “municipality”, bashk-oj “to unite, band together, connect” etc. (cf. bandire “to muster, band together” Italian, from *ban-wan, *bannan Gmc). 3.I guess to that Alb. prefixed form m'u d-bue “to copulate”, especially the act of copulation between the bitch and dogs, synonymic with the verb m'u ndjek “to persecute” should be related to participle o-grade form *bho:-no (Pokorny 2. bha:- 105.) TP These two IE roots are usually not seen as related. But if they are both loans into IE, they might be. HSED 327 *buHar- “shine” *bVhar- “be clear, shine” Semitic bhr “be clear, shine” Hebrew shabhar “be clear, shine” Aramaic (Palestine) bh?r “be clear, shine” Aramaic (Mand) bhr [-a-] “be clear, shine” Arabic *buHVr- “shine” West Chadic b.ær “shine” Tangale b.u:r “shine” Boghom *buHar- “shine” Central Chadic bara “shine” Musgum b.ura “shine” Bachama HSED 364 *bVhVw- “shine” *bVhVw- “shine” Semitic bhw- [-u-] “shine” Arabic *bVHVw-/*bHVHy- Central Chadic b.iya “light” Dghwede buwo “lightning” Lame Pewe Vowels both in Dghwede and Lame Pewe are secondary for morphological and/or phonological reasons. HSED 769: *fa?Vl- “foretell” *pV?Vl- “foretell fortune” Semitic f?l- “foretell fortune” Arabic fwl “foretell fortune” Geez cf. pl? “make miracles” Hebrew *fa?Vl- “deceive” Highland East Cushitic fa?l- “deceive” Hadiya Related to HSED 774. HSED 774: *fal-/*fa?Vl- “magic word, omen” *fa?l- “omen” Semitic fol “omen” Shh.eri fo:l “omen” Mehri fo:l “omen” Harsusi fnn.wy “magic words” Egyptian (pyramids) Partial reduplication *fal- “omen” Agaw faal “omen” Bilin *fal- “omen” Saho-Afar faal “omen” Saho *fal- “omen” Lowland East Cushitic faal “omen” Somali Related to HSED 769. HSED 800: *fi´- “speak, shout” *pV`Vy- “cry, shout” Semitic p`y “cry, shout” Hebrew Based on *pV`-. *fi- “speak” West Chadic fi “speak” Sha *fVy- “call” Central Chadic fe “call” Buduma From *fVHVy- or *fVHi-. *fiw- “cry” Agaw few- “cry” Kwara fuu- “cry” Demben Continuation of *fiHw-? G: -bàk- “become lit” Proto-Bantu -béd- “call out” id. -béd- “announce” id. -bék- “announce a death” id. VMPSIE mahana “day” Maori, Tahiti ma-fanne “warm” Madagascar ma-fánna “heat” Tongan fana “warmth” Madagascar pânas “warmth” Malay panas “warmth” Javanese banas “warmth” Tagalog bHa:- “light, shine” Sanskrit bHa:nu “sun” Sanskrit bHa:na “light, shine” Sanskrit pHaino: “bring to light” Greek pHo:s “light” Greek fenes-tra “window” Latin boisgim “I flash” Old Irish PMA fae- “light” Fasu paa- “light” Kewa afa- “light” Foe pwaaha- “light” Arosi fowe- “sun” Gilolo bawa “moon” Banja powi- “day” Sunda pewa- “dawn” Sunda pawa- “sky, dawn, daylight” Hawai'i banas- “warm, hot weather” Tagalog panas- “warm” Indonesia fana- “warm, ardent” Marquesas faa, fana- “to warm” Tonga PMA: bahasa- “language” Indon., Malay basa- “to read” Phil. basahin- “to read” Phil. basa- “language” Kawi vosa- “to speak, say, word, language” Fiji waha- “mouth, voice” Maori waha- “saying, word, mouth, voice, language” common Polynesian vasa- “to speak” Sesake vasana- “speech” visiena- “speech” Api bosa- “to speak” Florida, Ysabel bacah- “language” Proto-Philippine phaasaa- “language” Thai -bisi- “to say” Visina, Mapremo, Nikaura bisi- “to sing” Gane basa “to speak” Efate basa- “word” Magindanaw, Maranao, Iranun wana- “oration, counsel” Tahiti wana- “singing, song” Marquesas wanana- “prophecy” Hawai'i wana “curse” Tonga VMPSIE: vaktra “mouth” Sanskrit wáha “mouth” Maori wawáhi “disputing, quarreling” Maori béhe, boa “tell, say” Tongan vica “speak, speaking, word, speech, language” Tagalog AG: MOUTH 2 *paq, *baq PAustric *paq, *baq, *boq 'mouth' PAA *baqbaq 'mouth, opening, speak, say' PMP(ACD) *paq Mon-Khmer piaq 'mouth, opening, end of river' Pacoh *paqi > *pac or *pak Mon-Khmer pak 'mouth' Mah Meri mpak id. Semai mpak /mpa?/ id. Sengoi *pa[q]u or *po[q] Mon-Khmer *kmb^aw 'beak, bill, snout, muzzle' Proto-Mon kapo''/kapõu/ 'cheek' Sengoi *mpaq or *baq Mon-Khmer bah 'mouth of river' Bahnar (S, B) bah 'downriver, south' Bahnar (PB) (gah) bo'bah 'toward the mouth of the river, south' Bahnar (PB) *tambaq Mon-Khmer temba' 'mouth of river' Mah Meri chê-ba' id. Semai *boq Mon-Khmer 'bo 'cheek' Bahnar (PB) bouq 'mouth' Brou *tamboqi > *tamboc or *tambok Mon-Khmer to'bok 'cheek' Jeh tabók 'cheek' Katu bóc ahóc 'lower part of throat' Pacoh *tamboq Mon-Khmer tamôq 'cheek' Chrau 'mo id. Rengao Cf. AT *papaq, *pabaq 'mouth, opening, speak' Previously compared with PMP (B193) *baqbaq 'mouth' Also cf Proto-Chamic *babah, *mabah 'mouth' *w-r- “water” vari- “water” Sanskrit { VISW *w-A.-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic or *w-H.-Z.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *war- Proto-IndoEuropean or *w-Á-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *wer- Proto-IndoEuropean 1st high tone form, intr. *wáÁar- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *wá'ar- Pre-IndoEuropean *wa:r- or *we:r- Proto-IndoEuropean vá:r, vá:ri “water” Sanskrit va:r- “rain” Avestan *va:raiti “rains” Avestan 2nd high tone form, trans. *waÁár- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *w'ér- Pre-IndoEuropean *wér- Proto-IndoEuropean feraim “pour” Irish reduced *u:r- Proto-IndoEuropean u:r “drizzle” n. Old Norse y:ra “drizzle” v. Old Norse jú:re.s, jú:rio:s “sea, espec. the Baltic” Lithuanian u:rina “urine” Latin u:rina:ri “dive under water” Latin extended with -s- *waÁáras- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *wérs- Proto-IndoEuropean vars^á “rain” Sanskrit várs^ati “rains” Sanskrit ewérse: “thaw” Greek v´r.s^a “bull” Sanskrit v´r.s^an “man, male, stallion” Sanskrit verre:s “boar” Latin *w-A-r- Semitic a:ru “flow” Assyrian y&'o:r “river, the Nile” Hebrew pl. “streams, canals” Hebrew If PIE /r/ < PIA /Z./ : w-H.-z- “flow, pour” Ethiopian weH.i:z part. “flowing” Ethiopian weH.zat “flow” n. Ethiopian EIEC *wé/óHr “water” u:rina:ri “plunge into the water” Latin derivative u:ri:na “urine” Latin *uH1r- u:r “fine rain” Old Norse u:rig “moist” Old English *u:ras ? wurs “pool” Old Prussian gayr “marsh” Armenian wa:rsa “water” Luvian va:r “rain” Avestan vá:r(i) “water, rain” Sanskrit HB: ur “water” Basque DBF: uri “rain; rain of tears” Basque urialde “west” Basque euri “rain” Basque ebi “rain” Basque ebri “rain” Basque eubri “rain” Basque IEIE: u-ra-i “spring” Hattic DÚ-ri-e-it “goddess of waters and springs” Hattic CAIEH 12: *wer- “water” Proto-IndoEuropean *waiR “water” Proto-Austronesian aer “water” Mal. wai “water” Fiji VMPSIE: vars´-, vrs´s- “rain” Sanskrit varan, uaran “rain” Ossetic varsána “rain” Sanskrit bâr-î-den “to rain” Persian olon “rain” Tagalog uha “rain” Tongan VMPSIE: vâri “water” Sanskrit wai, vai “water” Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii vei “water” Tongan CAAA 3: wakka “water” Ainu ?wah&R “water” Proto-Austronesian } waira “water” Taupota, Wedau waila- “water” Duau wewer- “water” Misima, vai,wai- “water” common Oceanic wayer- “water” Flores Islands wa:r- “water” Numfor wi:r- “water” Arguni war- “water” Biak were- “water” Irarutu vure- “water” Fiji vara- “water” Mulaha Iaibu wiri-biriha- “wet” Hukua biri- “wet” Valpei wer- “wet” Larevat i-wer- “wet” Leviamp, Unwet i-wair- “wet” Mae, Orap i-wor- “wet” Maragus *w-d- “water” PMA udan- “water” Sanskrit IENH 483: *w[a|&]t'- “to moisten, to wet; water” Proto-Nostratic > *w(e|o)t'- “to moisten, to wet; water” Proto-IndoEuropean *wetä “water” Proto-Uralic *o:t- “moisture, dampness, wetness” Proto-Dravidian SIG, IESSG, VISW with n-infix, see below Alternative forms *w-D.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic extended with -n- *w-D.-n- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic with suffixal -n- (alternating with -r-) *w-d-n- Proto-IndoEuropean udán-, udaká- “water” Sanskrit /n./ > /a/ húdat- “water” Greek vato: vatins gen. vatna pl. “water” Gothic votn pl. whence vatn sg. “water” Old Norse *udna: > unda “wave” Latin with originally suffixal -n- *w-d-n- Semitic wadana “soaked” Arabic *w-d- “water, moisten” Proto-IndoEuropean voda: “water” Old Church Slavonian húdo:r “water” Greek watar “water” Old Low German wæter “water” Old English wazzar “water” Old High German *w-d- Semitic extended with -p- wadafa “(the vessel) leaked water by th drop” Arabic extended with -k- wadak.a “it drizzled” Arabic IV “it rained” Arabic wadak.uN “rain” Arabic : *w-d- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic with n-infix Alternative forms *w-n-D.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *w-n-d- Proto-IndoEuropean *wnéd-ti “moistens” Proto-IndoEuropean unátti “moistens” Sanskrit vandú “water” Lithuanian : *w-n-d- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *w-n-t- Proto-IndoEuropean *unþi- Germanic unnir “waves” Old Norse *unþya:- Germanic y:ð “wave” Old English u:ðia “wave” Old Low German undea “wave” Old High German EIEC *wódr “water” *wd-n-s-kyo- uisce “water” Old Irish unda “wave” Latin vatn / va:tr “water” Old Norse wæter “water” Old English water English wazzar “water” Old High German wato: “water” Gothic unds m. “water” Old Prussian wundan n. “water” Old Prussian vanduo: “water” Lithuanian u:dens “water” Latvian voda (-ndn-) “water” Old Church Slavonian *udr-yo-? ujë “water” Albanian húdor, húdatos gen. “water” Greek bedu “water” Phrygian get “river” Armenian wa:tar, witenas gen., wita:r pl. “water” Hittite *wed-? vaidhi “watercourse” Avestan udan-, udnás gen. “water” Sanskrit *udrom wär “water” TokharianA war “water” TokharianB NS 203: *wetV “water” Proto-Nostratic *t'wV “water, pour” Sino-Caucasian *tuj “water” Sino-Tibetan *?V-t'wV “be wet, soak, pour” North Caucasian PMA: h-udan “rain” Indonesia udan- “rain” Ifugao ulan- “rain” Tagalog uran- “rain” Teor. oran- “rain” Malagasy ulau- “rain” Gawi uha- “rain” Tonga uka- “rain” Fiji ua- “rain” Hawai'i, Samoa, Tahiti ura- “rain” Central Papuan Prepositions PMA: uda, uda- “above, rising” Sanskrit, also adhi- “above, over, upon”. ake- “up, upward, to ascend” Anutan uka, uta- “towards mountains, inland” Polynesia akyat- “to rise, ascend” Tagalog angkat- “to lift” Indonesia “to be elevated” Ngaju-Dyak “ascent” Hova atas, atat- “above” Proto-Austronesian ake- “upward indicator” Polynesia ata- “up” Nakanai ati- “across, beyond” Sanskrit at- “away from speaker, thither” Mota atu- “away from speaker, thither” Maori, Marquesan Anutan, Tikopian, Tonga, Samoa, Rarotonga *t-p- “heat, burn, fire” tap “heat, hot, burn, consume” Sanskrit, also tapas “fire” tapa “heat, hot season” Sanskrit { IENH 92: *t[h][a|&]p[h]- “to burn, to be hot” Proto-Nostratic > *t[h][e|o]p[h]- “to burn, to be hot” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h][a|&]p[h]- “to burn, to be hot” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, IESSG *d-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic or *ð-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-p- “be warm” Proto-IndoEuropean tápa-ti “warms, heats up, burns; torments, injures” Sanskrit pra-tapati “burns, radiates; torments, harasses” Sanskrit saN-tapati “heats up, dries up; torments, worries” Sanskrit taptú part. “heated up, melted” Sanskrit abhi-pra-tapta “dried up” Sanskrit tápas “warmth, heat; torment” Sanskrit tapana “(of the sun) shining, warming, burning; tormenting” tepeo: “am warm, tepid” Latin Horace “am in love, pine for” Latin teplU “warm, hot” Old Church Slavonian topiti “make warm, hot” Old Church Slavonian topiti se~ “liquefy” Old Church Slavonian *ð-b- Semitic redupl. ðabðaba, in the transferred sense “he annoyed, molested, harmed, hurt (people)” Arabic single redupl. ðabba intr. “it dried, (the lip, tongue) became dry, lost its moisture by reason of vehement thirst, (a plant) withered, lost its moisture, (a pool of water) dried up, (the body) became lean and emaciated and lost its moisture” Arabic with w-infix *ð-w-b- Semitic dåB “melted” Syrian pa. “caused to melt away, harassed” Syrian za:bu inf. “melt away, perish” Assyrian za:B perf. “melt away, become emaciated, die” Hebrew ða:ba “it became liquid, melted, dissolved, (the body) became lean or emaciated, the sun became intensely hot” Arabic ðawwaba II caus. “he melted, liquefied (it)” Arabic 'a-ða:ba id. and in the transferred sense “it dissolved, emaciated (him)” Arabic ða:bu “melt away, perish” Arabic EIEC *tep- “hot” tepeo: “be lukewarm” Latin thefian “to pant, gasp” Old English topitî “to heat” Russian *H2eps-top-eH1-ske/o- o-grade causative ftoh “make cold” Albanian ta:paiti “be warm” Avestan tápati “to warm, burn” Sanskrit cf. te / te: “hot” Old Irish ta:n “hot” Welsh suffixed forms *tep-(V)s- tess “heat, warmth” Old Irish tes “heat” Welsh tepor “warmth” Latin *teps-ro- tefru “burnt sacrifice” Umbrian tapissa “fever, heat” Hittite tapassa “fever, heat” Luvian tápas- “heat” Sanskrit tápus- “heat, glow” Sanskrit tapnú- “burning, glowing” Sanskrit NS 186: *t'äpV “warm, heat” Proto-Nostratic *tap “fire-place, stove” Sino-Tibetan IR 6: t'ip- “to roast” Sechelt t'ipe “burn emitting sparks” Wintu t'äpV “warmth, heat” Proto-Nostratic } tab “to burn” Sumerian tafu “make fire” Samoa, Tonga tavu-tavu- “to burn down” Fiji tavu-cawa- “steam bath” Fiji dapug- “hearth, oven” Indonesia dapu- “hearth” Proto-Oceanic dapog- “fireside” Tagalog tap, tapak- “sun” Papuan kapu- “fire” Fate, Sesake kapi- “fire” Api tapa- “to burn” Manggarai tapu- “to put wood on a fire so it will burst into flame” Anutan *s-w-l- “shine, sun” sal “to shine” Sanskrit, and sur “to shine” sur “sun, heaven” Sanskrit, and surya “sun” { IESSG, SIG *z-w- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *s-w- Proto-IndoEuropean + l- *sw-l- swelan “smolder” Old English schwelen “smolder” German swilizo:n “smolder” Old High German Alternative form + D.-/d- *z-w-D.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *zawáD.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic with n-infix pri-sve-nãti Old Bulgarian swãd “burnt smell” Polish : *z-w-d- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *záwad- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *sw-t- Proto-IndoEuropean swethan, swedan, swidit 3rd sg. “burn slowly emitting steam” Old High German swaðul “smoke” Old English swadem “steam” Middle High German *s-wt- “seethe, boil” Proto-IndoEuropean *seuþ- Proto-Germanic siodan “seethe, boil” Old High German sjo:ða id. Old Norse = *z-w-d- “seethe, boil, boil over” Semitic za:ð perf. “cook” (used metaphorically) Hebrew he:zi:ð hiph. “boil, cook” Hebrew na:zi:ð “cooked meal” Hebrew EIEC *séH2ul (gen. *sH2u-én-s) “sun” *su:li su:il “eye” Old Irish *saulyo-? heul “sun” Middle Welsh huan “sun” Middle Welsh haul “sun” Welsh *séH2ul > *saul- so:l “sun” Latin so:l (fem.) “sun” Old Norse *so:wilo: sauil (neutr.) “sun” Gothic sunna “sun” Old Norse sunne “sun” Old English sunna “sun” Old High German sunno: (fem.) “sun” Gothic *saulia: saule “sun” Old Prussian sáulè “sun” Lithuanian sau:le “sun” Latvian *sulni- slûnîce (neut.) “sun” Old Church Slavonian *sH2wel > *swel- diell “sun” Albanian *sa:wel- helios “sun” Greek hvar& (neut.) “sun” Avestan svár “sun” Sanskrit sú:rya- “sun” Sanskrit sú:ra- “sun” Sanskrit TP: The meaning “eye” in Old Irish should be considered in the light of the metaphor in Homer and the Rgveda of the sun as the eye in the sky. Compare Manansala's description of “the eye in the sky” in Austronesian at the end of this text. EHWL *az- “ardor” Etruscan aus-az- “eager, desirous” Etruscan az “to burn, to sear?” Etruscan usil “sun” Etruscan CELR VIII 254: *swaHar- “roast” West Chadic *sur- id. Central Chadic *swar- id. East Chadic 3ár id. Egyptian HSED 2271: *so`ar- “set fire, burn” *s^V`ar- “set, fire” Semitic s`r [-a-] id. Arabic *swaHar > *sawar West Chadic so:ya “roast” Hausa su:r id. Angas surru id. Bolewa suru: id. Karekare sur id. Ngamo s^uru id. Kirfi c^uuro id. Pero wuri id. Dera sur- id. Gera s&r- id. Galambu sure “burn” Burma *swaHar > *sawar “roast” Central Chadic zurr id. Tera s&r-an, id. Hwona sura-d.a id. Boka sur^-ke id. Kapiski sawar id. Mafa s&ra: id. Gudu s^ir id. Fali Mubi s&ra: id. Bachama Unexpected -i- in FMb. Notr voiced anlaut in Tera. *sur- “roast” East Chadic zuriye id. Mokilko Cf. *sor- > wsr “fire” Egyptian EWBS: s.urdakai, -doki “tinderbox” Basque s.urmako “poker” Basque s.urta “light” Basque s.urtu “burn” Basque s.utargi “fireglow” Basque EBAE: su, sur- “fire” Basque surtan, surten “in fire” Basque surtara “to fire” Basque surtopil “bread baked in embers” Basque (opil/ophil “corn/wheat cake” Basque) *swort- “fire” > Proto-Vasconic *surt- id. Old Basque Surt-r “a black fire giant” Old Norse sorta f. “black color” Old Norse sorti m. “darkness, dense fog” Old Norse sortna “go black” Old Norse *swarta- “black” Proto-Germanic swartizla, swartiza dat.sg.“ink” Gothic *swardu- “rind, crackling” Proto-Germanic sorde:s “dirt” Latin sordidus “dirty” etc Latin DSDE: *so:ta- Proto-Germanic so:t “soot” Middle Low German, Old English sót id. Old Norse soot id. Old Danish sot id. Norwegian, Swedish sod id. Danish súodz^iai pl. id. Lithuanian su:ide id. Old Irish sawdd “depth; descent” Welsh HSED 2267 *so`it- “dirt, be dirty” s3t “dirt” Egyptian (New Kingdom) *swat- id. Central Chadic soto id. Banana sotiya id. BM Metathesis. *sit- “be dirty” East Chadic s^ita id. Sokoro Contraction. DUS: suovvâ “smoke” Saami *s'üð'e Proto-Uralic sysi, syte “charcoal” Finnish c^âððâ ~ c^âðâ id. Saami sed' id. Mordvin s^ü, s^üj id. Cheremiss sül'i, süli id. Vogul söj id. Ostyak tun-sij “embers” (tuu “fire”) Yurak Samoyed siid'e, set'e. hiz´ “coal” Selkup Samoyed si' id. Kamass Samayed } (h > s) (r > l) sulu- “to shine” Proto-Oceanic sila- “to shine” Proto-Philippine sarang- “refulgent” Tagalog sulu- “light” Kapampangan sual- “sun” Papuan sare- “sun” Kaipi, Toaripi, Sepoe sara- “sun” Ngalum sera- “sun” Siagha-Yen, Awyu sial- “sun” Sete siar- “sun” Ron, Dusner sils- “sun” Palauan saldang- “sun” Bikol horang- “sun” Kate mate-hare- “sun” Malay harei- “sun” Cham u-salo- “sun” Lau sulo- “torch” Tagalog silaban- “to burn, build a blaze” Tagalog silab- “bonfire” Tagalog seri- “to burn” Rerep, Uua sulai- “to burn” Katbol sulia- “to burn” common New Hebrides sulaa- “flames” Kewa sulig- “flaming torch” Tagalog hure- “to burn” Wailengi, Lolomatui hura “to burn” Ngwatua hare- “sun” Orokilo hovare- “sun” Belepa suwara- “sun” Kakabi siwala- “sun” Dobu sinmari- “sun” Karewari simari- “sun” Chombri suk “flame, glow, gleam, bright, light” Sanskrit sug-aq- “light” Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Samar-Leyte sig-ak- “conflagration” Tagalog soata- “bright” Proto-Polynesian *s-r- “flow, stream”; “arrow, spear” sar “to flow, move” Sanskrit sara “liquid, water” Sanskrit saru “dart” Sanskrit, also sarah “arrow” siri “sword” Sanskrit, also “wound, slit in pieces” { IENH 163: *sy[u|o]r- “to surge, gush, flow, spring, or spread forth” Proto-Nostratic > *s[e|o]r- “to move quickly, run, flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *s(e|o)r-p[h]- “to creep, crawl” Proto-IndoEuropean *sr-(e|o)w- “to flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *sy[a|&]r- “to surge, gush, flow, spring, or spread forth” Proto-AfroAsiatic *co:r- “to flow, ooze, trickle, leak, gush” Proto-Dravidian s^ur- “to pour out, flow, bubble or boil up, gush out; arise from, spring forth; spread or stretch out; rain” Sumerian IENH 192: *s[a|&]r- “to split, rip apart, tear asunder” Proto-Nostratic > *s(e|o)r- “to split, rip apart, tear asunder” Proto-IndoEuropean *sor-g[h]- “to wound, tear” Proto-IndoEuropean *s1[a]r- “to destroy” Proto-Kartvelian *s[a|&]r- “to split, rip apart, tear asunder” Proto-AfroAsiatic *säre- “to break” Proto-FinnoPermian SIG, IESSG, VISW Actually two roots *s-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r- “flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *s-r- Semitic and *z-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r- “flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *z-r- Semitic sára-ti, sísar-ti “flows” Sanskrit sará- “flowing” Sanskrit sárma- “flowing” n. Sanskrit orós “whey” Greek serum “whey” Greek extended with -b- or -P.- > PIE -p- / > Semitic -b- *sárab-, zárab- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic sárapas “rapidly flowing water” Sanskrit saribam, saraba “(the water) ran, (the source, a leathern waterbag) flowed” Arabic sarabuN “flowing water” Arabic s^arba, s^urba “rain shower” Assyrian 'asra:b “torrent, waterfall” extended with -w- *sr-w- “flow” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic sráva-ti “flows” Sanskrit rhéo: “flows” Greek straum-r “stream” Old Norse stroum “stream” Old High German stro:m “stream” Old Low German stre:am “stream” Old English *s-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r- “flows” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -b- > PIE -p- Alternative forms *s-rp- intr. Proto-IndoEuropean (formally = Semitic s-r-b “flow” if this b < Pre-IE-Semitic b) sárpa-ti “creeps” Sanskrit herpo: “creep” Greek herpe:s “creeping, expanding rash” Greek serpo: “creep, spread unnoticed, take the upper hand” Latin : *S.-r-b- > *S.r-b- > *hr-b- > *r-b- ? Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic e-grade *re:p- Proto-IndoEuropean re:po: “creep, crawl” Latin re:plióti “creep” Lithuanian *s-r- Semitic extended with -y- sara: (denoting unseen progress) “(the root of a tree) crept along beneath the ground” transferred sense (of calamities etc.) “(the root of evil) crept” Arabic extended with -s.- *s^-r-s.- West Semitic s^&ras. “crept, crawled” Syrian s^a:ras. “creep (of worms on the ground), teem (of small water creatures, multiply rapidly (of people and animals)” Hebrew s^æ`ræs. “crawling worms” Hebrew s^ers.å: “reptiles” Syrian s^irs.a: “reptile” Jewish Aramaic *s-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r- Proto-IndoEuropean sí-sar-ti “rushes” Sanskrit sarán.a “running” Sanskrit extended with -m- *sr.´mo- Proto-IndoEuropean storm-r “storm” Old Norse storm “storm” Old English storm “storm” Old Saxon *sr.´mi- sturm “storm” Old High German Herme:s the storm god Greek *sòr-ma^ Proto-IndoEuropean horme: “rushing forward” Greek hormáo: “rush forward” Greek *s-r- Semitic single redupl. sarara “rush, fly upon vehemently” Ethiopian extended with -y- saraya “he was hasty, rapid, he hastened” sariyuN “quick, rapid etc.” with w-infix *s-w-r- Semitic sa:ra perf. “he leaped, sprang, committed an assault upon another” Arabic s^&war “jumped, rushed forth” Syrian causative *s-r- “throw” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r-y- Semitic s^a:ra: “release” Hebrew s^&rå: “release, throw” Syrian s-r-H- “release” Arabic *s-r-A1- > *sre: Proto-IndoEuropean stre:-la “arrow” Old Church Slavonian strala: “arrow” Old High German extended with -g2- *s-r-g2- Proto-IndoEuropean arkanem “I throw” Armenian arki aor. Armenian originally identical with *s-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-l- “send, throw” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with G.^ > PIE j sárja-ti, srjá-ti “sends away, shoots” Sanskrit sr.s^stá part. har&zaiti “releases, sends away” Avestan har&ito: part. extended with G.W : gW > PIE gW : kW sárga- “shot” Sanskrit with nasal infix slenken “sling” v. Middle High German slenker “sling” n. Middle High German : sr.ká- “dart, spear” Sanskrit har&ka- “throw” n. Old Persian har&c^eyeiti “hurls, slings” Old Persian with fra: “sends out” Old Persian with nasal infix *sl.nékti Proto-IndoEuropean slyngva “sling” v. Old Norse slenge “sling” n. Middle High German slengira “sling” n. Old High German slenger f. “sling” n. Middle High German extended with PIE -w- and laryngeal reduced *slu: Proto-IndoEuropean slu:r “slinging” Middle High German slu:der “sling” n. Middle High german schlauder “sling” n. German with umlaut schleuder “sling” n. German *s-l- Semitic extended with -k- hi-s^liX “throw (off, away)” Hebrew Hiph. extended with -H- s^elaH “sent” Syrian ethpe. “has been sent” Syrian s^alu: “throw, sling, shoot (arrow)” Assyrian s^æ'laH “dart, spear, missile” Hebrew silHuN, sila:HuN “a weapon, weapons” ma-slaHatuN “a place of arms wherein are parties that watch the enemy” Arabic *z-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-r- “strew, pour out, sow” Proto-IndoEuropean *s-r- “strew, pour out, sow” Semitic extended with -k.- za:rak. “strew (dust, semen), sprinkle (water, blood)” Syrian “throw, sprinkle blood onto the altar” New Hebrew z&rak. “scattered” Syrian pa. aph. “dispersed” Syrian z&rak. “strew, throw, shake” Jewish Aramaic pa. “throw” mizra:k. “vessel from which sprinkling is done” Hebrew “cleansing bowl” New Hwbrew mizr&k.a: “cleansing bowl” Jewish Aramaic zara:k.u, izarik. pres. izrik. pret. “sprinkle” Assyrian zarak.a “(the bird) excreted” Arabic extended with -p- z&raph “scattered” Syrian z&riptå: “violent rain” Syrian extended with -b- see above extended with -m- po. “pour out (of clouds)” Hebrew zæ`ræm “strong rain” Hebrew z&ra:miþ(a:) “storm” Jewish Aramic zirma: “ejaculation (of stallion)” Hebrew extended with -A- zar'a “ejaculate, strew, make fruitful” Ethiopian zar' “semen, sperm, offspring” Ethiopian extended with -y- *z-r-Y.- Common Semitic zaraY.a perf. “planted, sowed” Arabic zarz^a “planted, sowed” Ethiopian za:raz^ “planted, sowed” Hebrew z&raz^ “planted, sowed” Aramaic z&raz^ “planted, sowed” Syrian niph. “conceive” Hebrew hiph. “produce semen (also of women)” Hebrew hiph “ejaculate (in intercourse” Hebrew zarY.uN “seed, seminal fluid, offspring, child, children” Arabic ze:ru id. Assyrian zæ`raz^ id. Hebrew z&raz^ “seed, offspring” Biblical Aramaic zarz^å: “seed” Syrian pl. “descendants” Syrian za:ru: “begetter” Assyrian ze:rtu “descendant” Assyrian extended with -d- *s-r-t- “have intercourse with woman” Proto-IndoEuropean *zárad Proto-IndoEuropean serðan “have intercourse” Old English serða “have intercourse” Old Norse serten “have illicit intercourse” Middle High German z-r-d- Semitic zarada:nuN “vulva” Arabic extended with -w- strieman, stre:man “beget offspring” Old English EIEC *ser- “flow” Proto-IndoEuropean verb: sirid “flows” Middle Irish nominal derivatives serum “whey” Latin *srdyo- gjizë “whey, cheese” Albanian horós “whey” Greek extension: *srew- (gen. *sréwe/o-) “flow” sraviù “ooze” Lithuanian rheo: “flow” Greek aroganem “moisten” Armenian srávati “flow” Sanskrit *srowo/eH2- sravá- “what flows; menstruation” Sanskrit ostrovû “island” Old Church Slavonian rhúos “flow” Greek cf. sru:aim “stream” Old Irish straum-r “stream” Old Norse stroum “stream” Old High German stroom “stream” Old Low German stre:am “stream” Old English stream English IELL sara “current, stream” Thracian IEW *k'el “arrow, straw” Proto-IndoEuropean s^alyá- “arrow point, spear point” Sanskrit s^ará “reed, arrow” Sanskrit s^áru “arrow, spear” Sanskrit kelon “arrow, shot” Greek cail “spear” Middle Irish hali “point of stick, tail” Old Norse TP: Dubious. If we assume a borrowing from Proto-Austronesian into IE, then Austronesian must later have gone through a sound change similar to that of the satem languages (k' (> ch > ts) > s), which is unlikely. If the borrowing went the other way, it must have been from a satem language. Or else these two are not cognates. CAIEH 43: *sreu- “flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *saluR Proto-Hesperonesian sa?og “stream” Tagalog salor “conduit” Mal. NS 170: *s^arV “flow, stream, lake” Proto-Nostratic *s^OrV id. Sino-Caucasian *s^ur “flow, pour” Sino-Tibetan *s^or “lake, river” North Caucasian } PMS sur “to flow, to rain, drip” Sumerian PMA sari- “to flow” Aore, Mafea saro- “to flow” Peterara sara- “to flow” Woraviu, Sesake, Nguna Pwele, Siviri, Lelepa, Fila ser- “to flow” Eratap, Eton soro-soro- “to flow” Ngwatua sileng- “water” Apma serik- “rain” Shark Bay I serk- “rain” Lorediakarkar seri- “rain” Shark Bay II sari- “spear” Lolsiwoi, Morouas, Batunlamak, Fortsenal, Penantsiro, Narango, Mafea, Tutuba, Aore, Malo sare- “spear” Amblong ser- “spear” Sasar, Vetumboso, Mosina, Bek saria- “spear” Tambotalo siri “spear” Nuwas salapang “spear” Tagalog suligi “dart” Tagalog sari- “arrow” Ngwatua saer- “arrow” Merig sele- “knife” Hukua, Valpei, Fiji seleta- “sword” Samoa hele- “to cut” Tonga hilis- “cut, slice, incision” Tagalog *s-gH- “power, strength” sak “to be able, powerful” Sanskrit, also, sakti “power, strength, ability, energy” (s > h) (k > g) { IENH 185: *s[a|&]g- “to reach, arrive at, attain, achieve, get, obtain” Proto-Nostratic > *s[e|o]g[h]- “to get, obtain” Proto-IndoEuropean *s[a|&]g- “to reach, arrive at, attain, achieve, get, obtain” Proto-AfroAsiatic *sagha- “to reach, arrive at, achieve, get, obtain” Proto-Uralic EIEC *segh- “hold fast, conquer” Proto-IndoEuropean seg “strong” Old Irish *sagro- haer “stubborn” Middle Welsh hy “clever” Welsh sig-r “victory” Old Norse sigor / sige “victory” Old English sigu / sigi “victory” Old High German derivatives: *seghwr- sigra “conquer” Old Norse sigorian “conquer” Old English sigiro:n “conquer” Old High German ekho: “hold” Greek *si-sghe/o hi:sko: “held” Greek haz- “gain” Avestan hazah “outrage” Avestan sáhate “overcomes” Sanskrit sáhas- “victory” Sanskrit sa:k “hold oneself back” TokharianAB *seghwr ekhurós “firm, strong” Greek sakkuriya “overcome” Hittite sáhuri- “victorious” Sanskrit personal names Sego-marus Gaulish Sego-dunum Gaulish Sigurdh-r Old Norse Sigeweard Old English Sigwart Old High German Hektor? Greek } saka- “strong, having spiritual power” Saa, Ulawa, Are'are sakanga- “strength” Saa, Ulawa sikan- “strong, strength” Kapampangan, Manobo sakahi- “to strenghten” Aneityum sikhay- “diligence, assiduity” Tagalog sakit- “endeavor, effort” Tagalog hiki- “to be able, can” Hawai'i sigsa- “energy, assiduity” Tagalog sigla- “animation, liveliness” Tagalog sigir- “to strengthen” Efate *w-l- “choose” pari “to choose” Sanskrit, also vara “to choose” { IEW volo “will” Latin wilja “will” Gothic waljan “choose” Gothic voliti “want” Old Church Slavonic pa-vélt “wants, allows” Lithuanian } pili- Philippines fili- Samoa, Lau, Kwaio, Nanumea, Tonga whiri-whiri- Maori *m-y- “urinate; cloud” mi “urinate” Sanskrit megha “cloud” Sanskrit { VISW *Y.-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic extended with -T.- > PIE -dh- o-grade *ondh- Proto-IndoEuropean ónthos “animal dung” Greek extended with -y- *Y.-m-y- *Y.ámay- *o-m-y- “moisten, urinate” Proto-IndoEuropean *Y.amáy- *m-y- “moisten, urinate” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -s- mijzelen “drizzle” Flemish mi:seln “drizzle” Low German mi:sich “humid (of weather)” Low German mese “urine” Low German *merida (s > r) merda “excrement” Latin extended with -gh- me:ghá- “cloud” Sanskrit mae:Ga “cloud” Avestan me:g “fog” Armenian omikhle: “cloud, fog” Greek mIgla: “fog” Old Church Slavonian miglà “fog” Lithuanian and, if -hst- > -st- mist “fog” Old English mist “fog” Low German mist “fog” Dutch extended with -g^h- *m-yg^h- “urinate” Proto-IndoEuropean me:hati “urinates” Sanskrit mae:zaiti “urinates, fertilizes” Avestan mizem “urinate” Armenian *meiho > meio “urinate” Latin mingo “urinate” Latin omíkhein “urinate” Greek mi:gan “urinate” Old English mi:ga “urinate” Old Norse ómikhma “urine” Greek miux “fertilizer” Friesian meux “fertilizer” Old English mes “fertilizer” Low German mes “fertilizer” Dutch maihstus “fertilizer” Gothic mist “fertilizer” German *Y.-m-y- Semitic Y.ama: “flowed, (the wave) foamed, (the camel) frothed” Arabic Y.amaN, Y.ama:uN“(raining) clouds” Arabic *Y.-m-d- Semitic Y.amida intr. “it became moistened by rain” Arabic Y.amiduN “(earth) moistened by rain” Arabic z&mað “was immersed” Syrian *Y.-m-g- Y.amaga “he swam” (fi-l-ma:'i “in the water”) Arabic *Y.-m-l-G.- *Y.ámalak.- Y.amlak.a “excreted urine and dung” Arabic : Y.amálag- *m-lk- milhma “cloud” Gothic mlký “damp” Czech perhaps mélkion “source” Greek (Hesychius) As for the semantic relatedness of “cloud” and “urine”, cf. da:r is noch “there will be Low German en barch schi:t more snow coming” in de luft heard from a boatswain in Kiel. EIEC *H3méighe/o- (*H3min(e)gh-) “urinate” me:io: / mingo: “urinate” Latin mi:ga “urinate” Old Norse mi:gan “urinate” Old English minz^ù / méz^u “urinate” Lithuanian mizu / mézu “urinate” Latvian omeíkho: “urinate” Greek mizem “urinate” Avestan mae:zaiti “urinates” Avestan méhati “urinates” Sanskrit cf. nominal derivatives micga “urine” Old English omeikhma “urine” Greek me:z “urine” Avestan mae:sman- “urine” Avestan gao-mae:za “cow-urine” Avestan meha- “urine” Sanskrit mis^o “urine” TokharianB EIEC *H3meigh- / *H3mighleH2- “drizzle, mist” *mikhstaz mist-r “dark weather” Old Norse mist “mist” Old English mist English mist “mist” New Dutch miggelen “mist” New Dutch miglà “drizzle” Lithuanian migla “mist” Latvian mîgla “mist” Old Church Slavonian mgla “mist” Russian mz^îtî “drizzle” Russian omíkhle “cloud” Greek mae:gha- “cloud” Avestan meghá- “cloud” Sanskrit CAIEH 38: *miR, *mi(R)miR Proto-Austronesian hala-migmig “dampness” Tagalog mimir “gush forth” Toba mimi “squirt” Fiji mi “urinate” Fiji mii “urinate” Saa, Tonga *m(e)igh Proto-IndoEuropean omeíkho “urinate” Greek mi(n)g- “urinate” Latin NS 124: *mEwV “water, moisture” Proto-Nostratic *HmEWwV id. Sino-Caucasian *moj id. Sino-Tibetan *h.me:h.wa: “moisture, liquid, pool” North Caucasian CELR V 107: *ma'- “water” West Chadic *ma'i-/*ma'u- id. Central Chadic mw, my id. Egyptian } mimi- Patani e-mi- Sawai m-mi- Weda mi, mimi- Polynesia bake-mi- Bacah. mimi- “wet” Yevali mih-mih- “wet” Port Vato meme- “wet” Penantsiro, Nambel Nuvi, Mate, Nul mi- “urine” ElemenPMA miyege- “cloud” Hiw metmet- Apma momah- Toak mamah- Maat mahmah- Lironesa miet- Maba mili- Patani melik, met- Sawai, Weda met- Buli mega- Bacan magara- “wet” Ngwatua mimiek- “wet” Lolsiwoi mekimekine- “wet” Matae, Fortsenal *n-bh- “cloud, shower” { SIG, IESSG, VISW Alternative form *Y.-n-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *'ánapa Pre-Proto-IndoEuropean *omb- Proto-IndoEuropean ámbu- “water” Sanskrit amp “cloud” Armenian ómbros “rain, shower” Greek Y.anfuwa:nuN “the first (of the beauty or the brightness) of a thing, the juice that flows from grapes without their being pressed, the force or strength (of wine)” Arabic : *Y.-n-P.- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic ámbhas “water” Sanskrit ómpax “unripe grape” Greek *'anáP.a Pre-Proto-IndoEuropean *nébhos “cloud” Proto-IndoEuropean nábhas “cloud” Sanskrit néphos Greek nephéle: Greek nebula “fog” Latin *nébhro-, nbhré- > mbhré- Proto-IndoEuropean abhrá- “cloud” Sanskrit imber “shower” Latin áphenos, áphnos “wealth” Greek imbed “wealth” Old Irish with collective-forming w-infix *n-wbh- nu:be:s “cloud, mist” Latin *Y.-n-b- Proto-AfroAsiatic Y.anbabuN, Y.anbubuN “abundance of water; the foremost portion (of a torrent)” Arabic The original sense of the root (“swell”) in '-n-b- “grow abundantly, carry fruit” Assyrian unnabu, II 1. inf. Assyrian whence inbu “fruit” Assyrian Y.anna:buN “the fruit of various trees, especially of rhamnus zizyphus” Arabic Y.inabuN “grapes (while fresh), the grape-vine” Arabic Y.inabatuN “a single grape” Arabic 3enbeþå “a single grape” Syrian 3e:na:B “a single grape” Hebrew from the same root omphax “unripe grape” Greek EWBS: imbre- > “rain, rainwater” Latin embri > ebi, ebri, euri, eubri “rain” Basque TP: or a loan from somewhere else? ECIUS 28: *m.bh-ro Proto-IndoEuropean abhrá- “cloud, rain shower” Sanskrit aBra “rain, rain cloud” Avestan imber “(heavy) rain, shower” Latin *üprä/iprä Pre-Saami abri “rain” Saami dial. arvi “rain” Saami CAIEH 53 *nebh-, *mbh- “cloud (>sky), mist, shower” Proto-IndoEuropean nabhas- “mist, vapor” Sanskrit abhra- “cloud” Sanskrit ómbros “shower” Greek imber “shower” Latin *e(m)bun Proto-Hesperonesian ambon “drizzle” Tagalog ombun “cloud” Toba embon “dew” Mal. Demp38: `&(m)bun “precipitation” Proto-Austronesian Gambun “humid weather” id., side form `ambon “fine rain” Indonesian, Tagalog `ombun “cloud” Tuba Batak `ebun id. Java `embun “cloud, thaw” Malay `ambon “thaw, fog” Ngadyu-Dayak } -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *Y.-r-g- “maintain” from IELS: rex "Rex", which is attested only in Italic, Celtic, and Indic - that is at the Western and Eastern extremeties of the Indo-European world, belongs to a very ancient group of terms relating to religion and law. The connexion of Latin "rego" with Gr. orégo “extend in a straight line' (the o- being phonologically explainable), the examination of the old uses of reg- in Latin (e.g. in "regere fines", "e regione", "rectus", "rex sacrorum") suggests that the "rex", properly more of a priest than a king in the modern sense, was the man who had authority to trace out the sites of towns and to determine the rules of law. TP's commentary: or it belongs to a very ancient group of terms having to do with navigation which were introduced by invaders arriving from the east into exactly those Western and Eastern extremeties of the IE area because they have a coastline. IELS regio “region, the point reached in a straight line” Latin e regione “at the straight point, opposite” Latin regio “the point reached by a straight line traced out on the ground or in the sky, the space enclosed between such straight lines drawn in different directions” Latin, in the language of augury rectus “straight as the line which one draws” Latin, in the language of augury regula “the instrument used to trace the straight line” Latin, in the language of augury regere fines “trace out the limits by straight lines” Latin, in the language of augury This is the operation carried out by the high priest before a temple or a town is built and it consists in the delimitation on a given terrain of a sacred plot of ground. The magical character of this operation is evident: what is involved is the delimitation of the interior and the exterior, the realm of the sacred and the realm of the profane, the national territory and foreign territory. The tracing of these limits is carried out by the person invested with the highest powers, the "rex". ... Opposed to the "straight" in the moral order is what is “twisted, bent'. Hence "straight" is equivalent to "just", "honest", while its contrary "twisted, bent" is identified with "perfidious", "mendacious", etc. TP: I should be very surprised if that crookedness is not related to that horrible serpent, *H-n-g-, again. IELS This set of ideas is already Indo-European. To Latin 'rectus' corresponds the Gothic adjective 'raiht-s', which translates Greek 'euthús' “straight”; further the Old Persian 'ra:sta' which qualifies the noun 'the way' in this injunction: 'Do not desert the straight way'. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= raja “king, prince, lord” Sanskrit ravi “sun” Sanskrit raj “to shine” Sanskrit, also rajas “space” Sanskrit, from raj “to spread out, stretch” also loka “world, space, people” rajas “energy, activity” Sanskrit raj “to rule” Sanskrit { IENH 428: *?[a|&]r-ag- “to climb on, to mount; to rise, to be lifted up; to lift up, to raise” Proto-Nostratic > *(e|o)rg[h]- “to climb on, to mount; to rise, to become puffed up” Proto-IndoEuropean *?org[h]i- “testicle” (< “puffed up, swollen”) Proto-IndoEuropean *?[a|&]r[a|e]g- “to climb on, to mount; to rise, to ascend” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ark- “to climb, to mount an animal, to rise, to get puffed up” Proto-Dravidian Altaic ergü-, örgü- “to lift up, to raise” Mongolian ürgü- “to lift” Buriat (Alar dialect) ïrge- “to lift” Buriat (Khori dialect) IENH 591: *r[a|&]k'- “to stretch, extend, draw out” Proto-Nostratic > *r(e|o)k'- “to stretch, extend, draw out” Proto-IndoEuropean *r[a|&]k'- “to stretch, extend, draw out” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 599: *r(a|&)q'- “to observe, watch, regard attentively; to supervise, control” Proto-Nostratic > *r(e|o)k'- (lengthened grade *r(e:|o:)k'-) “to observe, watch, watch for, care for” Proto-IndoEuropean *req'- “to drive (cattle)” Proto-Kartvelian *r(a|&)k- “to observe, watch, regard attentively; to superrvise, control” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 600: *r(a|&)k[h]- “to put together, put in order, arrange” Proto-Nostratic *r(e|o)k[h]- “to put together, put in order, arrange” Proto-IndoEuropean *rakkæ- “to put together, put in order, arrange” Proto-FinnoUgric VISW: *Y.-r- *or- Proto-IndoEuropean *or-t- participle o:rto “rose, went up” Greek ortus (particpl.) Latin ortus (noun) (gen. ortu:s) Latin art Middle High German von arde (ho:he erborn) “according to ancestry” Middle High German *or-i- ori:ri “rise, arise, come into existence” Latin ori:go “origin” Latin *Y.-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic *Y.-r-d- , -d- corresponding to the Indo-European participial -t- Y.arada (perf.) “(a plant, a tree, a canine tooth, a camel's tush) came forth” Arabic *Y.-r-g- Y.arga (intr.) “rose, went up” Ethiopian Y.araga (trans.) “he ascended, mounted (the stair, the ladder)” Arabic ma-Y.raguN, mi-Y.ra:guN “a ladder, a series of steps or stairs” Arabic *Y.-r- *or- Proto-IndoEuropean *or-d ordo “row, order” Latin ordéo: “start a weaving” Greek ex-ordior “start a weaving” Latin ordior “order by row, sew, begin” Latin *Y.-r-A , transitive *Y.aráA > *re:- Proto-IndoEuropean reju (inf. reti) “put in order, place wood in layers” Lithuanian *ra-, reduced in participle rodh (fem.) “row” Old Norse rat (fem.) “row, line” Middle High German *Y.-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic *Y.-r-k- Y.a:rakh “order (e.g. the firewood on the altar), build” Hebrew Y.èrækh, Y.ærk- “ordering into layers” Hebrew Y.èrækh, Y.ærk- “order” Modern Hebrew Y.ari:kha: “ordering” Modern Hebrew Y.erikhu:th “order” Modern Hebrew *Y.-r-m- niph. “be heaped” Hebrew Y.a:ram “to heap” Modern Hebrew Y.aramatuN “a quantity of reaped corn collected together, a heap of dung” Arabic Y.are:ma: “heap (of cereal, fruit, rubble)” Hebrew Y.are:ma: “heap of cereal” Modern Hebrew Y.are:mtha: “heap of cereal” Judeo-Aramaic *Y.-r-k- or-g-, org- “reach, direct” Proto-IndoEuropean oréknumi, orégo “reach” Greek *r-g- Proto-Indouropean rego “direct” Latin e:-rigo “erect” Latin rikan “to heap” Gothic rogus “heap (of combustible material), pyre” Latin ra:zajeiti “points, sets straight, sets in order” Avestan ham-ra:zajeite: “stretches (himself) out, reaches up” Median with n-infix rnjá-ti “stretches himself” Sanskrit rakkr “upright” Old Norse rekkja “bed” Old Norse *Y.-r-s^- < Y.-r-k- Proto-AfroAsiatic Y.ars^uN, Y.ari:s^uN “wooden structure, tabernacle constructed of wood and thuma:m herb (Panicum dichotonum, used by the Arabs to cover their huts), a booth or a shed, or thing constructed for the shade” Arabic Y.ars^uN “a structure of wood built at the head of a well (forming a shade), the bier of a corpse, a (king's) throne” Arabic ers^u, irs^u “bedstead, bed” Assyrian Y.æræs^ “bed, bier” Hebrew Y.æræs “bed” Modern Hebrew Y.arså: “bed” Syriac Y.arsa: “bed, bier” Judeo-Aramaic Y.ari:s^uN “the elevated structure made for a grape-vine, of sticks or pieces of wood” Arabic Y.ari:s^ “tabernacle, shed for shade” Ethiopian Y.aras^a “he built a building of wood, he constructed or built what is called an Y.ari:s^ > he built (al-bayta, the house)” Arabic Y.arras^a II “he made (al-Gars^a), he roofed (al-bayta, the house) and raised the building (thereof)” Arabic V “he became settled (bi-l-baladi, in the country or town)” Arabic Y.-r-s “put on spalier” Modern Hebrew Y.arsela: “guard hut” Judeo-Aramaic EIEC *H3régs (gen. H3régos) - H3rég-on “ruler, king” *H3régs ri: (gen. ri:g) “king” Old Irish -rix “king” Gaulish re:x “king” Latin Resos name of mythic king Thracian b&r&zi-ra:z “ruling in the heights” Avestan kathi-ra:ysa, appr. “mayor” (< “town-ruler”) Khotanese rra:s-pu:ra (< *raz(i)-puthra) “prince” Khotanese rra:s-duar (< *raz(i)-dugdar) “princess” Khotanese ra:j- “king” Sanskrit sam-ra:j- “overlord” Sanskrit *H3rég-on ri:gain “queen” Old Irish rhiain (< *ri:gani-) “maiden” Welsh re:gi:na (< *re:gni:-na:-) “queen” Latin rra:ysan- “lord, ruler” Khotanese rri:na “queen” Khotanese ra:jan- “king” Sanskrit ra:jni- “queen” Sanskrit sam-ra:jni- “wife of an overlord” Sanskrit ra:janyá- “royal” Sanskrit *H3rég-yo-m “kingdom, power” ri:ge “kingdom” Old Irish ra:s^a- (< ra:zya) “power, might” Khotanese ra:jyam “kingdom” Sanskrit from *H3rég-yo-s “royal” re:gius “royal” Latin ra:jyá- “royal” Sanskrit EIEC *H3reg- “move in a straight line; extend, stretch” rigid “stretches” Old Irish ro(d)i “gives” Middle Welsh rego: “direct in a straight line” Latin rekja “stretch, spread out” Old Norse reccan “stretch out; be concerned about” Old English reck English rec(c)han “stretch out” Old High German uf-rakjands (pres. part.) “reaching out, extending” Gothic réz^ti “stretch” Lithuanian rie:zt “stretches up” Latvian orégo “stretch” Greek hargana:u- “palm, sole” Hittite kheiros oregnús “stretching out the hands” Greek ra:zayeiti “adjusts, arranges” Avestan rñjati / rjyati “stretches, stretches out” Sanskrit räk- “strech out, cover” TokharianAB *H3regtos “right” recht “law, authority” Old Irish re:ctus (adj.) “right” Latin re:tt-r “right, law, legal claim” Old Norse re:tti “direction” Old Norse re:tta “rule, land” Old Norse riht “right” Old English right English reht “right, justice” Old High German raiht-s “right” Gothic raihtis (adv.) “indeed, rightly” Gothic orektós “stretched out” Greek ras^ta- “right, straight” Avestan TP riki “realm, kingdom” Old Norse RVCFRN ravi “sun” Sanskrit areg-akn “sun”, lit. “eye of the sun” Armenian arew “sun” Armenian HSED 2088: *ra' “sun, god” r´ “sun, Sun-god” Egyptian (pyramids) *re: “sun, Sun-god” Coptic ri “sun, Sun-god” Akhmimian re: “sun, Sun-god” Bohairian re: “sun, Sun-god” Sahidic *rayi- < *raHi- “sun” West Chadic ri “sun” Geji are “sun” Sha *raH- “sun, god” East Chadic ra “sun, god” Mokilko ra:ya “sun, god” Bidiya Possibly related to *ray'- “daylight” Semitic ray'- “daylight” Arabic 'ry “sky” Egyptian (Greek papyri) HSED 2077: *ra?-/*raw-/*ray- “be, become, make” Consonantal alternation *-?- ~ *-w- ~ *-y- ( TP: or possibly metathesis ?r > r?) ìry “be, do, make” Egyptian Old Kingdom *?iri “be, do, make” Coptic ili “be, do, make” Fayumian eire “be, do, make” Akhmimian iri “be, do, make” Bohairian eire “be, do, make” Sahidic *ra?-/*raw- West Chadic ra “become” Gwandara ro “work” Bokkos *ray- “become, build” Central Chadic re, rey “become, build” Lame *riy- East Chadic orriye “become” Dangla riyo “work, make” Dangla riy “work, make” Bidiya Secondary *i before *y. *ra?- “stay, remain” Rift ra?- “stay, remain” Asa raw- “stay, remain” Dahalo possibly (from the sense “stretch” or “survey”) HSED 122: *?orah- “road, way” *?urah- “way” Semitic ?urhu, ?arhu “way” Akkadian ?o:rah “way” Hebrew ?rh “way” Aramaic (Emp, Palm) ?u:rha: “way” Aramaic (Syr) 'whr? “way” Aramaic (Mand) ?urh “way” Aramaic (NAram) *?wara- < *?waraH- “road” West Chadic ar “road” Sura ar “road” Angas war “road” Ankwe ?araw “road” Kulere *-H- is. probably, preserved as -w- in Klr but lost elsewhere *?war- “road” East Chadic ?oora “road” Bidiya An alternative reconstruction could be *waHar- with a metathesis and a regular contraction of *-waHa- > Bidiya -oo- *?or- “road” Highland East Cushitic ora “road” Darasa No traces of the laryngeal *?uruw “path, way” Rift uruwa “path, way” Gorowa Secondary formation in -uwa. The loss of laryngeal in Rift is irregular. CELR VII 45: *ra- “God” East Chadic r´ “Sun God” Egyptian CELR VIII 103: *yar “do, make” East Chadic *ray “build” Central Chadic ìry “do, make” Egyptian CELR VIII 105: *rid.- “do, make” West Chadic rdy “do, make” EgyptianRWc sarge:l “ruler (tool, not person)” Hebrew regel, ragl- “foot (body part)” Hebrew sirge:l “to draw straight lines” Hebrew NEW: rak “reach” (of river) Dutch rekken “stretch” Dutch EHWL: cf. Benveniste above on “rex” aritimi, artume, artam, artms, artumes, arthem Artemis, goddess of spells and prophecy Etruscan arth “to section or subdivide” Etruscan arthe velna “one who severs, cuts off” Etruscan artna “limb, member, part” Etruscan artna mem[p]ru “one who subdivides in parts” Etruscan arta “breaker, smasher” > “carpenter (Vulcan)” Etruscan artile “one who articulates, artisan” Etruscan KI: ragam “manner, way, fashion”, “kind, sort, type”, “melody”, “color” Indonesian rakit “raft; bamboo-floor” Indonesian berakit “closely linked (joined)” Indonesian merakit “connect, tie, join”, “make up, devise, contrive” Indonesian rangka “skeleton”, “draft, scheme” Indonesian rangka dada “thorax, chest” Indonesian merangkakan “to design” Indonesian rangkai “bunch” Indonesian serangkai “associated, connected. linked” Indonesian berangkai-rangkai “[inter-]connected, linked in a row” Indonesian merangkai[kan] “join, connect, link, combine” Indonesian [pe]rangkaian “connection, link, chain; series, collection; structure, scheme” Indonesian PMS lugal “king” Sumerian CAD 19.320: a:ri “king, ruler” Isnag *ha:zi Proto-Hesperonesian ha:ri? id. Tagalog hari? id. Sarangani Blaan ratu id. Javanese ratu id. Sika latu id. Kwanera ari?i id. Tahitian ?ariki id. Rapanui } rahu- “king” Philippines raha- “respected married elder” Arosi araha- “chief, ruler” common Melanesian rato- “elder” Solomon Is. mae-raha- “chief” Wango rato- “chief” Arosi ratu- “master, lord” Fiji ratu- “chief, noble” Java latu- “master builder” Samoa ra'atira- “chief” Tahiti lakan- “chief, lord” Tagalog ma-raja- “important person” Orang Besar toma-raya- “king” Sekol datu- “chief, leader” common Philippines, Indonesia lakas- “energy, strength, strong” Philippines lakwa- “quickly” Melanesia laki- “great” SE Papuan rakahi'a- “to heat, warm” Are'are raka- “to be powerful magically” Are'are raka- “to make fire” Solomon Is. laki- “fire” Motu lake- “fire” Vaturana raka “excessive, overly hot” Ulawa rakahi- “excessive” Wango rakahi- “to heat, melt” Ulawa a-raka- “fire” Suki raya “to be great, large” Indonesia ra, raa, la- “distant in space or time” common Oceanic laki- “largeness” Philippines lakihan- “to enlarge” Philippines loki- “large” Vaturana lagay- “place, position, fix” Philippines lugal- “place” Philippines laganap- “widespread” Philippines lagalag- “roving, wandering” Tagalog latag- “spread over, extended” Philippines lata- “large, wide” Marino lokwo- “large, spacious” Ngwatua lakwoa- “large, spacious” Lolsiwoi latlat- “to spread out” Proto-Philippine rita- “to spread out” Proto-Malaitan reten- “to stretch out” Proto-Austronesian ruqan, ruqar- “space, open space” Proto-Austronesian rangi, langi- “sky, heavens, space, wind” common Austronesian lagi- “sky, heavens” Nanumea laki- “man, male”, rarely “mankind” common Austronesian laqi- “offspring” Atayal a-rahaa, a-lahaa- “to rule” common Melanesian lavak (pa-)- “to rule” Paiwan ari (mag-)- “to rule” Tagalog TP: But what is the connection with *l-w-k- “light”? and *H-r-k- “sun, silver, gold, fire”? TP: Possibly, with a d-preformative: SSIRG: *trek(k)a- “drag, pull” (TP: by two?) Proto-Germanic trechen id. Middle High German treka id. Old Frisian trecken id. Middle Dutch, Middle Low German trek id. Dutch TP: Possibly, with an s-preformative: SSIRG: *strak[ki]je- Proto-Germanic strekkja “stretch, reach” Old Norse strecchen, strecken id. Old High German streccean id. Old English strecken id. German -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= End of *H-r-g- -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= *A-d-m- “cover, fill, build, create” { IENH 77: *d(u|o)m- “to become dark” Proto-Nostratic *d[h][e|o]m- “dark; darken, make dark” Proto-IndoEuropean *d(a|&)m- “to become dark” Proto-AfroAsiatic > IENH 78: (*d(u|o)m-k'W- >) *d(u|o)m-k'W- “to cover over, obscure, make dark” Proto-Nostratic *d[h][e|o]nk'W- “to be or become dark” Proto-IndoEuropean Altaic: dun, “a cave” Manchu dun,gu “a cave, grotto” Manchu dungu “cloud” Sumerian IENH 101: *t[h](a|&)m- “to cover over, hide; become dark” Proto-Nostratic *t[h][e|o]m- “dark, darkness” Proto-IndoEuropean *t[h](a|&)m- “to cover over, to hide; become dark” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ta(a)ml&k “darkness” Proto-Yeniseian (Sirenikski) IENH 104: *t[h](a|<6)w- “to swell” Proto-Nostratic *t[h][o|e]w- “to swell” AfroAsiatic: tw3-w “pustules, swellings” Egyptian *täwðe “full” Proto-FinnoUgric *tava “much, abundantly, greatly” Proto-Dravidian IENH 107: *t[h](a|&)m- “to fill, fullfill” Proto-Nostratic *t[h](a|&)m- “to fulfill, finish, complete, terminate, end; to be fulfilled, completed, finished, ended, done” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tum-ke- > (through assimilation) *tun,-ke “to fill up, stuff in, cram” Proto-FinnoUgric tump- “to be or become full, filled up, complete; to fill, abound; (adj.) abundant, much” Proto-Dravidian tum “abundance, plenty” Sumerian IENH 125: *t'[a|&]m- “to quiet, calm, pacify, tame” Proto-Nostratic *t'(o)m-H- “to tame, subdue” Proto-IndoEuropean t.ammana “to quiet, calm, appease, pacify, allay, assuage, soothe” Arabic, AfroAsiatic t.amn “quiet, tranquil” Arabic, AfroAsiatic t.am'ana, t.a'mana “to calm, quiet, pacify, appease, assuage, soothe” Arabic, AfroAsiatic SIG, VISW Alternate form *A-D.-m- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *'aD.ám-, transitive *d-m- “bring forth, create, build” Proto-IndoEuropean démo: “build” Greek dómos “house” Greek dáma- “house” Sanskrit domU “house” Old Church Slavonian domu-s “house” Latin d&mana- nma:na “house” Avestan da:man “creature, created being” Avestan da:may- “creative, creator” Avestan da:may f. “creature” Avestan extended with -A- or -H- *déma- or *dmá:- Proto-IndoEuropean démas “shape, body” Greek de-dme:-ka -(mai) eu-dma:-tos “well built” Greek *démaro-m Proto-IndoEuropean timb-r “timber” Old Norse timber “timber” Old English zimbar “timber” Old High German timrjan “build (in wood)” Gothic *dma:- > ma:terie:s “wood for construction” Latin de-dme:-tai “has been built” Greek eú-dme:tos “well-built” Greek neó-dma:tos “new-built” Doric Greek (Pindar) : *A-d-m “bring forth, create, build” Proto-AfroAsiatic ´a:Da:m “man, humanity” Hebrew admu “young of animals especially birds” Assyrian udmu (“creation” >) “generation” Assyrian > 'udmatuN “sociableness, companionship, familiarity” Arabic adma:nu “building, house, dwelling place” Assyrian An old alternation *T.-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-m- “be dark”, tr. “cover” Proto-IndoEuropean deim “dark” extended grade dhe:m- Proto-IndoEuropean dåm “dark” Norwegian dåme “fog” Norwegian + kW- : k.W- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + gW- : ghW- Proto-IndoEuropean dengiù, deñgti “cover” Lithuanian dengà n. “cover” Lithuanian dañgtis “lid” Lithuanian *T.ámakW- Pre.IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-mgW- > Proto-IndoEuropean *dh-ngW- Proto-IndoEuropean dyunk- “dark” Old Frisian døkkr “dark” Old Norse dunkar “dark” Old Saxon donker “dark” Dutch dunkel “dark” Low German tunchar, tunchal “dark” Old High German tunkel “dark” Middle High German *dh-nghW- Proto-IndoEuropean dung “subterranean room” Old Saxon dunk id. Middle Low German tung id. Old High German tunc id. Middle High German dung “prison” Old English *t.-m- Proto-AfroAsiatic t.amma “he covered over (a thing with earth or dust), it filled up, choked up (the well)” Arabic t.&mam ithpa. “be covered, buried” Jewish Aramaic + suffix n- t.a:man “bury” Hebrew niph. “hide oneself” Hebrew t.&man “bury, keep” Jewish Aramaic t.a:man id. Modern Hebrew niph. “be hidden, kept” Modern Hebrew ma-t.mo:ni:m pl.“hidden treasures” Hebrew mat.mo:n m. “hiding place” Modern Hebrew mat.monæþ f. id., “treasure” Modern Hebrew half redupl. *T.-m-T.- t.&mat. “hid, concealed” Syrian extended + r- *T.-m-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-m-r- Proto-IndoEuropean themer-opis “with stern look” Greek timber “dark, gloomy” Old High German timber “dark, gloomy” Middle High German *t.-m-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic t.amara “he hid, concealed, buried” Arabic t.&mar “hid, put away” Syrian “hide, keep” Jewish Aramaic t.umra: “hiding place” Jewish Aramaic t.&mi:ra: “hidden” Jewish Aramaic *T.-m-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-m-s- Proto-IndoEuropean Gmc. mz > mm dimmr “dark” Old Norse dim Old English = *t.m.s- Proto-AfroAsiatic t.amasa “erased, made disappear” Arabic intr. “it became effaced, obliterated” Arabic t.&mas^ “dive” Jewish Aramaic t.&ma:s^a: “immersion” Jewish Aramaic t.&mås^å id. Syrian + Y. t.am3a “dip, immerse” Ethiopian t.emu:3 part. “dipped, immersed” Ethiopian t.&ma3 “go down (into sea)” (of sun) Jewish Aramaic pa. “bury, sink” Jewish Aramaic t.-m-3- niph. “sink, disappear” Modern Hebrew t.um3a: “hiding place, hidden treasure” Jewish Aramaic : *t-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-m- Proto-IndoEuropean témti “become dark” Lithuanian tIma: f. “darkness” Old Church Slavonic + n- *t-m-n- Proto-IndoEuropean tImInU “dark” Old Church Slavonic tImInIna: f. “darkness” Old Church Slavonic tImInica: “prison” Old Church Slavonic *d-m-n- Proto-AfroAsiatic dam(m)ana “be (become) dark, cloudy” Ethiopian demu:n “cloudy, dark” Ethiopian damana: “clouds” Ethiopian + r- *t-m-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic itammir “bury” Assyrian + s- *t-m-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *témos n. támas n. “darkness” Sanskrit temere abl. “blindly” Latin thim “dark” Old Saxon dinstar “dark” Old High German *tensr- > tenebrae “darkness” Latin with *d-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-m- Proto-IndoEuropean see above : *D.-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *d-m- Proto-IndoEuropean + d- *D.amád- intr., half redupl.? > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *d-mt- > Proto-IndoEuropean *d-nt- Proto-IndoEuropean dasú-s Greek + s- *D.ámas- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *d-ns- Proto-IndoEuropean densus “dense” Latin + b- *D.-n-b- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *D.ànB.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dòmb- Proto-IndoEuropean tamp “end of rope” Low German (> Danish, Swedish) : *d-n-B.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-mb- Proto-IndoEuropean with s-preformative stump “stump; blunt” Low German stumph id. Old High German stumpf id. Middle High German stambas “cabbage stem” Lithuanian stambras “stem” Lithuanian : *d-n-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-mp- Proto-IndoEuropean to,bU “blunt” Slavic with s-preformative stumbal “stump, stub; maimed” Old High German stumbel id. Middle High German = *D-n-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic z.inbuN “the root or lower part or stem (of a tree)” Arabic z.unbu:buN “(end of) shin-bone” Arabic : *d-n-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic ð-n-b- Semitic ðanabuN “the tail, the end of anything” Arabic ðeneb id. Modern Arabic mi-ðnabuN “a long tail, a ladle (because it has a tail)” Arabic ðanu:buN “(horse) having a long tail” Arabic zanab “tail” Ethiopian zéneb id. Tigre: za:na:B “tail, stump” Hebrew “end, penis” Modern Hebrew zibbatu “tail” Assyrian dunbå: “tail, end (of smt.)” Syrian *d-m- Proto-AfroAsiatic + s- damasa “the darkness was dense” Arabic *t-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-m- “cut (into)” Proto-IndoEuropean + t- : T.- , half reduplication? > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + d- : dh- Proto-IndoEuropean *t-nd- : *t-ndh- Proto-IndoEuropean téndo: “gnaw (at)” Greek : tentho: id. Attic Greek ténte:s “people with sweet tooth” Greek o-grade tondeo:, totondi “cut (hair, beard), shear (sheep)” Latin : t.m- Semitic single redupl t.-m-m- Semitic t.amma perf. “he took somewhat from (the hair of) ra'asa-hu his head, he cut (s^aY.ara-hu) his hair” Arabic IV X “(s^aY.ara-hu his hair) drew near to the time for its being cut” Arabic ma-t.mu:muN part. “(ra'asuN a head) of which all the hair is cut off, (a man mat.mu:mu-r-ra'asi having all of his hair cut off)” Arabic *t-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic or *H.-d-m-, *H.-ð-m- trans. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *Haðám- trans. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-m- Proto-IndoEuropean témno:, étamon “cut up” Greek te,ti “tear, split, divide” Old Bulgarian + laryngeal *t-ma- Proto-IndoEuropean témakhos Greek 2nd high pitch form *tmé:- Proto-IndoEuropean tétme:-ka, -mai tme:ma, tme:sis Greek extended tmé:go:, étmagon Greek : H.-ð-m- H.aðama perf. trans. “he cut (-hu it), cut it off” Arabic H.aðimu*, H.aði:muN “sharp, cutting (sword)” Arabic miH.ðamuN “sharp sword” Arabic *t-p- “extinguish” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic with nasal infix *t-mb- “rob sby. of smt.” Proto-IndoEuropean a-témbo: “harm, shorten, pretend” Greek atémbomai neóte:tos “have been robbed of my youth = am past it” Greek : *T.-p- “extinguish” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-w- id. Proto-IndoEuropean plus Á- *T.apáÁ- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dhwe:- Proto-IndoEuropean dwæscan “extinguish” Old English ádhvani:t aor. “was extinguished” Sanskrit dhvanáyati caus. Sanskrit + m- + laryngeal *dhwm.- > Proto-IndoEuropean dhva:ntá pert. “dark” Sanskrit *t.-p- Proto-AfroAsiatic + A- t.afi'a intr. “became extinguished, quenched” Arabic 'at.fa'a IV caus. “extinguished (an-na:ra the fire)” Arabic VII “is exstinguished” Arabic t.af'a intr. “I extinguished” Ethiopian t.efu:' part. “extinguished” Ethiopian t.ef'at “extinction” Ethiopian t.&Pa: “extinguish” intr. Jewish Aramaic pa. aph. “extinguish” tr. Jewish Aramaic ithpe. “become extinguished” Jewish Aramaic + w- t.afa: perf. intr. “has been ectinguished (of torches)” > “is dead” Arabic t.afa: tr. “put out (light)” New Arabic int.afa: VII “extinguish” > “die out” New Arabic : *T.-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-bh- “harm, deceive” Proto-IndoEuropean plus w- *T.aP.áw- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dhbh-w- Proto-IndoEuropean *dhbhnéw-ti pres. > Proto-IndoEuropean dabhnóti “damages, deceives” Sanskrit d&b&naoti “deceives, robs sby. of smt.” Avestan d&bav- “fool” vb. Avestan á-dbuta “(without deceit) wonderful” Sanskrit with nasal infix *dh-mbh- Proto-IndoEuropean dambhá- “deceit” Sanskrit dambháya-ti “damages” Sanskrit : *t-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t-b- Proto-Afro>Asiatic full redupl. tabtaba Arabic single redupl. tabba “he suffered loss or diminution” Arabic taba:buN “the suffering loss or diminution” Arabic tabba “he became an old man (the loss of youth being likened to taba:buN)” Arabic tabira intr. “he (it) perished” Arabic tabbara II “he destroyed, ruined (-hu him or it)” Arabic mu-tabbaruN part. “destroyed, brought to nought” Arabic taba:ruN “perdition” Arabic *A-T.-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic 'aT.ám- tr. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + labial (b- or P.-) *A-T.-m-b-, *A-T.-m-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dh-m- Proto-IndoEuropean + labial (p- or bh-) *dh-mp-, *dh-mbh- intr. “stuffed, obstructed, blocked” > “deaf, dumb” Proto-IndoEuropean dumbs “dumb” Gothic afdumbnan “become silent” Gothic dumbr “dumb” Old Norse dumb “dumb” Old English tumb “deaf, dumb, simple-minded”Old High German A-T.-m- Proto-AfroAsiatic 'a:t.am perf. tr. “stuff, close (mouth, ears)” Hebrew 'o:t.æm “obstruction” and “obstructing object” New Hebrew 'at.ama “arctavit, angustum ore fecit” Arabic 'at.ima intr. “was obstipated” Arabic IV “closed (the door)” Arabic full redupl. t.-mt.-m- t.amt.e:m “close, stuff, obstruct” Jewish Aramaic t.imt.e:m “stuff, obstruct” Jewish Aramaic single redupl. t.-m-m- t.am “closed, struck dumb” Syrian pa. “stopped up, obstructed” Syrian aph. “closed his lips” Syrian t.a:mam “stuff, obstruct” New Hebrew t.&mam id. Jewish Aramaic t.amma “he choked up (the well)” Arabic t.-m-m- II 1 pi.“block (ear)” Assyrian II 2 “be blocked” Assyrian t.ummumu “stuffed, blocked” > “deaf” Assyrian + y- *A-T.-m-y- > t.-m-y- niph. “stuffed, blocked” > “stupid” Hebrew *T.-p-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *dhw-s- Proto-IndoEuropean dwæ:s “stupid” Old English dwa:s “fool” Middle Low German twa:s id. Middle High German dosen “walk thoughtlessly” Middle Low German doze English dysig “stupid” Old English dizzy English dusig “stunned, dizzy” Middle Low German tusi:c “stupid” Old High German = t.-p-s- Semitic t.afisa “was dirty (man, dress)” Arabic t.aPas^ “was stupid, insensitive” Arabic hithp “become foolish, behave foolishly” Modern Hebrew t.ePe:s^ “was foolish” Jewish Aramaic pa. caus “make foolish, blunt” Jewish Aramaic ithpe “become stupid, behave foolishly” Jewish Aramaic t.aPs^a “stupid, foolish” Jewish Aramaic t.iPs^u:T, t.aPs^u:T “folly, stupidity” Modern Hebrew t.aPs^u:Ta: id. Jewish Aramaic t.ippe:s^ “stupid, foolish” Modern Hebrew IELS *domós- “builder” Greek oiko-dómos “builder of the house” Greek dominus “lord, master” Latin damu:-nah “domestic (protector) of the house” Sanskrit tanu-(te:r) “(master of) the house” Armenian ga-timan “to be in accord, to agree” Gothic geziemen “to be in accord, to agree” German timber “timber” Old English domare “tame” Latin damáo: “tame” Greek damayati “tame” Sanskrit gatamjan “tame” Gothic a-dámatos “indomitable” Greek damas^- “to do violence, to oppress, to subject” Hittite de:mos “people” GreekNO tomt “plot of land for a house” Swedish NO: tom “empty” Danish, Swedish HSED 16: *?adam- “earth, field” *?adam- “earth” Semitic ?dmt “country” Punic ?Ada:ma: “earth” Hebrew ?Adamta: “earth” Aramaic *dam- “place” West Chadic tom “place” Tangale No trace of the initial laryngeal. *dam- Central Chadic dam “field” Tera dama “place” Ngwahi May reflect an earlier *?adam-. However, considering East Chadic, we could reconstruct *da?am- > *dam- *dVHVm- “field” East Chadic doome “field” Mokilko Mokilko -oo- does not necessarily imply East Chadic *-wa-. It may also go back to *-aHa- or *-awa-. Metathesis of the original *?adam-. *?ud(V)m- “desert” Highland East Cushitic udma?a “desert” Kambatta A derivational and semantic variant of the original AfroAsiatic stem? The alternative AfroAsiatic reconstruction is *da?am- PC 80: *tum “to pile” Galla-Somali, of East Cushitic *tim id. West Chadic TP: IELS (Benveniste) insists on dividing *dem- into three areas “family”, “construct”, “tame”. I can't follow him. Perhaps the idea is “to drive out the wild from something”, i.e. the dominus domesticates not just animals, but also the piece of land, where his house is. Or even Force of creation? EHWL: tham “to build, to found” Etruscan dim “to make fast, bond” Sumerian temen “foundations” Sumerian IENH: tmia “place, sacred building” Etruscan GLDFD: teme “king”(?) Guanche } dam “spouse” Sumerian kama- “first husband” Hawai'i tememem- “husband” Merlav tama-raxa- “husband” Nasawa tamaine tungu- “husband” Wailengi, Lolomatui temem ekie- “husband” Hiw tamlus- “husband” Hukua tamanatu- “husband” Malo North teme natuk- “husband” Vao toma-raya- “king” Sekol tamas ¨ “sloth, darkness” Sanskrit { EIEC *tómHes- temere “blindly, by chance” Latin tamsà “darkness” Lithuanian tùmsa “darkness” Latvian t&mah- “darkness” Avestan támas- “darkness” Sanskrit *temHsreH3 tenebrae (< *temebrae) “darkness” Latin támisra:h “darkness” Sanskrit *temsro/eH3 dinstar “dark” Old High German timsras “dark” Lithuanian tathra “darkness” Avestan ta:r “dark” New Persian teimen “dark gray” Middle Irish tIma “darkness” Old Church Slavonian tImInU “dark” Old Church Slavonian témrivo “darkness” Russian témti “become dark” Lithuanian VMPSIE: maytim “black” Tagalog ê-tam “black” Malay RCLF 66: *t'umV “dark” Proto-Nostratic *tumV “dark” Proto-Uralic but restricted to Balto-Finnic tumma “dark” Finnish NS 187: *t'umV “dark” Proto-Nostratic *dwVmV “dark, black” Sino-Caucasian } dam- “black, dark” Tai, Mak, N. Li, Pu-peo, tam- “dark” S. Li dedem- “dark” Indonesia dedem- “shade” Tagalog dem, tidem- “dark” Formosa kam- “dark in color” Tai tamad- “lazy, indolent” Tagalog tuma- “slow” Anutan SSIRG: *dhewH- ~ *stewH- dhu:nóti “shake, move qiuckly” Vedic dhu:má “smoke” Vedic thu:mós “spirit” Greek thú:o:, thúno: “storm” etc Greek fu:mus “smoke” Latin dymU id. Old Church Slavonic dûmai pl. id. Lithuanian toum “steam, vapour” Old High German do:mian “steam” Old Saxon doom id. Middle Dutch *staumaz > Proto-Germanic ste:am “steam” Old English stoom “steam, vapor” Dutch sto:m id. Low German or, with medial-cluster syncope, simplification, or assimilation *staubmaz > Proto-Germanic Staub “dust” German stieben “fly around in a cloud” German stubjus “dust” Gothic Probably with another root-extension: *dhew[H]bh- ~ *stewbh- dumbs “stupid” Gothic (if not from *stem-, see below) daufs “stubborn, deaf” Gothic tumb “deaf, stupid” Old High German toub “stupid, crazy” Old High German tob id. Middle High German töben “stun” Middle High German dumm “stupid” German taub “deaf” German betäuben “stun” German toben “rave” German duff “dull” Dutch, Low German doof “stopid” coll. (North) German thup- > tuphlós “blind” Greek tûphos “smoke” Greek túpo: “make smoke” Greek tupho:s “whirlwind” Greek dupt “dust” Old Norse tuft “frost” Old High German duft “vapor, fog” Middle High German Duft “aroma” German stum(m) “dumb” Old High German, Old Saxon stum(p) id. Middle high German stom(p) id. Dutch stu:f “insensitive, obtuse, blunt” Low German (easily contaminated with cognates of *stebh- “post” Proto-Germanic stumpf “blunt” German stump “stump” Low German ) stubjus “dust” Gothic stuppi, stoup id. Old High German Staub “dust” German stieben “fly around in a cloud” German *dhem-[?] ~ *stem-[?] (faur-)dammjan “prevent” Gothic demma id. Old Nordic dammr “dam, embankment” Old Norse tam id. Middle High German Damm id. German stemma “stop, prevent” Old Norse stem English stem(m)en “halt” Middle High German un-gi-stuomi “lack of self-control” Old High German Ungestüm “impetuousness” German stamms “stammering” Gothic stam, stamor “prevented, stammering” Old English stamm id. Old High German stammr id. Old Norse stum(m) “mute” Old High German stom id. Middle Dutch (see above under *stewbh-) stumra/stumla “stumble” Old Norse > stumblen id. Middle English *dhemH- ~ *stem[H]- dampf “steam, smoke” Old High German dimba “steam, fly about” Swedish dial. damb “dust” Norw. dial. dumba id. Old Norse (but cf *dhewbh-) dimmr “dark” Old Norse, dimm id. Old Frisian, Old English dim English dhámati “blow” Vedic > dhma:tá- vbl.-adj. stimba/stimma “steam” Swedish dial. stamba/stamma “smell” Norw. dial. perhaps also from root-extended form *dhemH1- > with H-loss, or [labio]velar~H substitution *dhemgWo- dunkel “dark” German tunkal id. Old High German døkkr id. Old Norse danguis id. Hittite PEWM: tepa “hill” Etruscan The:bai city in Greece Prehellenic A tamera kind of priest Etruscan thémeros “holy, sacred” Prehellenic A G: -dèm- “cultivate” Proto-Bantu -dèmÒ “work” id. -dÈm- “to become heavy” id. -dÉm- “to become lame” id. -dÉmad- “to become lame” id. -dÉmá “lame person” id. -dìb- “to stop up, to block” id. -dìb- “to shut” id. -dím- “to become extinguished; to extinguish” id. -dímed- “to get lost” id. -dímò “spirit” id. -dómÈ “husband; man” id. -dómÈ “male” id. -dònd- “to amass” id. -dÒbá “sticky soil” id. -tím- “to dig” id. plus suffix ? -tíndÉ “stubble; clod” id. -tòndà “heap, mound” id. M: -damu “brother-in-law, sister-in-law” Proto-Bantu -damud- “judge, settle a controversy” id. -dem- “to tire, overcome, to lame, lie heavy upon” id. -d-am- “sink in, be in earth” id. -db- “stop up” id. -dema “young female” id. -demb- “deceive” id. -dim- “cultivate” id. -dm- “be extinguished, extinguish” id. -dma “ancestral spirit” id. -dmu “god, spirit, darkness (ancestral spirit)” id. -dp- “beat” id. -dúme “husband, male” id. -dm- “curse, abuse, revile” id. -tamb- “stretch out” id. -tém- “cut down, fell” id. -tem- “burn” id. -tém-o “hoe” id. -tm- “stand” id. -tm- “dig, plant (fix vertically into)” id. -tma “fountain, well” id. -tma “well, fountain” id. -tmb- “thrust into the ground, plant” id. -tombo “breast, swelling, elevation” id. -tumb- “mould, shape” id. -tumb- “root, swell up” id. -tumb- “swell up, be round, swell” id. -tumb “corpse” id. -tup- “swell” id. plus suffix? -tund- “grow, leave, come out” id. -tund- “rise, be accumulated” id. -tunda “elevation, hill” id. PKMa: *t&pas (Lopez) “crush” Proto-Austronesian CAD: *dajam/ma- “tame, accustomed to” Proto-Austronesian *debu “dust” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *d2em “dark” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *d2em+d2ém(1) “dark(ness)” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *d2em+d2ém(2) “think, meditate, brood; keep silent” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *dump+pel “dull, blunt” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *ta(m)pu “ancestor” Proto-MalayoPolynesian *tumpu “ancestor, lord, master, owner” Proto-MalayoPolynesian CAD 04.790: tabur& “grave, tomb” Irarutu tampona “mound” Lewo FTIG 1: *tapp- “tap, peg” Nordwestblock tæppa id. in Old English zapfo id. in Old High German tape in French tapon in French tampon in French samtapati “presses together” Sanskrit þefia “stamp” Old Norse daven id. Frisian þæfa “throng, push” Old Norse FTIG 5: *tap-, tapp- “destroy, lose” Nordwestblock tapa id. Old Norse tappa id. Old Swedish FTIG 6: *tapp-, *ta:p-, *to:p-, *taip- “fool” Nordwestblock tåbe “fool” in Danish tåp id. in Swedish taip id. te:p id. tabbe id. in Swedish tópi “foolishness” in Old Norse tæpisch “foolish” in Middle High German täppisch id. in German tappo comical figure Latin DSDE: tumpe “walk heavily; walk thoughtlessly, stray like a fool” Danish, old, dial. tumba “fall over” Norwegian dial. tumba “wallow” Swedish dial. tumba “fall over” Old Norse probably borrowed through tumben “tumble” Middle Low German from tumbare Medieval Latin of uncertain origin TP: I doubt it. DSDE: tumpe “fool, idiot” Danish dial. FTIG 32: *tu:m-, *tumal-, *tu:mal “tumble” etc Nordwestblock tu:mo:n id. in Old High German tu:men id. in Middle Dutch, Middle Low German, Middle High German tumblen id. in Middle English tuimelen id. in Dutch tumelen, tu:melen id. in Low German tu:meln id. in Middle High German tumbian id. in Old English tumba id. in Old Norse tomber id. in French tumer id. in Old French tombolare id. in Italian tumala- “noise, racket” Sanskrit tumultus id. Latin tumel id. Middle High German getümel id. Middle High German I don't know if this belongs here; Kuhn says it has to do with dance and acrobatics; but they are connected with funeral games, so I thought I'd mention it. PKMa: tambuh “drum-stick” Proto-Austronesian tambuq “drum-stick” Proto-Austronesian tambal “magic” (from beating drums/gongs?) Proto-Austronesian PAT: *()(n)tab “beat, strike, pound, wing”Proto-Austro-Tai *nt/r/ab id. Proto-Austro-Tai *(n)tab/tab id. Proto-Austro-Tai *(n)ta/tab id. Proto-Austro-Tai *t/r/a/tab id. Proto-Austro-Tai *[t&/]t&b id. Proto-Austro-Tai *[(n)tu/]tub id. Proto-Austro-Tai (where / = morphological boundary). PDL: tupos “beat, stamp” Greek tuptô “beat, beating, beaten” Greek tupoô “stamp, stamped” Greek FTIG 33: *tunn-, *tünn- “barrel” Nordwestblock tunne id. in Old English tunna id. in Old Norse tunna id. in Old High German tonne id. in French tonneau id. in French tond, tonn, ton “skin, crust, shell” in Celtic þyn “barrel” Swedish thynna id. Swedish tynna id. Old Danish tønde id. Danish tönna id. Swedish tynna id. Norwegian tunna id. in Swedish ti:na “wine barrel” Latin PKMa: tambak “mound” PAN (Dempwolff) *(Ct)uNpuk “heap, pile” PAN (Blust) *tunpuk “heap, pile” PPH (Zorc) *ta(m)bun “heap, pile” PAN (Dempwolff) *ti(m)bun “heap, pile” PAN (Dempwolff) tumbos “cairn, mound” Greek *tumbo “hillock” Proto-Celtic tumba “tomb, burial mound” Late Latin tom “a hillock” Irish tomm “a hillock” Welsh tom “a hillock” Breton das-tum “to heap” tomb “vault or grave for dead” English *tVmp “hill, island” Ugrian dob “to heap up” Hungarian domb “a mound, heap” Hungarian tomp, tump “island” Vogul tómp “hill, mound” Vogul dobo-go “a sort of dais, platform” Hungarian dub “to heap up” Sumerian du_6 “hill, mound” Sumerian temen “foundation, platform” Sumerian DELL: *ta- “melt” Proto-IndoEuropean + -b tabeo: “melt, thaw” > “perish” Latin ta:bum “putrefying matter” Latin ta:be:s id. Latin + ke/o ta:ko: Greek dial. te:ko: Attic-Ioniab tawdd “melted state” Welsh toddi “melt” Welsh ta:m “death” Old Irish t'anam “soak, bathe” Armenian taïn, tajun “thaw” Ossetic + -u þawien “thaw” Old English tauen id. German Vocalisme 'a', mot populaire RWa, MCVc: *dhm.bh-os > tumbos “grave” Pelasgian in Greek taphos “grave” Greek tumulus “mound, hill, barrow” Latin Cybalist 37555: domb “mound, hillock” Hungarian dembe “hill; mountain” Mongolian tepe Turkish LBa: tapak- “trample”, “tread” Tagalog tampal- “slap” Tagalog tapi/tapik- “touch”, “tap” Tagalog tupi- “to flatten”, “sort” (pertaining to cloth), “smooth out” Tagalog tama- v. “hit” *H-r-k- “sun, silver, gold, fire” arka “sun, ray” Sankrit, and arkin “radiant” Sanskrit alo “light” Bengali { IENH 376: *?[a|&]l- “to make a fire, light, ignite, kindle, burn” Proto-Nostratic > *?h[e|a]l- “to burn” Proto-IndoEuropean *?[a|&]l- “to make a fire, light, ignite, kindle, burn” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 403: *Hh[a|&]r-ak'y- “to glisten” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a|Ø]rk- “to glisten” Proto-IndoEuropean *H[a|&]r[a|&]k'y “to glisten” Proto-AfroAsiatic VISW: *H-r-G.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *HáraG- intr. Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *arg- “shine” Proto-IndoEuropean argós “shining, gleaming bright” Greek argés “shimmering white” Greek argi:los “white clay” Greek arguphos, argupheos “gleaming” Greek árjuna- “white, light” Sanskrit arguros “silver” Greek argentum “silver” Latin argat “silver” Old Irish artsath “silver” Armenian *HaráG.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *r-g- Proto-IndoEuropean high tone grade rajatá- “white” Sanskrit rajatám hiranjam “white gold, = silver” (> rajatám “silver”) Sanskrit rá:jati “gleams” Sanskrit *H-r-G- Pre-AfroAsiatic H-r-d- Arabic 'iHri:duN “Saflor, Carthamus tinctorius (used for dyeing yellow)” Arabic Herå3å: “yellow” Syrian Hrs “gold” Phoenician Ha:ru:s “gold” Hebrew (poet.) extended grade Xura:su “gold” Assyrian EIEC: *H2rg-[u|es]- “white”, *H2rg-nt-om “silver” *H2rg-nt-om argat “silver” Old Irish ariant “silver” Welsh argentum “silver” Latin arguros “silver” Greek argés “white” Greek aregetud “silver” Umbrian arcat “silver” Armenian harkis “white” Hittite &r&zat&m “silver” Avestan *H2rg-nt-om, zero grade ardata- “silver” Old Persian ærzæt- “silver” Ossetian *H2erg-w-H1en- árju-na- “light, white” Sanskrit a:rki “white” TokharianA a:rkwi “white” TokharianB HB: argi “light, bright” Basque } ila “to shine” Sumerian aldo- “sun” Kapampangan, Ifugao algo- “sun” Igorot (sic) algew- “sun” Bontok algaw- “sun” Itawis alongan- “sun” Manobo aldew- “sun” Dumagat s-aldang- “sun” Bikol adlaw- “sun” Cebuano, Illonggo, Aklanon alo, aro- “sun” common Melanesian adraw- “sun” Indonesia adaw- “sun” Kadai araw- “sun” Tagalog ilaw- “light” Tagalog ila- “fire” Gogodala ira- “fire” Awa, Fasu ara- “fire” Kaygir ira- “fire” Kwale era- “fire” Kiwai aldaw- “daylight, day” Ilocano *H-r- “noble” arya “lord, master” Sanskrit, also a^rya “noble, member of four castes, of honorable character” arya “a man; a woman of upper three castes; a woman of the Vaisya caste” Sanskrit { IENH 387: *H[a|&]r- “to be superior, to be higher in status or rank, to be above or over” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[e|a]r-yo- “a superior, a person higher in status or rank” Proto-IndoEuropean *H[a|&]r- “to be superior, to be higher in status or rank, to be above or over” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 429: *?[a|&]r- “associated or related person or thing; associate, companion, friend; kinsman, associated, related” Proto-Nostratic > *?(e|o)r- “associated, related” Proto-IndoEuropean *?[a|&]r- “associated or related person or thing: associate, companion, friend; kinsman” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, VISW, IESSG *H-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *ar- Proto-IndoEuropean airya- Avestan ariya- Old Persian Xarri cuneiform inscriptions in Boghaz-köi (although written in Assyrian, which has lost its laryngeals, the initial laryngeal survives in this name of a people) árya-, á:rya- “person of the three upper castes” Sanskrit personal names Aria- Scythian Ario- Celtic *H-r- single redupl. *H-r-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic Harra “was free” II “he freed (a slave)” V “(a slave) became free” Arabic muHarraruN part “freed from slavery” Arabic HurruN “free, true, the best (of anything)” Arabic HurratuN f. “free, pure, noble (of woman or she-camel)” Arabic Hurri:yatuN “the state of freedom”, coll. “free persons, the eminent, noble persons (of a people)” Arabic Ho:ri:m plur. “the noble, free-born” Hebrew br Hry “free born” Nabat. Palmyr. 'arnat (H > ') “freedom” Amharic Hara:wi “free man > soldier” Ethiopian EIEC *H2er- “put together” *H2erós / *H2eryos “member of one´s own (ethnic) group, peer; freeman, (Indo-Iranian) Aryan” *H2eros ara:- “member of one's own group, peer, companion, friend” Hittite further derivatives: ara:wa- “free from” Hittite ara:wahh- “set free from” Hittite ara:wanni- “free, freeman” Hittite arawa- “free (from)” Lycian arus- “citizens” Lycian *H2eryos aire “freeman (whether commoner or noble), noble (as distinct from commoner)” Old Irish airya- “Aryan (i.e. Iranian in the larger sense” Avestan ariya- “Aryan” Old Persian arí- “attached to; faithful, a faithful devoted person, kinsman” Sanskrit aryá- “kind, favorable; attached to; true, devoted” Sanskrit árya- “Aryan; one who is fathful to the Vedic religion” Sanskrit *H2éro/eH2- “fitting” a:ra “what is fitting, right, proper, fas” Hittite ar&m “fittingly enough” Avestan *ara-mati- a:rmaiti “right thought” Avestan áram “fittingly enough” Sanskrit ara:-mati “right thought, devotion” Sanskrit eva:ra “truly fitting, just right” Sanskrit *H2eru- “pray, curse” aráomai “pray, vow, call down curses” Greek aré “prayer for evil, curse; ruin, mischief” Greek kátarwos “accursed” Arcadian Greek *H2e:rut- hi:rut “curse” Luvian } ur “man, human” Sumerian ara, arai, ari- “chief, lord” Arosi ari'i- “chiefly caste, chief” common Polynesian, Arosi araha- “chief” common Melanesian ari- “king, chief, ruler” Ilocano “chief” Arosi h-ari- “king, ruler” Tagalog ali'i- “chief, chiefly caste” Hawai'i alaha- “chief, chiefly caste” common Melanesian alaka'i “leader, guide, director” Hawai'i ariki- “chief” Maori aromman?- “well-bred person” Marshall Is. ali- “man” Lavukaleve (airai, dl.) Kewa aira- “woman” Lavukaleve aali- “man” Wiru ari- Sakao aris- Unua arar- Port Sandwich, Mae-Morae aru- Tate, Api uri- “race, species” Philippines orang- “man, people” common Indonesia uran- Cham oran- Malay orot- Ubir oerang- Bacan oloto- Taupota, Kakabai olona- Malagasy uru- Osum orotona- “male” Wedau *dan- “river, lake” IENH 83: *d[a|&]n- “to run, flow” Proto-Nostratic *d[h](e|o)n- “to run, flow” Proto-IndoEuropean *d[e|i]n- “to run, flow” Proto-Kartvelian *dn- “to melt” Proto-Kartvelian Afro-Asiatic: *dun- “to leak (eg. bag, roof)” Proto Highland East Cushitic *dun-am- “to leak (eg. water)” Proto Highland East Cushitic SIG *T.- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic extended *T.-l- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic t-l-l- Proto-Semitic t.alla “(dew) lightly moistened the ground” Arabic t.alluN “dew, ligh rain” Arabic extended *T.-p- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic > n-t.-p- with n-preformative Proto-Semitic na:t.a:P “drip” Hebrew nat.afa “drip” Arabic *nat.ufa intr. > Arabic nut.fatuN “drop, semen” Arabic nat.afa trans. “purified (by drops)” Ethiopian > *dh-w- (p < w) Proto-IndoEuropean theo: (fut. theúsomai) “run, flow” Greek dháva-te: “flows, runs” Sanskrit dhá:vati “runs, flows” Sanskrit *dhawwa- “dew” Germanic tou “dew” Old High German de:aw “dew” Old English *T.-n- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic > *dh-n- Proto-IndoEuropean dhánva-ti “runs, flows, makes flows” Sanskrit dhánu-tar “running, (swiftly) flowing” Sanskrit *T.-r- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic > *dh-r Proto-IndoEuropean dhá:ra: “stream, drop” Sanskrit dha:rajú “streaming, dripping” Sanskrit extended *dr-wp- Germanic tropfen “drip” German extended > *t.-r-d- Proto-Semitic t.o:re:d “flowing incessantly” Hebrew it.t.arada VII “(the water) flowed in a continous, uninterrupted course” Arabic EIEC: RIVER *deH2nu- “river” *Da:ne/owyos > Donwy river name Welsh Da:nuvius “Danube” Celtic (in Latin) da:nu- “river” Avestan don “river” Ossetic (whence the name of the river Don and element in Dniepr, Dniestr, Donets) da:nu “drops” or “gift” Sanskrit Another possibility is that we have (with different lengthened grade): *dho:nu- “river” represented by the Celtic and Iranian words and that this is a derivation of *dhen- “flow” otherwise seen in danuvatiy “flows” Old Persian dhánvati “moves fast, rushes” Sanskrit tsäm “flow” TokharianAB with other derivatives in fo:nt- “spring” Latin tseñe “stream” TokharianAB The latter proposals distribution of forms more strongly suggests PIE status. EIEC: RIVER GODESS There are two kinds of river godesses in Indo-European. The first is indicated by a linguistically cognate set of names derived from *deH2nu- “river” PIE while the second is exclusively confined to Indo-Iranian godesses. A *dah2nu- PIE is supported by Da:nu mother of Vrtra Sanskrit the arch-withholder of heavenly waters; Danu mother of the Tu:atha De: Danann Irish and Do:n Welsh With gender-switching the godess became Danaus Greek father of the Danaids who, after killing their husbands on their wedding nights, were condemned to eternally carrying water in a sieve; and great-great- grandfather of Danaë mother of the hero Perseus, who saved princess Andromeda from a giant female sea-monster. Cognates without personification include the rivers Don (Iranian >) Slavic *Da:nu apara “river to the rear” Iranian > Dniepr Slavic *Da:nu nasdya “river to the front” Iranian > Dniestr Slavic Tanais Scythian Danube Central Europe and smaller bodies of water Duno:jus “Large Stream” Lithuanian Dunavas “Small River, Stream” Latvian Although linguistically cognate, it is difficult to support a common mythologem or discern a set of common themes that would permit the reconstruction of a personalized *Deh2nu- PIE Rather, we may have merely a personalization of the concept “river” in a number of IE groups. [And I leave out the "second major type of IE river godess" here] IEW 1. *dhen- “run; flow” dhanáyati “runs, sets in motion” Sanskrit dani:dan “haste, run” New Persian dhánvati “runs, flows” Sanskrit danuvatiy “flows” Old Persian dhánutar- “flowing, running” Sanskrit (*ar-dhonw-a: >) ardannva “the one at the water(?)” Messapian field name Herdonia > Ardaneae place name Apulia probably fo:nt- “spring” Latin perhaps a mixture of *fontes to- stem Latin and (*dhn-ti- >) *fentis ti- sten Latin tsän “flow” TokharianAB 2. *dhen- “palm of the hand, even ground, flat board” *dhen- “level depression in the ground” dhánus- n. dhánvan m.n. “dry land, continent, beach, parched land, desert” Sanskrit dhánu-, dhanú- f. “sand bank, coast, island” Sanskrit thénar n. “palm of the hand, sole of the foot”, also “the surface of the sea”, and “depression in the altar for receiving the blood” Greek opisthothénar > opisthénar “back of the hand” Greek (*denara) tenar m. tenra f. tener “palm of the hand” Old High German danea “area” Medieval Latin tenni n. “level earth or plank floor for threshing, ground, open area, even surface” Old High German tenne m.f.n. do. Middle High German Tenne do. High German denne “area, pavimentum, tabulatum” Dutch in the sense “place trampled level as a threshing floor, place where the grass is flat because someone has been lying on it, depression arisen this way” might be seen: denn “trampled down place in field” Mecklenburg Low German denne “depression in landscape, forest valley” Middle Low German denne “forest valley” Middle Dutch dan “empty area surrounded by hedges, open area, land, landscape, narrow passage or hiding place for game, forest valley” Middle Dutch denn “lair, den” Old English den English denn(e) “flower bed, field” Old Friesian HSED 594: *da?-/*daw- “be wet” *nVdaw-/*naday- “be wet” Semitic ndw, ndy [-a-] “be wet” Arabic Prefix *nV-. Cf. *dVy- “rain (n.)” Semitic d&yyä “rain (n.)” Eja diyä “rain (n.)” Gogot *dVw- “soak” Berber &-du “soak” Ahaggar *da?- West Chadic d.o: “pour” Sura do: “pour” Angas d.a: “be wet” Kariya da?a: “be wet” Jimbin *du- “pour” Agaw du-ng “pour” Aungi *da?- “rain (v.)” Lowland East Cushitic da?- “rain (v.)” Somali Cf. also reduplication in *dad- “rainy season” Saho-Afar dada “rainy season” Saho Consonantal variation *-?- ~ *-w-. HSED 711: *din- “cloud, rain” *di:n- “long rain” Semitic di:n-at- “long rain” Arabic *din- “cloud” West Chadic ti:n “cloud” Montol HSED 747: *dur- “flow” *dir-/*dur- Semitic drr “drip” Hebrew drr [-u-, -i-] “flow abundantly” Arabic dr “prevent water from flowing down” Egyptian (medical) *duHwar- “pour” West Chadic d.u:ra “pour” Hausa d.er “pour” Tangale d.ur&w “pour” Polchi Secondary laryngeal. Probably, *duHwar- < *Hwadur- Cf. nominal derivatives in *dVHar- “river” West Chadic doora “river” Gera d.ara “river” Bokkos d.eer, d.iyar “river” Dafo-Butura *nV-dwar “rainy season” Central Chadic ndor “rainy season” Mesme *darur- “rain-cloud” Saho-Afar darur “rain-cloud” Saho darur “rain-cloud” Afar HSED 729: *don- “be strong” *dVn- “be strong” Semitic dana:nu “be strong” Akkadian wdn- “be strong, be heavy” Egyptian w- is a vocalic sign (XVIII dynasty) *dwamu- “strong, strength” Central Chadic d&na “strong, strength” Chibak duno-ma “strong, strength” Wamdiu dina “strong, strength” Ngwahi d&na-ma “strong, strength” Margi dono “strong, strength” Mbara dono: “strong, strength” Logone dunoa “strong, strength” Buduma dunu “strong, strength” Gulfey dunu “strong, strength” Kuseri *dwanu- “strong” East Chadic dwana “strong” Sumray duno “strong” Sokoro NMNW: danoer (oe=u) “corpse fluid” Malay danan “lake, pool, still-standing water of some extent” Malay TP: dan- a rather interesting people who like to sail a lot Danish IEIE: *den-/*din- “flow” Kartvelian *dn.- “melt” Kartvelian den-/din- “flow” Georgian dn- “melt” Georgian d&n-, din- “disappear; lose, get lost” Mingrelian din-, (n)dun- “melt” Laz n- “melt” Svan *dHen- “run, flow” Proto-IndoEuropean KMNL: Kartvelian done “plain, level, bottom” Georgian AfroAsiatic Semitic dana'a “low, vulgar” Arabic 'adna:, dunya: f. “lower, deeper; world, earth” Arabic dana:ya “lowness” Arabic dnt “lowland” Ugaritic dn “to bend, go down” Epigraphic South Arabian PIE *dhen- “palm of hand, plain, area, lowlands” Proto-IndoEuropean Uralic tanner, tantere- “field, lowlands” Finnish tu:ndar “northern mountains” Kld Saami > tunturi id. Finnish Tungusian dunda “earth, taiga” Evenki dunde_, du:ndura id. Lamut TP Dandari a people on the Sea of Azov, the king of which, Olthaces (Plutarch, Appian) or Olcaba (Appian) Thor Heyerdahl has identified with Snorri's Odin Danir ?< *Dandri < Dandari Herxleben the seat of the central Thuringian kings, among them king Hermanifrid Tennstedt < Danistath , 775, north of Herxleben Döllstedt < Tullenstat, 779, south of Herxleben which might be the town of the Danes and Turingi, respectively Cybalist 3373, John Croft d-n-n-, denen a sea people Egyptian Cybalist Mark Odegard danava, dunava “pool, puddle” Latvian Cybalist 3388, Dennis Poulter dnnym a people Phoenician Cybalist 3422, Dennis Poulter /t?n3yw/ - tanayu “the Greeks” Egyptian Cybalist 5346, Piotr Gasiorowski Tanew a river in eastern Poland Cybalist 5857, Miguel Carrasquier Vidal edan (dial. eran) “to drink” Basque <- *e=dan-i (= vb.prefix + DAN +ptc.suffix) ezne (dial. ezene) “milk” Basque <- *zne < *dVné (= DENe ~ DAne) gaztai (dial. gaztãi, gazna) “cheese” Basque <- *gaz(i)-dane (= “salty/sour” + DANe) zenbera “soft cheese” <- *den(e)-bera (= DEN(e) + "soft") ardo (dial. arno, ardao, ardão) “wine” Basque <- *ar-dano (? + DANo) CAD: *danaw “lake, pond” Proto-Austronesian *d2a-Núm “fresh water” Proto-Austronesian *ken- “know” SIG, IESSG Alternate forms *G1-n-H3- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *G1anáH3- trans. g1no:- “recognize, know” Proto-IndoEuropean no:sco “get to know, learn” Latin gignó:sko: Greek égno:n Greek zna-ti “know” Old Church Slavonian gno:tós part. “known” Greek no:tus part. “known” Latin jña:tá- part. “known” Sanskrit : *G1-n-H3- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *génH3- z^enkla-s “sign” Lithuanian *gnH3- reduced > *gn.- kunþs Gothic chund Old High German *G1-d-H3- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *y-d-H3- Proto-AfroAsiatic (old alternation d/n) (thus Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Ethiopian) idu: inf. Assyrian HSED 1444: *ken- “know, learn” t_ny “learn” Egyptian Palatalized *k- before a middle vowel (Middle Kingdom) *kyanu- > *kwan- East Chadic konya “knowledge” Mokilko kan- “know” Bidiya Unclear -a- *kan-t-/*kin-t- Agaw k&n-ti- “learn” Bilin kin-t- “learn” Xamir kin-t- “learn” Kwara kan-t- “see” Aungi *ken- “know” Highland East Cushitic ken- “know” Hadiya Cf. *kVhan-/*kVhun- “foretell, predict” Semitic khn [-a-, -u-] “foretell, predict” Arabic IS 42: *c´inV “know” Proto-Nostratic IS 163: *kEnV “to know” Proto-Nostratic NMNW kenang “think of something with desire, remember something with compassion” Malay mengenang ngenangkan “accept, eg. in court” see kenan Malay kenal “know (kennen), recognize” Malay kenan “pleasure of” Malay NS 49: *kENV “know” Proto-Nostratic *qe:n “see, know” Sino-Tibatan *l-w-k- The hole to the other side rishu “flame, heat” Sanskrit ravi “sun” Sanskrit raj “to shine” Sanskrit, also ruk “to shine, light, brightness” { IENH 580: *l[a|&]w- “to shine” Proto-Nostratic > *l(e|o)-k[h]- “to shine, be bright” Proto-IndoEuropean *l[a|&]w- “to shine, gleam, glitter” Proto-AfroAsiatic IESSG *l-H-g^- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *lo:k- o-grade Proto-IndoEuropean luog n. Old High German luoga f. Old High German luoc “lair, hollow, den, hole” Middle High German o:r-, nas(en)- luoc “ear opening, nostril” Middle High German sla:f-luoc “place to sleep” Middle High German lo:h “place” Old English lo:ch (gen. lo:ges) “place” Old Friesian *l-H-d- Semitic laHduN, luHduN (= PIE *lo:k-) “an oblong excavation in the side of a grave, which is the place of the corpse” Arabic laHada, 'a-lHada IV “he made (dug) a laHd for the corpse, he buried (-hu him)” Arabic VIII “he had recourse (to him or it) for refuge, protection, concealment, covert or lodging” Arabic multaHaduN “a place to which one has recourse for refuge etc., a place of refuge, an asylum” Arabic EIEC *leuk- “shine” intransitive presents *leuk-eH1- lu:ceo: “shine” Latin lukke- “shine” Hittite *leuk-e/o- rócate “shines” Sanskrit transitive presents *loukéie/o lu:ceo: “kindle” Latin lukke- “kindle” Hittite raoc^ayeiti “makes shine” Avestan rocáyati “makes shine” Sanskrit derivatives *louko- lo:ch “shining” Middle Irish llug “light (noun)” Welsh lucerna “lamp” Latin logi “blaze” Old Norse *loukyó- leyg-r “flame. blaze” Old Norse li:eg “flame, blaze” Old English loug “flame, blaze” Old High German *lóuko- le:ah (< NE lea) “meadow” (< “opening to the light”) Old English -loo “clearing” Flemish lucha “gleam” Old Church Slavonian luchî “ray of light” Old Church Slavonian amphilúke “twilight” Greek leukós “white” Greek lalukkima “source of light” Hittite rocá- “shining, radiant” Sanskrit *l(e)uk-m(en)- ljo:mi “radiance” Old Norse le:oma “radiance” Old English rukmá- “gold decoration” Sanskrit *l(e|o)k-(e)s- *louksno- lu:an “moon” Old Irish *leuksmen- lu:men “light, opening” Latin *leukstro- lu:strum “purification” Latin *louksneH2- lu:na “moon” Latin lauxnos (pl.) “stars” Old Prussian *luksno- lúkhnos “lamp” Greek ruks^á “gleaming” Sanskrit *leuk(e)t- Loucetius Leucetius “light-bringer (epithet of Mars)” Gaulish Loucetius “light-bringer (epithet of Jupiter)” Oscan le:oht “light” (noun) Old English light English lioht “light” (noun) Old High German liuhath “light” (noun) Gothic lukkatta “on the next morning” Hittite *lóuk(es)- “light” lu:x “light” Latin rauc^ah- “day” Old Persian raoc^ah- “light” Avestan rocís- “light” Sanskrit lócas- “radiance” Sanskrit lyu:ke “light” TokharianB *leuk'- alternative form vûz-lysû “bald” Old Church Slavonian loys (gen. lusoy) “light” Armenian rús^ant- “light” Sanskrit RVCFRN ravi “sun” Sanskrit areg-akn “sun”, lit. “eye of the sun” Armenian arew “sun” Armenian But what is the connection with *luk- “light”? and *hrk- “sun, silver, gold, fire”? IEW *leuk- “shine, light; see” *louko-, *luko- “shining” *leukos- “light” *louki-, *luki- “light” *louk-s-no, -na “lamp, moon” ro:cís “light” Sanskrit loug “flame, fire” Old High German luc^î “ray, light” Old Church Slavonian lo:ká- “free (bright) space, world” Sanskrit lu:cus “grove”, originally “clearing in forest” Latin collu:care “make a clearing in a forest” Latin lo:h “overgrown clearing, low shrubs” Old High German laukas “field” Lithuanian lu:men (< *leuk-s-men) “light” Latin lu:na (< *louk-s-na:) “moon” Latin lu:strum (*leuk-s-trom) “sacrifice of atonement, five-year period” Latin lu:stra:- “light up, illuminate” Latin luchair “splendor” Old Irish luk- “shine, light up” Tokharian A, B luk(k)- “light, ignite” Hittite *leu-g- “dark (burnt?), swamp” lu:gaios “dark” Greek luga(s) “swamp” Illyrian luz^a “swamp, puddle” Russian Church Slavonian TP Groves and swamps as places where to get into contact with the other side. IEIE: luk- “fire” Elamite lukatta “day breaks” Hittite } ara, ra “to shine, blaze, be bright” Sumerian liho-liho- “fiery, flaming” Hawai'i liso- “to shine” Fiji lisik- “glinting of fiery eyes” Tagalog licau- “shining” Malaysia ria, rian- “to shine” Tai riko- “dazzling” Maori, Tuamotu “to shine” Tuamotu liyab- “flame” Tagalog rau- “sun” Sera, Sissano a-raw- “sun” Tagalog ad-raw- “sun” Indonesia rato- “sun” Are'are rae- “sun” Mate, Nul ra, ra'a- “sun” common Oceanic la, la'a- “sun” common Austronesian laei- “sun” Amblaw lara- “sun” Aru Is. lea- “sun” Ambonese raa- “to shine” Malaitan ra, raa- “sunlight” Melanesia rai- “to shine” Polynesia lae- “bright, clear, shining” Hawai'i lai- “shining of sea” Hawai'i raka- “to make fire” Solomon Is. laki- “fire” Motu lake- “fire” Vaturana a-raka- “fire” Suki liko- “to glisten, shine” Hawai'i riko- “to shine brightly” Tuamotu riko- “dazzling” Maori, Tuamotu *kat- “speak, story” kath “to tell, declare” Sanskrit, also katha “tale, speech” { IENH 343: *k'w[u|o]ty[h]- “to say, to speak, to call” Proto-Nostratic > *k'w[e|o]t[h]- “to say, to speak, to call” Proto-IndoEuropean *kutye- “to call, to summon” Proto-FinnoUgrian in loan relation to *q'OatHa “to tell, report; to announce, make known” Proto-Circassian EHWL cati, cathni, catni “examination, perception” Etruscan } katha- “story, composition” Tagalog kaka,- “story” Kehalurup, Sasar kakaka- “story” Vetumboso, Mosina, Vatrata kekke- “story” Nume ka'ao- “tradition, legend” Hawai'i kata, kaka, etc.- “to call” common Halmahera kando- “to talk” Urigina tektek- “to say” Vatrata, Sasar tukua- “to say” Aniwa, Futuna takua- “to say” Mele tata- “to speak” Fiji tokua- “to say” Fila takao- “to speak, tell” Marquesas, Mangar. kagi- “to say, speak, tell” Indonesia, Manobo teki- “to speak” Minanibai karanga- “to speak, tell, say” Anutan kake- “to speak” Hawai'i kaka-ni- “to talk incessantly” Hawai'i kone- “speech” W. Dani kano, kuno, kono- “to speak, say” Ilocano -kae- “to say” Pt. Sandwich -kari- “to say” Axamb ga- - “to speak” Kairi gia- “to talk” Pondoma *k-w- “magic” kavi “wise man, poet, writer” Sankrit, also kauga, kavya “poetry” { EIEC *keudes- “magic force” c^udo “miracle, wonder” Old Church Slavonian kûdos “renown” (IELS: “luck, divine favor”) Greek *keuH1- “perceive” cave- “take heed” Latin *ke:weH2-ye/o- > ha:wian “look at” Old English c^ujo “note” Old Church Slavonian koéo: “note” Greek *kous-ye/o heyra “hear” Old Norse hie:ran “hear” Old English hear English ho:r(r)en “hear” Old High German hausjan “hear” Gothic *keus-eH2- c^úkhati “perceive” Russian (dial.) *sm-kous-ye/o akoúo: “hear” Greek *keus- custo:s “watchman” Latin with s-preformative (causative, as in AfroAsiatic, according to Herman Møller) : *skeuH1- sce:awian “show” (i.e. “make perceive” cf. “faire voir” French, “laten zien” Dutch) Old English show English sci:ene “beautiful” Old English sheen English scouwon “show” Old High German sco:ni “beautiful” Old High German skauns “beautiful” Gothic *skouske/o c'uc'anem “show” Armenian s^ko:h “splendor, majesty” Middle Persian *kouH1éis kóes, koíes “priest of the Samothracian mysteries” Greek (Hesychius) kaves^ “priest” Lydian kava: “daevish prince” Avestan kavay- “leader” Avestan kavi- “skillful, wise, seer, sage, poet” Sanskrit a:kuvate “intends to” Sanskrit a:kútam “intention” Sanskrit IELL kave “a priest” Carian kave “a priest” Lydian } ma-kata- “poet” Philippines kawikaan “maxim, proverb, sayings” Tagalog ka:wit- “song” Tagalog, Bisaya kawit- “song” Samar-Leyte, Bikol kuwa “to say, speak, tell, declare” Proto-Philippine kawa-yan “to call” Tagalog kwala “to speak” Proto-Malaitan kuwa “to talk loudly, resound, a prayer” Hawai'i kiwa-wa, kawawa- “unintelligible sound of voices” Hawai'i kawele “a special chant with clear, distinct pronunciation” Hawai'i kone- “speech” W. Dani kano, kuno, kono- “to speak, say” Ilocano -kae- “to say” Pt. Sandwich -kari- “to say” Axamb ga- “to speak” Kairi gia- “to talk” Pondoma *mats- “fish” matsya “fish” Sanskrit, also mash “fish” Bengali masa “fish” Singhalese { IEW *mad- “wet, drip (with fat); juicy, fat” Proto-IndoEuropean mátsya- (“the wet”) made:- “be wet, drip, be full” Latin mattus (< *madi-to-s) “drunk” Latin } matsi “fish” Piamatsina, Malmariv, Nonona Navut, Morouas, Matae Akei, Penatsiro, Wailapa maha “fish” Hawai'i masi-masi “dolphins” Samoa mah “fish” Lakon mee “fish” Savo moti “fish” Misima masi “fish” Aurora mes “fish” Vureas masiki “fish” Central Borneo mesia “fish” Koiara masi “fish” Mafea, Tutuba *w-H- “lack; empty, waste” una “decreased, inferior, wanting” Sanskrit { DSDE: *ew-, *ew&-, *wa:- *w&- “lack; empty” Proto-IndoEuropean with sufix *w-ono-s, *w&-no-s Proto-IndoEuropean eu:nis “bereft, lacking” Greek unain “empty” Armenian u:ná- “lacking” Sanskrit perhaps vanus “empty” Latin *wana- Proto-Germanic van- pejorative prefix Danish wan- id. Old Danish van- id. Norwegian van- id. Swedish van- id. Old Norse wan- id. Old Saxon wan- id. Middle Low German wan(a)- id. Old High German wahn- id. German wan- id. Old English vanr “lacking” Old Norse wans id. Gothic wan id. Old Saxon wan id. Old High German wan id. Old English VISW: *w-H.- Pre-IndoEuropeanAfroAsiatic *wa:- reduced *wa-, *u:- “vacuus, vastus” Proto-IndoEuropean n-ptc. va:nus “empty, without content, void” Latin reduced u:ná- “lacking” Sanskrit + s- *wa:s- Proto-IndoEuropean ptc. va:stus “deserted, empty, laid waste” Latin wo:sti “deserted” Old Saxon we:ste id. Old English wuosti “deserted, empty, uninhabited” Old High German + g^- or g- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + k^- or k- Proto-IndoEuropean vak- Latin vacuus “empty, denuded, unoccupied” Latin vaca:re “be empty, unoccupied” Latin = *w-H.- Semitic either + g^- > as in Latin vacuus Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic or + d- > in old alteration with /n/ in Latin va:nus Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + d- Semitic waH.duN “lonely, unique” Arabic waH.iduN “alone, single” waH.i:duN “alone, solitary, lonely” Arabic ya:Hi:ð “alone, lonely, deserted” Hebrew iH.iðå: “unique, lonely” Syrian iH.iðåyå: “unique, hermit” Syrian y-H.-d- “be one, alone” pa. “unite” Syrian pa. id. Jewish Aramaic pi. id., “leave alone” Modern Hebrew + k^- > Pre-IndoEuropea-AfroAsiatic + s^- Semitic (: + s- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsatic ) waH.is^uN “desolate, deserted, destitute of human beings, lone” Arabic cf. *w-s- “water, wasteland” } unuhi- “to take away, reduce” Marquesas una- “to pass away” Tahiti un-sik- “smallness” un-siyami- “stunted growth, frustration” Tagalog un-tos- “dimunition, discount, decrease” Tagalog *w-s- “water” vasu “water, salt” Sanskrit, also vasuka “sea-salt” { EIEC *H1wes- “moist, especially of the ground or plants” vestikatu “to offer libation” Umbrian wo:s “juice, broth” Old English waas “layer of mist of fine drops” New Dutch wasal “moist ground” Old High German vasa “forest with wet ground and blue clay” Latvian ievasa “moisture, tree sap” Latvian va:s “trouble, difficulty” (< “caused by bad weather”) Old Norse EWBS: bas.a “mud, dirt”, fig. “unclean(li)ness” Basque “wild, raw, untamed, uncultured” Basque “deserted, remote area, wilderness” Basque “unbridled, wild” Basque “bizarre, extravagant, highly strung, ridiculous, false” Basque bas.o (obs.) “forest, mountains” Basque vasum > “bowl, plate, vase” Latin vaso > id. Spanish, Portuguese bas.o id. Basque bas^a “precipice, abyss” Basque “wild, uncultivated” Basque bassus > “fat” Latin bas, -se “low, deep, situated below” French, Provencal bajo id. Spanish baixo id. Portuguese, Catalan > bas^o adj. “low, deep, mean, despicable” Basque n. “deep, bottom” Basque EP: *was- “wild, waste(adj.)” Proto-Vasconic basa “wild, waste(adj.)” Basque baso “woods” Basque *wa:stV- fás “empty, waste (adj.)” Old Irish fásach “desert, wilderness” Old Irish va:stus “empty. unoccupied, waste, desert, devastated” Latin va:sta:re “to make empty, lay waste” Latin *was-n-os > va:nus “empty, thinned-out, vain” Latin vascus “empty, void, deserted, unccupied” Latin *wasto Romance gast Provencal gasto Portuguese guasto Italian wast, g(u)ast Old Northern French loan waste English *wa:sti- Pre-Germanic *wo:sti- Pre-WestGermanic we:ste “empty, unoccupied, waste” Old English wo:sti id. Old Saxon wuosti id. Old High German wüst id. German we:sten “desert(noun)” Old English wo:stunnia id. Old Saxon wuostinna id. Old High German wuosti id. Old High German Wüste id. German HB: baso “woods” Basque It seems likely that baso, now “woods”, formerly meant “wilderness” NO: *vase “swamp” Old Swedish waso “swamp” Old High German DEEDO: võsa “shrubbery” Estonian NSO: vase 2) “sheaf, esp. in heraldry” Swedish “bundle of rods” et sim. Swedish vase 3), vasker colloq. & dial. “miserable person, wimp” Swedish vask 1), vasker, colloq. “little boy”, (derog.) “brat” Swedish vass 1), vassbank, vassbunke, vassbänk “reed, Phragmites communis” Swedish “largish area of reed growth” Swedish 3) Scirpus lacustris Butomus umbellatus Swedish 4) less comm. “area of reed growth” Swedish 5) fig. in i vassen colloq., emphatic expr. “incredibly much” Swedish vassarv Stelaria media the first member of the compound is not = reed but = vass- “water” vassfång (uncommon) “reed harvest” Swedish vassla “whey” Swedish vatten Compounds have vatten-, occ. (esp. colloq. of everyday objects and concepts) alternating with vatt-. The ancient form vattu- can in some cases alternate with vatten, but is obligotory in some words. Note also vassarv MDD: wase “humidity, humid lowlying land” Middle Dutch wâse id. Old English weaze “mud” Frisian waas id. Sothern Dutch related to Wiese “meadow” German ODS: I. vas n., see vaas II vas (prob. same word as vas(s) “reed” Old Swedish vass id. Swedish in sense 2 possibly mixed up with II vase, cf. III vase) 1) +“reed” 2) “small branch, twig et sim. or bundle of rods, twigs, small branches et sim. (used for fuel)” = kvas Danish dial. II vase (dial. vaase (vose), in some senses) vajse et sim. in sense 2.1 vas(s)e, vaase, vajse Middle Danish vase, wasæ Old Danish vase Swedish, Norwegian wase Middle Low German cf. vasa, “do something sloppily” Swedish dial. id. Norwegian dial. våsa “wind, wrap up sloppily” Norwegian dial. vasast “entangle oneself (in smt.)” Old Norse perhaps related to (the root of) vod cf. III. vaase, III vase) 1) of smt. made by plaiting, twining, bundling (of long narrow objects) Danish 1.1) (obs.) “tied-up bundle of thin rods; fascine” Danish 1.2) (esp. marit.) “bundle, mass of threads (twist et sim.)” Danish 1.3) (dial.) “twined band of straw, espec. for tying around a sheaf” 2) what is formed by such bundles (1.1) Danish 2.1) “(cf. engvase) road, built over a body of water (e.g. a bog) or a swampy, humid terrain by filling it up with bundles of rods, branches, earth et sim. or (cf. Stenvase; in further uses) by using commonly used road-building materials (large stones et sim.)” Danish in further uses, of humid, swampy stretches of terrain or of place in body of water, where the water is shallow (so that one can wade, drive etc. through the water) Danish 2.2 (dial.) “layer af branches (rods) or pebbles, which is laid under the soil surface to divert the water” 3) (dial. fish.) tool for catching shrimp 4) (prob. from sense 1 (of something twined et sim.); fish.) in the phrase i vase “entangled in/with smt., in disarray” Danish III vase v. (also vaase (vose) in sense 2). (to II vase (and II vas)) 1) (cf. II vas og II vase 1.3; dial. partialy obs.) w.r.t. outer wall in half-timbered houses: “cover with reeds, rods et sim.” Danish 2) (cf. II. vase 1.1; dial.) “place bundles of rods, straw, rods or (in further uses) stones, earth, et sim. as foundation for a road (through a swampy terrain or a body of water) by means of bundles of rods etc” also (with the place as obj.): “cover with bundles of rods (II.1.1) etc, so that one can walk or drive over it” Danish 3) (to II vase 1.2 the end, marit.) “grease with a rag etc. dipped in fat” 4) (to II vase 1.4, marit.) “place a strap around smt.” Danish vase-told (obs.) toll paid for the use of ford or ferry Danish II +vaske “talk, gossip” Danish waskæ Old Danish from waschen Middle Low German cf bagvaske “slander” Danish vaas (not outside of dial. and colloq. va:s). “speech without meaning, sense or coherence” “meaningless, foolish speech” “nonsense” “lunatic talk” Danish to II vaase vås id. Norwegian vas id. Norwegian dial. I vaase, see II Vase II vaase (now hardly used: vase), vb. cf. vaas, vaaseri. våse Norwegian may correspond to hvase Danish onomatopoeic like the related waschen “chatter” German, Middle Low German (borrowed in ænyd., se II. vaske; jf. bagvaske), but perhaps rather same word as III. vaase (w.r.t. semantic development cf. vrøvle); “talk meaningless”, silly or vacuous talk”, “talk nonsense”, “talk incoherently” Danish derog. “chatter” voose “loiter, walk aimlessly” Obs. Danish vasa “walk aimlessly” Swedish dial. vasa id. Icelandic there is further a possibility for (partial) connection with +vaase “stampede” Danish III vaase v. (also vase. see below) “be disorderly or lavish with smt.” “pick and choose” “be gluttonous” Danish vase “handle in a disorderly fashion, mess with smt(?)” Obs. Danish vasa “perform smt. sloppily” Swedish dial våsa “vasa, roll up/wrap up/fold smt. sloppily” Norwegian dial. vasast “mess with, interfere into” Old Norse related to II. vase; jf. II vaase; dial.) IV vaase, v. see vase EOND: vasdrag “water course” Norwegian is *vazdrag Old Norse where vaz is gen. of vatn “water”. in the same fashion vassarv, vasvelling etc Norwegian vase II “bundle of rods” prob. from fascines across a swamp Danish vaase, vase “band of straw” Danish dial. vase “fascine, sheaf of straw, bundle of rods placed in the water to lure fish, heap” Swedish wase “straw wreath” Middle Low German wase “straw wreath” English dial. Further vasa “confuse, mix up, talk nonsense” Norwegian colloq. vasa “heap together” Swedish dial. The Gmc. root *was seems to have meant “twine, tie” vasse “wade” Norwegian is *vaDsa, a derivation of vaDa; cf. gnisse = gnide “rub” Norwegian vassen “watery” Norwegian seems to require *wataz Proto-Germanic corresponding to húdos = húdor Greek Further vessa “draw water” Norwegian dial. perhaps also vass “phragmites, reeds” Swedish equivalent is vaslen “whey” Norwegian dial. for *vatlen: cf. valle. drekka “draw fluid” Old Norse > vatsdrukken Norwegian colloq. > vastrukken “which has drunk humidity” Norwegian DSDE: oos, woos “plant sap or concoction” Old Danish os id. Danish dial oos id. Old Swedish wo:s “foam of smt. boiling, sap” Middle Low German wo:s “humidity, sap” Old English ooze English ablaut variant wase “humid earth, swampy ground” Middle Low German TP: *wos- > Larousse: guit “good-for-nothing” Middle Dutch + -eux, -euse adj. suffix French > gueux, -euse “person reduced to begging for survival (because of age), very poor person” French “reprehensible, evil being” French gueuse “bad woman” gueux “flower pot with holes” French TP: loan > NEW: geus “beggar” Dutch watergeus “sea-beggar” Dutch waas “haze, mist; fuzz (of peach etc)” Dutch wazig “hazy, foggy” Dutch Wastijn: Plaatsnaam Wastine, op meerdere plaatsen: woeste onbebouwde grond. Op basis van Oudfrans watine, guastine, een contaminatie van de Oudnederlandse vorm van woestijn en Latijn vastus 'eenzaam, verlaten', Oudfrans wast 'woest, onbebouwd'. Naamsvermeldingen: Philippus del Wastine 1221; Jehan dele Wastine, Kortrijk 1285; Pierre del Wastine, Ieper 1388; Joes van der Wastine, Geluwe 1398. vandeWoestijne: Woestijn stamt af van Germaans wost-innjo, een afleiding van de voorloper van ons adjectief woest, dat op dezelfde Indo-europese grondvorm teruggaat als het Latijnse vastus 'eenzaam, verlaten, woest'. De klemtoon in het woord is ongewoon, conform de Germaanse beginaccentuering had de Nederlandse vorm 'woesten' moeten luiden, zoals de West-Vlaamse gemeentenaam Woesten. Dat het achtervoegsel het accent aan zich heeft getrokken, komt doordat woestijn beïnvloed is door zijn Picardische zustervorm wastina. Het is dan ook geen toeval dat de toponymische verspreiding van woestijn nagenoeg beperkt blijft tot het gebied dat het meest aan Picardische taalinvloeden bloot stond, namelijk westelijk Vlaanderen. Daar ook vinden we een dichte concentratie van de familienamen Woestijn, Wostijn, Van de(r) Woestijne, waarnaast ook de typisch zuidwestelijke wisselvormen Van de(r) Ostijne en Van de Rostijne. Het type ostijn, in oudere bronnen ook als hostijn gespeld, met hypercorrecte h, beantwoordt aan een oude West-Vlaamse regelmatigheid, namelijk wegval van w aan het woordbegin vóór een geronde achterklinker; nu nog hoor je in het (westelijke) West-Vlaams oord i.p.v. woord, oensdag i.p.v. woensdag, oelen i.p.v. woelen, enz. In de verbinding van de w-loze vorm met het verbogen lidwoord 'der' werd de syllabegrens verlegd, en de naam geherinterpreteerd als Van de Rostijne. (...) Sommige toponymisten denken dat woestijn bij uitstek terrein aanduidde dat door de een of andere menselijke ingreep, zoals roofbouw op het oorspronkelijke bos of ontginning van veenlagen op geringe diepte, gedegenereerd was tot waardeloos heideland. De toponymie leert evenwel dat zulke woestenijen evengoed, en zelfs vaker, 'veld'-namen dragen. Misschien lag het onderscheid hierin, dat veld en woestijn een verschillende visie op één en dezelfde topografische werkelijkheid tot uitdrukking brachten. Mogelijk was veld vooral verbonden met het landschappelijke begrip 'al het onontgonnen land buiten de nederzettingen', terwijl met woestijn directer naar de minderwaardige hoedanigheid van de bodem werd verwezen [Devos-2001, p 27]. DEEDO: vaen, -u “hostility, enmity” Estonian vae/ne, -se “poor” Estonian vaen-la/ne, -se “enemy” Estonian vaeseke, -se “poor person” Estonian vaes-laps, -e “orphan” Estonian SBCHP: *upo-sth2-o- Proto-IndoEuropean > [TP: ?] *wosto- Proto-Celtic > gwas “servant, boy” Middle Welsh gwas “servant” Welsh guas “lad” Middle Cornish gwaz “man, husband, servant” Breton foss “servant” Old Irish guos “obligations” Old Breton gosod “edict, ordinance” Welsh gwasog “servant” Welsh gossock id. Galloway English Gospatrick surname < Cumbrian ? Guoscadoc surname Old Breton Vasso-rix name Gaulish Dago-vassa name Gaulish Vasso-galatae name Gaulish vassus “vassal” Gaulish?/British? > Medieval Latin DLG: uassos “servant” Medieval Latin uassalus “vassal” Medieval Latin *uassellitus > valet “young nobleman in the service of a lord” > “valet” French Uassilus, Uasso, Uassia, names of persons Vasio > Vaison (Vaucluse) name of town Uasates, (Bazas, Gironde) Aquitanian people from uo- : Uossilus, Uossius, Uossatius, Uossaticus names of persons SDO: guasa f “sluggishnes, dullness” Spanish “fun, joke” Spanish gausse “joke” French gaudere “enjoy oneself” Latin guasa, guaza “very small fly living in humid and shadowy places” Spanish guaso m “farmer from Chile, gaucho” adj am. “peasant-like, gaucho-like, clumsy” huaso do. Chilean Spanish guastar va. old “waste away” vastare “destroy” Latin TP: Latin v- > Spanish gu- is irregular; must be Germanic(?) *wast- DUE: guasa colloq. of uncertain origin; may be a backformation from “guasanga” and that word come from a cross between the Indigenous American guazábara “vanguard” with bullanga “trouble”. “irony with the purpose of bringing a message across” “clumsiness together with disagreeable personal qualities” Spanish estar de guasa colloq. “want to joke, not want speak of or take the subject of conversation seriously” Spanish guasón, -a colloq. “person inclined to joke about persons or things” Spanish guaso, -a n. “peasant” Spanish of Chile adj. “clumsy” Spanish of Argentina, Chile, Ecuador NDLI: aquàtio “taking water” Latin > guazzo “a quantity of water or other liquid spilled on the ground, the table vel sim.” Italian more properly guado TDNO: Wasen m. “turf; fascine” German Wasenknecht “knacker's helper” German Wasenmeister “knacker” German DA: ooze > prob. woozy colloq. “befuddled or intoxicated” American English colloq. “fuzzy” American English WORDS: vas, vasis, f. “vessel, dish; vase” Latin vesicula “little bladder” Latin } waha- “sea, ocean” Tonga, Fiji wasa- “sea” Samoa wasa-wasa “open sea” Fiji waher “water” Indonesia wahig “water” Manobo basa- “wet” Philippines basah- “wet” Indonesia pesak- “wet” Pagu i pehua- “wet” Madole da pisa- “wet” Galela pwasa- “wet” Kelologeia pwasa-pwasa- “wet” Molima *t-w-k- “descendants” toka “offspring” Sanskrit { IEW *teuk- “seed, descendants” tokám “descendants, children” Sanskrit túc- “children, descendants” Sanskrit taoxman- “seed” Avestan diehter “grandchildren” Middle High German } titak- “children, offspring” Laul kata- “offspring” Toricelli Phylum kat- “offspring” Toricelli Phylum kata- “person(s)” Japan kuad- “offspring” Semang/Senoi tung- “offspring” Ranon, Fonah tatu- “person” Peterara tat- “person” Navenenvene, Nasawa toko-?- “human prefix” Proto-Polynesian Proto-Samoic Outlier joko- “child” Ekagi, Kaupaku (Possibly (na)tuku “children” New Hebrides from natu. Words like natu, anak, zana, anat, etc., meaning “children, offspring”, are also related to words to spring from, shoot from, i.e., anak “offspring”, angkan “offshoot”, Tagalog) *w-l/r- “to turn, wrap, (thus:) cover” vala “to turn” Sanskrit, also valana “revolving”, valayita “surrounded, encircled”, vara “enclosing, circumference”, vari “enclosure for catching elephants”, var-tula “circle”. { IENH 486: *w[a|&]ly- “to turn, to roll, to revolve” Proto-Nostratic *w(e|o)l- “to turn, to roll, to revolve” Proto-IndoEuropean *w[a|&]l- “to revolve” Proto-AfroAsiatic *val- “to circle around, to surround; (n.) ring,bracelet, circle” Proto-Dravidian EIEC *wel- “turn, wind, roll” fillid “bends” Old Irish goalenn “green twig” Breton volv- “roll, turn” Latin vi:l “intestine” Old Norse wielwan “roll, turn over” Old English walwjan “roll, rotate” Gothic veliù “full or mill (cloth); felt (hats)” Lithuanian velt “roll, rotate” Latvian valiti “roll” Old Church Slavonian vjell “vomit” Albanian eiléo: “turn, wind” Greek gelum “turn, wind” Armenian válati “turns” Sanskrit walyi “worms, maggots” TokharianA yelyi “worms, maggots” TokharianB } bila “to turn” Sumerian vila- “to turn” Kiriwina vi-viri- “to turn” Anuki vira- “to turn” Proto-Milne Bay baling- Philippines fariu- Makatea -bilih- Vinmavis -bil- Bonga., Tonga., Makura -bilo- Lameno firiu- Fila, Mele poria- Morouas, Penatsiro fuli- Proto-Polynesian baliq- Proto-Austronesian pulih- Proto-Austronesian bulay- “to revolve” Philippines bilugan- “to encircle” Philippines bilog- “circle” Philippines bilig- “embryo, cataract” Philippines balantok- “arch” Philippines balangaw- “rainbow” Philippines piru- “to surround” Saa, Ulawa pulo- “to turn” Saa, Ulawa buro- “to turn, roll, whirl” Arosi *bH-r/l- “bright, castle, bank, high, and many other strange things etc” (or numinous light above island?) vara “to cover, conceal, clothe, surround, encompass” Sanskrit, also vri “to cover”, and varna “covering, exterior, appearance”, vara, bala “hair”, (see above), vali “wrinkled skin, thatched roof”, val-ka “bark of tree”, va-vri “covering, vesture”, var-man “envelope, armor, shelter”, vala “cave, enclosure”. { EIEC *wer- “surround, cover, contain” ferenn (< *wer-eno-) “girdle, belt” Old Irish aperio: (< *ap-wer-yo) “open, uncover” Latin verja “hinder, forbid” Old Norse werian “guard, hinder, forbid” Old English wer[r|i]en “hinder, forbid” Old High German warjan “hinder, forbid” Gothic varr “grave” Albanian erumai (< *weru-) “protect” Greek warrai- “come to aid” Hittite aiwi-v&r&nvaiti “conceals” Avestan vrnoti “covers, surrounds” Sanskrit EHWL veru “cover” Etruscan CAIEH 58 *bilit Proto-Austronesian bilit “wrap around” Ngaju fili “be wrapped up” Samoan } bala-balan- “to cover” Philippines balot- “to cover” Philippines buru- “to cover” Arosi pulou- “to cover” Nanumea, Samoa poreku- “to cover” Maori bala-bal- “wrap” Philippines baluti- “armor” Philippines pori- “wrinkled skin” Maori balat- “skin” Philippines baro- “clothing, dress” Philippines pulunga- “skin” Hukua, Valpei firi-k- “skin” Polonombauk, Butmas wiri-k- “skin” Tautu bulbuluk- “skin” Atchin, Vao ble-k- “skin” Mae wili-ri- “skin” Port Vato na-wili- “skin” Pwele, Siviri balunan- “skin” Proto-Austronesian balunang- “skin” Proto-Polynesian bale- “house” common Polynesian and Melanesian, Kapampangan fare- “house” Aniwa, Futuna, Makatea, Tahiti vale- “house” Florida, Aurora, Leper's Is. Vaturana, Torres Is. whare- “house” Maori volo- “hair” Malagasy (see “balah” above) vara “day” Sanskrit, possibly due to revolution of sun (see vara above) wari, vagi,- “day” Indonesia, Formosa Proto-Austronesian wari-a- “day after tomorrow” Proto-Oceanic wari-a- “day before yesterday” Proto-Oceanic wari-nsa- “day before yesterday” Proto-East Oceanic varani- “day” Doura warai- “yesterday” Isabi varang- “sun” Wogeo warang- “sun” Kairiru vara- “sun” Molima *bh-r/l- “bright, castle, bank, high, and many other strange things etc” (or numinous light above island?) vara “to keep, ward off” Sanskrit vari “enclosure” pali “line, row, bank, dike” pur “fortified city, citadel, fortress” palli “village” pur “exogamous units among the Sakadwipi brahmins of Bihar, marriage is not allowed within the same pur, although marriage may take place within the same gotra” varna “race, species, caste, kind, form, character, nature, color” Sanskrit { NDAP 106: *pur- “house” Dravidian *bir-/*bur- “fort, fortress” AfroAsiatic NDAP 107: *ur- “place” Dravidian *u:r- “village, town, house” Dravidian *ar- “room, house” Dravidian *w[a|u]r- “kin, family, house, village, city, place” AfroAsiatic *?(a)yr-/?ary- “city, house” AfroAsiatic *wer- “fort, fortress, city” Indo-European *werV- “place” Finno-Ugrian *orun “place” Turkic-Mongolian uru “city” Sumerian } burunga- “clan” Arosi barangay- “communal unit usually smaller than village, ship” Philippines baronga- “character, disposition, nature” Arosi perangai- “character, nature, disposition” Indonesia, Malay bal.u- “village, community, house” Proto-Austric(Benedict) fera- “village” Proto-Malaitan puruwa- “village” Faita peuru- “village” Bilua felakoe- “village, ship” Lavukaleve TP: So, what does all this "village, mountain, bright, sky, bank, high" have in common? This may be an explanation: from PMN: A more romantic method [than those previously mentioned for detecting islands beyond the horizon] is the detection of aura reflected off clouds, or the radiation rising off islands in the midst of a cool sea. Obviously, these methods are not well-known even to those who have investigated Austronesian navigation. *p-H- “protect” PMA: pa “to guard, protect, preserve” Sanskrit, also { IENH 52: *p[h][a|&]H- “to eat” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|a|o]Hh- > *p[h][a:|o:]- “to feed” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h][a|&]H- “to eat” Proto-AfroAsiatic VISW *p-A.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *pa:- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *pa- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:bulum “fodder” Latin pa:nis “bread” Latin pa:sco “let eat” Latin fo:djan “feed” Gothic fø:ða “feed” Old Norse fe:dan “feed” Old English patéomai med. “eat” Greek ápastos “sober” Greek fatunga “feeding” Old High German fo:ðr “fodder” Old Norse fo:der “fodder” Old English fuotar “fodder” Old High German *p-A- Semitic extended *p-A-m- fa'ama “(the camel) filled its mouth with herbs, he drank (a draught of beverage) with his mouth (not with his hand), he satisfied his thirst (mina-l-ma:'i, with water)” Arabic 'af'ama II “put a morcel into (someone's) mouth, offer bread to a beggar” Ethiopian reflex. III “fill one's mouth with a morcel, swallow a morcel” Ethiopian IV “seek out, beg for a morcel” Ethiopian EIEC *peH2- (pres. *péH2ti / *peH2-s(k)eti “guard, protect, cause to graze” ai:nches “bread basket” Old Irish pawr “meadow” Welsh pa:sco: “feed, lead to pasture, nourish” Latin fo:ðr “fodder” Old Norse fo:dder, fo:ðor “fodder” Old English fuoter “fodder” Old High German pasõ “protect, guard” Old Church Slavonian pa:nía: “satiety” Doric Greek hawran “herd” Armenian pah(has)s- “protect” Hittite pa:iti “guards” Avestan pá:ti “guards” Sanskrit päs- “guard, protect, practice moral behaviour” TokharianA päsk- “guard, protect, practice moral behaviour” TokharianB cf. *póH2yu po:u “flock of sheep” Greek pa:yú “protector” Sanskrit poimén “guardian, herder” Greek piemuo “herder” Lithuanian *poHiweH2- “open meadow” pieva “meadow” Lithuanian póa: “grass, grassy place” Greek HSED 1927: *pah_- “field” ph_3.t “field” (n.) Egyptian (mew) Vocalic -3. *pah- “cleared open space, farm” West Chadic fage: id. Hausa APG: Powe placename near Osnabrück Nordwestblock HKNH: pa:- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:-ro- Proto-IndoEuropean pawr “pasture” substrate in Welsh pori “graze” substrate in Welsh IEIE: bah_a “defense, defender” Elamite } pa-pa- “to prohibit, forbid” Hawai'i pa- “fence, hedge, enclosed place” Tahiti pa'o- “to stop, check, forbid” Marquesas pa- “wall” Samoa ba- “fence, wall” Fiji pala, para- “fence, enclosure” common Oceanic barabara- “fence, enclosure of stakes” Papuan pila- “line, row” Tagalog *p-r- “love” pri “be pleased with” Sanskrit, also pria “beloved” { IENH 622: *p[h][a|&]r- “to be fond of, care for, feel affection for; to be pleased, happy, satisfied, or delighted with” Proto-Nostratic > *pr(e|o)yH (priH- > pri:-) “to be fond of, care for, feel affection for; to be pleased, happy, satisfied, or delighted with” Proto-IndoEuropean pri:n.á:ti “to please, gladden, delight, gratify, to greet, comfort, soothe, propitiate; to be pleased or satisfied with, delight in, enjoy” Sanskrit prí:yate “to be pleased” Sanskrit priyá-h “beloved, dear” Sanskrit premán- “love, affection, kindness, fondness” Sanskrit préyas- “dearer, more agreeable; a lover, a dear friend” Sanskrit pri:ti-h “pleasure, joy, gladness, satisfaction” Sanskrit fri:na:iti “to love, to praise” Avestan fryo: “dear” Avestan rhydd “free” Welsh freis “free” Gothic friyei “freedom” Gothic frei-hals “freedom” Gothic frijon “love” Gothic freidjan “take care of” Gothic frijonds “friend” Gothic friathwa “showing love” Gothic frjá “love” v. Old Norse frjáls “love” Old Norse fríða “adorn” Old Norse fríðr “peace” Old Norse fríðill “lover” Old Norse fre:o “free, noble; joyful” Old English fre:ond “friend; relative; lover” Old English fre:od “affection, friendship; good-will, peace” Old English fre:ogan, fri:gan “free, love” v. Old English fre:o “lady, woman” Old English frioðu “peace” Old English vri:ten “cherish” Old High German prêjõ, prijati “be favorable” Old Church Slavic prijatelI “friend” Old Church Slavic prijazn' “love” Old Church Slavic priêks “joy” Latvian *p[h][a|&]r- “to be fond of, care for, feel affection for; to be pleased, happy, satisfied or delighted with” Proto-AfroAsiatic *p[h]ar-aH- “to be glad, happy, delighted: to rejoice” Proto-Semitic farih.a “be glad, happy, delighted; rejoice; be gay, merry, cheerful” Arabic farah. “joy, gladness, glee, gaiety, hilarity, mirth, exhilaration, merriment, joy” Arabic farh.a “joy” Arabic farih., fa:rih. “merry, gay, cheerful, joyful, glad, delighted, happy” Arabic fir&h. “be happy” Mehri f&rha:t “happiness” Mehri fo:r&h. “make happy” Mehri fér&h. “be happy, pleased” Jibbali effráh. “make happy” Jibbali farh., f&rh.át “happiness” Jibbali fêreh. “rejoice, be happy” H.arsu:si ferhét “happiness” H.arsu:si fêreh. “make happy” H.arsu:si ifrar “be good” Tuareg fira “relative” Oromo > fira “friend, relative” Borji fira “relative” Gedeo pari “to be affectionate” Dravidian pari “love, affection” Dravidian parivu “affection, love, devotion, piety, delight, pleasure” Dravidian parivu “love” Malayalam paraliga “paramour” Kannada perima “love, affection” Telugu EIEC *priHós “of one's own” thus “dear” and “free” rhydd “free” Welsh fri: “beloved, spouse” Old Norse fre:o “woman” Old English fre:od “love” Old English fre:o “free” Old English fri: “free” Old High German frei-s “free” Gothic frya- “dear” Avestan priyá- “dear” Sanskrit priyáta:- “desire” Sanskrit Frigg Old Norse Frig Old English Frija a goddess Old High German perhaps all derived from pr- “house” of non-IE origin SNE 2 *p&ra “be dear, pleasant” Nostratic Afro-Asiatic: ifrar “be good” Tuareg, Berber Indo-European: fry'ng, fria:n “beloved, friend” Parth., Iranian fry-, pry “beloved, friend, dear” Sogd. , Iranian brria- “beloved, friend, dear” Sac. , Iranian Dravidian: pari “to be affectionate, love, affection” Tamil parivu “love” Mal. Chukch.-Kamch.: porelat “rejoice” Chukch. } para- “to be fond of”(prefix) Samar-Leyte, Bikol pala- “to be fond of”(prefix) Hiligaynon, Cebuano, Tagalog pili- “to agree with, be attached to” Hawai'i piya- “to delight” Polynesia fia- “to desire” Polynesia VMPSIE fili “to choose” Tongan pîlih “to choose” Malayan pilih “to choose” Javanese pili “to choose” Tagalog fili “choice” Malagasy mi-fidi “to choose” Malagasy see previous two entries *dH-r- “bear, hold” dhara “bearing, holding, supporting” Sanskrit, also dhara, dharani “earth, mountain” dhur “load resting on shoulder, yoke” dhura “yoke, burden” dharma “law, conduct, established order” Sanskrit { SIG, IESSG Alternative form *t-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-r- “become firm” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -b- > PIE -p- extended with -z- > PIE -s- *t-r-s- “stiff, firm, dry > to thirst” Proto-IndoEuropean terra “earth, terra firma” Latin torreo: “parch, roast” Latin torridus “parched, dried up, stiffened” Latin cf membra torrida gelu “limbs stiff with cold” Latin térso-mai “become dry” Greek tersaíno: “dry up” Greek tarsú-s “net for drying” Greek darra “net for drying” Old High German ga-þairsan “dry up” Gothic þaursus “dry” Gothic þurr “dry” Old Norse tr.s^ú “pine” Sanskrit tr.'s^yati “thirsts” Sanskrit þaurseiþ “thirsts” Gothic þyrstir (mik) “(I) thirst” Old Norse þyrst “thirst” Old English durst “thirst” Low German durst “thirst” German tr.'s^n.a: “thirst” Sanskrit tariza “(the water) was frozen” Arabic taraza “became firm, dry; (the meat) was hard” Arabic taraz “to be hard, thick, dry” New Arabic 'a-traza Arabic 'atraz IV “to harden, desiccate” New Arabic ta:riz “hard, thick, dead, dried up” New Arabic tirza: “holm-oak” Hebrew extended with -wg- trúgo: “I dry” Greek with s-preformative *st(h)-r- Proto-IndoEuropean stereós “hard, firm” Greek sterilis “barren” Latin starí:- “barren cow” Sanskrit steîra “barren cow” Greek stairo: “barren” Gothic andstaurran Gothic starren “become firm” Middle High German starr “stiff” German *t-r- Semitic single redupl. *t-r-r Semitic tarra “he was (became) plump” Arabic ta:rruN “plump in body” Arabic extended with PIE -p-, Semitic -b- *t-r-p- Proto-IndoEuropean torpeo: “am stiff” Latin térp-nu-tI “become stiff” Russian tìrp-ti “become stiff” Lithuanian with s-preformative stjarfi “tetanus” Old Norse þarf “need” Old Norse þarbs “needy” Old Norse þarba m. “pauper” Old Swedish þarba f. “lack” Old Swedish darba f. “lack” Old High German darbe:n “be without” Old High German strong root verb ver-derben “perish (suffer grave loss)” Middle High German with s-preformative sterben “die” German t-r-b- Semitic tariba “suffered loss” Arabic IV “had few resources” Arabic whence ma-trabatuN f. “poverty, neediness, the becoming poor” Arabic turbuN, tura:buN “earth, dust” Arabic extended with -H- tarHuN “poverty, need, indigence” Arabic tariHa “he perished, died” Arabic : *dh-r- Proto-IndoEuropean Alternative form extended with -wg- drokno “dry” Old Saxon : extended with -wgh- or -wk- draug-r “dry wood” Old Norse dro:ghe “dry” Middle Dutch dro:ghe “dry” Middle Low German droog “dry” Dutch Alternative form *T.-r-K.^- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *dh-rg^h- “be firm” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -tó- dr.d.há- “firm” Sanskrit forctus “good” Old Latin forcte:s “good” Old Latin fortis “strong” Latin : Alternative form *t-r-K.^- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-rg^h- Proto-IndoEuropean with s-preformative and nasal infix strang-r “strong” Old Norse strong Old English strengi “strong, brave, hard” Old High German *t-r-s.- Semitic taras.a “was firm” Arabic tari:s.uN perf. intr. “firm, robust” Arabic : *t-r-k^- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-rg^- Proto-IndoEuropean with s-preformative stark-r “firm, strong” Old Norse starc “firm, strong” Old High German storkna “become firm, coagulate” Old Norse ga-staurknan Gothic IEW *dher-, *dher&- “hold, support” dhar- “hold, carry, support, maintain” Sanskrit dar- “hold, hold on to, observe (law)” Avestan thranos “bench” Greek thrónos “seat” Greek fre:tus “supported (by), trusting” Latin bedaren “become calm (wind, weather)” Dutch tarnen “cover, conceal” Middle High German deriù, deréti “negotiate ("settle"), buy” Lithuanian dhárma- “rite, law” Sanskrit firmus “firm, steady, strong” Latin } dareha- “to carry on shoulders” Tagalog dala- “to carry, bear” Philippines dalay-rayan- “base, support” Philippines (Tg.-Sp. compound) dalhin- “to carry, support” Philippines tari- “to carry, bear” Maori, Anutan karu- “to hold, carry, bear” Saa, Ulawa taur- “to hold” Mota tauria- “to hold” Mafea, Tutuba, Tangoa tori- “to hold” Merlav, Marino tora- “to carry, support” Arosi tola- “to carry” Saa, Ulawa tole- “to carry, bear” Lau kalele- “support, railing, prop, cane, to trust” Hawai'i san-dalan- “back” Tagalog tura- “back” N. Malo tar-beng- “back” Fonah tarmwuk- “back” Nume kilok- “back” Toga kulak- “back” Mota kuru- “back” Sileibi kru- “back” Emerum kere- “earth” Fila, Mele Aniwa, Futuna dare- “earth” Proto-Ambonese (Charles) dareq- “earth” Proto-Austronesian (Zorc) kor- “mountain” Proto-Oceanic goro- “mountain” Sinagoro tolo- “hills” Saa, Ulawa toro- “hills” Wango toro-puki- “mound” Maori koro- “heap” Viti kari- “mountain” Kewa kilik- “shoulder” Proto-Philippine dalam- “law” Philippines dala- “taught by painful experience or punishment” Tagalog dalam- “to press charges against” Bontok darum- “to bring suit against, press charges” Ilocano tola- “behavior, character” Lau tolaha- “custom, way” Saa, Ulawa ha'a-tolanga- “law” Saa, Ulawa ha'a-toraha- “law, command” Arosi tara- “wrong, incorrect” Anutan tula-fono- “law” Samoa ture- “law” Maori, Tahiti (Some writers suggest "ture" of Maori and Tahiti was introduced by missionaries from Hebrew, torah “sacred law”.) *s-d- “true” sad “to go straight to without missing, to be on the mark; to be straight, to straighten; to reach goal” Sanskrit, also sadha “straight, good” sat “true, real, genuine” Sanskrit, also satya “truth” { IESSG *s-d- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-t- intr. orig. “stand” > “be steadfast, true” Proto-IndoEuropean *set- extended with -w- étu-mon “true” Greek etewón “true” Greek o-grade, extended with -y- *sotyo- ósios “sacred” Greek ta ósia “divine right” Greek perhaps also satyá- “true” Sanskrit haiþya- “true” Avestan has^iya- “true” Old Persian perhaps = *s-d-y- Semitic 'el s^adday “God” Hebrew (or from *s-d-d-) perhaps also with n-infix *sont- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *snt- Proto-IndoEuropean sánt- “good” Sanskrit hant- “good” Avestan sann-r “true” Old Norse so:þ “true” Old English *sntya:- > sunya Gothic *s-d- Semitic single redupl. *s-d-d- sadda “was right (word) (he, it) was (became) right, in a right state” Arabic 'asadda IV “he said (did, sought) what was right” Arabic sada:duN “the right thing (in speech and action)” Arabic *s.-d- Semitic *s.-d-k.- South and West Semitic s.adk.uN, s.idk.uN “truth” Arabic s.æ'ðæk. “true, right” Hebrew s.edk. “right, law” Ethiopian s.adu:kuN “truthful” Arabic s.edu:k.awi: “truth-loving” Ethiopian s.aðak. “was right” Hebrew IEW *se:[i]dh- : sidh-, s&dh- “go straight towards a goal” Proto-IndoEuropean sádhati “reaches a goal, sets straight” Sanskrit sa:dhú- “straight, good” Sanskrit ithýs (*sidhus) “straight (towards a goal)” Greek EIEC *H1sónt- “real, true” so:ns “guilty” Latin sann-r “true, guilty” Old Norse so:þ “true, genuine; justice, truth” Old English asa:nt “being, existing, real, true” Hittite *H1sntyós hathya “true” Avestan satyá- “true” Sanskrit sánt- “being, existing, real, true” Sanskrit } sako- “straight, direct” Proto-Polynesian sasak- “straight” Malay sasakan- “to straighten” Malay sog, sogi- “to make straight” Efate sadya- “purpose, objective, object” Tagalog hak- “truth, reality, just cause (legal)” Indonesia hakiki- “true, real” Indonesian, Malay suguh- “true” Malay soko- “true” Efate sa'o- “true” Samoa hukom- “judge” Tagalog hatol- “judgement” Tagalog hatulan- “to sentence” Tagalog *kW-r- “work” kara “to act, work” Sanskrit, also karma “action, deed, work, fate” karana “factor, cause” Sanskrit { IENH 331: *kw[h][u|o]r- “to twist or twine together, tie together, bind, fasten” Proto-Nostratic > *kw[h](e|o)r- “to do, make, build” Proto-IndoEuropean *kw[h][a|&]r- “to twist or twine together, tie together, bind, fasten” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kura- “to twist or twine together, tie together, bind, fasten” Proto-Uralic kur4 “to tie, bind” Sumerian EIEC *kwer- “do make, build” cruth “form” Old Irish pryd “form, time” Welsh paraf “work, shape” Welsh kuriù “make, build, create” Lithuanian ke:ras “magician” Lithuanian keréti “bewitch, enchant, charm” Lithuanian kruc^îjî “smith” Old Church Slavonian c^áry “magic” Russian c^arovátî “bewitch, enchant, charm” Russian k&r&naoiti “does, makes” Avestan karóti / krnóti “does, makes, performs; executes; builds” Sanskrit EHWL car, cer “to build, make” Etruscan } kalang “work” Yaugulam gere- “work” Pulabu daura- “work” Arosi, Lau kala- “to do roughly, hastily” Kwaio kara “plan, conspiracy” Kwaio kalai- “acting done in dance performances” Kwaio kalai- “an enterprise or policy”, fig. from kalai “to plan” Hawai'i galue- “to work” Samoa, Nanumea galue-ga “work, employment” Samoa galuea'iina “action” Samoa galaw- “action, movement” Tagalog galo- “action” Pampanga gula- “action” Lau karatnan “outcome, consequence, result” Tagalog k-in-artnan- “destiny, fate, result” Tagalog (from addition of infix -in, to kara-tnan) kulana “rank, station, position” Hawai'i karma, karawa, etc. “one of three souls, actuating soul of body” Ilocano kalma, kalkalma- “actuating soul of three in body” Tinguian galing “source, origin, cause” Tagalog kalana “source”, as in la kalana ola “the sun, the source of life” Hawai'i gerin- “root” Gog goren- “root” Motlav gula- “cause” Lau kula- “source, container” Hawai'i kuleana- “cause, justification, right, title, function, etc” Hawai'i tara- “cause” Arosi ta “earth” Sanskrit, also ku “earth, ground” ta- “earth” Moreton Bay, tau- “earth, land” Rarotonga, doa- “earth” Wedau, Gapapawai, doi- “earth” Ouma, tan- “soil” Efate, Fonah, Fali, tano- “earth, soil” Ladrone Is., Gilbert Is., N. Guinea, tani- “earth, soil” Malagasy. khan “to dig” Sanskrit kanu- “to dig” Hawai'i, tanu- “to dig” Samoa, Tonga, Maori, Tahiti, Anutan, Rarotonga, tanam- “to bury” Java, Malaysia. *r-H-m- “dark, black” rama “dark, black” Sanskrit { IENH 579: *l[a|&]w- “to be or become dirty, tarnished, stained, soiled, filthy” Proto-Nostratic *l(e|o)w- “to make dirty, filth” Proto-IndoEuropean Proto-AfroAsiatic Semitic la:t_a (from base lwt_) “to stain, tarnish, soil, sully” Arabic lawt_a “stain, blot, spot” Arabic IEW *re:-, *re:mo- “dark” ra:má “dark, black” Sanskrit ra:mi: “night” Sanskrit ra:m, ro:m “dirt, soot” Middle High German ro:mig “sooty” Old English } ram- “black” Tai, Siam, Gedney lam- “dark, black” Lakkia, Ong-be Kelao, Than-Uyen ram- “to shade” Dioi, Tai rom- “shade” Tai i-lam “black” Indonesia ilam-ilam- “hazy, vague” Batak ma-ilam “dark” Batak lam-lam- “dimness” Tagalog ma-lam- “night” Malo, Moto ma-lam- “middle of night” Formosa taa-lam- “black” Melam *r-t- “night” ratra “night” Sanskrit, also ratta “night” Pali rat “night” Bengali roto- “night” Saa, Bululaha, Ulawa ridi- “night” Nengone rodo- “night” Wano, Saa, Ulawa, Manam rorodo- “blind” Omba rorod'o- “belonging to darkness” Saa, Ulawa rira “night” Yaqay rava- “night” Waropen rabi-rabi- “night” Ubir *q-l- “move, time” kala “time, division of time” Sanskrit { SIG, IESSG *k-l- Pre-IndoEuropean *k-l- “agitate, set in motion” Proto-IndoEuropean kélomai “set in motion, urge on” Greek *k-ly- kéllo: intr. “move” Greek trans. “propel” Greek kele:s “fast ship, fast horse” Greek celer “fast” Latin celox “fast ship” Latin kaláyati, ka:láyati “propels” Sanskrit *k.-l- Semitic k.alk.ala “stir, agitate” Arabic 'an-kalkala “be stirred” Ethiopian k.ilk.al “shake” Hebrew single redupl. k.-l-l- Semitic “be fast, light” Hebrew “be light” Aramaic Ethiopian Arabic k.al k.alla f. k.allim pl. “fast, fast horse” Hebrew k.ali:l “fast > easy, light” Ethiopian extended with -w- k.ala: “urged (the herd of camels) on vehemently” Arabic extended with -s- keleúo: “impel, propel” Greek extended with -y- k.alaya “moved from a place” Arabic k.a:lay “threw” Hebrew k.æ'lay “thrower” Hebrew mi-k.la:yuN “thrower” Arabic IEW *kel- "propel, cause to move swiftly" ka:láyati “propels, carries, perceives, holds” Sanskrit qil “brings, carries” Albanian (Geg) kéllo “runs the ship onto shore, lands” Greek celer “fast, swift” Latin celeber (< *kele-dhlo-) “frequent” Latin haltan “herding cattle” Old High German } qole e kala “some time ago” Hawai'i kali- “to wait, stay” Hawai'i tali “wait” Samoa tatari- “wait, delay” Tahiti tau-tari “to wait” Anutan dalasin- “to hurry” Tagalog dali “speed” Tagalog dali-dali- “to hasten” Philippines dalog- “haste” Philippines dalasan- “to do frequently” Philippines dalas- “frequency” Philippines daloy- “flow” Philippines dali- “inch” Philippines kalina- “a waiting” Hawai'i *k-r-s- “dark, black” kala “black, dark blue” Sanskrit { EIEC(?) *ker(s)- words for color, esp. dark, dirty krsná- “black” Sanskrit kirsnan “black” Old Prussian kérs^as “with black and white spots” Lithuanian c^ëren “black” Russian harr “ash” Swedish HSED 503: *c^.al-/*c^.ul- “shadow” *t_.il(l)- “shadow” s.illu “shadow” Akkadian z.l “shadow” Ugaritic s.e:l “shadow” Hebrew t.ulla: “shadow” Aramaic z.ill- “shadow” Arabic s.e:lalat “shadow” Geez z.elel “shadow” Jibbali *(nV-)c^.ila- “shadow” West Chadic z^il “shadow” Angas c^ala “shadow” Sha *nV-c^al- *nV-z^al- “west” Central Chadic nz^ale “west” Gisiga *c.al- “shade” Highland East Cushitic c.aale “shade” Sidamo partial redupl. t_iilali “shadow” Dahalo Alternation *a ~ *i HSED 511 c^.ilam- “be dark” *t_.Vlam- “be dark, be black” Semitic s.ala:mu “be dark, be black” Akkadian z.lm [-a-] “be dark, be black” Arabic t_.lm “be dark, be black” South Arabic s.alma “be dark, be black” Geez s.a:lma “be dark, be black” Tigre s.ällämä “be dark, be black” Tigray s.illämä “be dark, be black” Gafat c^.ällämä “be dark, be black” Amharic c^.elläma “be dark, be black” Argoba c^.e:läma “be dark, be black” Harari c^.ällämä “be dark, be black” Gurage t.lm “be dark, be black” Soqotri cf. z.lmt “darkness” Ugaritic z.alem “darkness” Mehri *c^ilVm- Central Chadic c^ilim “dark” Buduma selem “black” Gulfey Derived from HSED 503 *c^.al-/*c^.il- cf. also *d.elam- “return of the cattle home in the evening” Lowland East Cushitic *d.elam- > d.elam, pl. d.elmo “return of the cattle home in the evening” Somali *c^ulum- “west” - *“dark (side)” East Chadic c^ulum-ti “weat” - *“dark (side)” Migama } kor-kor- “black” Vatrata, Vetumboso kur-kur- “black” Sasar, Mosina golu- “black” Alite qole-qole- “black” Murray Is. korema-korema- “black” Motu kur-kuram- “dark, black” Nissan kele- “black” Proto-Polynesian *mula- “root, source, base” mula “root, source, base” Sanskrit { IEW *mo[u]-lo- : *mu:-lo- “root, plant” Proto-IndoEuropean (from *mu:- as “mouth of plant”) mu:la “root” Sanskrit mu:la-karman “magic with herbs” Sanskrit mo:lu “a legendary magic herb” Greek (Homer) } mula- “source, origin” Philippines mula- “from, since, then” Philippines mula- “to plant” Ilocano, Bontok, Isneg, Sambal, Ibaneg mole- “taproot of tree, bottom, foundation, cause” Hawai'i mu- “trunk of” Fiji, Mosimo, Yoidik, Rempi sena “spear, dart, missile” Sanskrit sen- “spear” Lorediakarkar sin- “spear” Shark Bay I seine- “spear” Shark Bay II san- “spear” Polonobauk, Butmas sang- “spear” Tur. *g-m- “to eat, chew, tooth” jam “to eat, chew” Sanskrit { SIG *k1-n-b- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic s^anabuN “a serrated state of the teeth and their being separate or apart one from another, or sharpness of the teeth (or of the canine teeth), so that they appear like a saw” Arabic s^aniba “had beautiful teeth” Arabic mi-s^nabuN “a young boy whose teeth are sharp and serrated by reason of his youthfulness” Arabic : *g1-n-p- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *G.1-n-p- > *g1òmbh- (o-grade) Proto-IndoEuropean jámbha- “tooth, palate” Sanskrit zãbû “tooth” Slavic zu:bs “tooth” Latvian kamb-r “comb” Old Norse jámbuka “jackal” Sanskrit EIEC *g'embh-, *g'mbh- “bite, chew” jámbhate “snatches” Sanskrit dhemp “it is painful to me” Albanian z^embiù “cuts up” Lithuanian *gómbhos “tooth” jámba-h “tooth” Sanskrit gomphos “tooth” Greek dhemb “tooth” Albanian kamb “comb”(toothed) Old High German } jom, jujum- “eat” Kurku jim- “eat” Juang jum - “eat” Savara ham- “eat” Palaung jam- “eat” Kherwari, Santal, Mundari djamuan- “meal, feast” Malay samu- “to chew” Mangar., Maori amu- “to eat” Tahiti namu- “nibble, chew with closed lips” Hawai'i “chew, taste” Easter Is., Fiji nami- “nibble, bite, taste” Bugotu nam- “chew” Tai -xan- “to eat” Avok -xani- “to eat” Maskelynes -xana “to eat” Aulua jia- “eat” Talaing kad “eat” Sanskrit, also ka “eat” Prakit and many vernaculars. kai “eat” Ang-ku, Mong-Lwe, Aniwa, Futuna, Fila kye- “eat” A Mok cha “eat” Sakai chi “eat” Semang ga “eat” Savari, Gadaba gin “eat” Thai ma-kan- “eat” Malay, Solon kain “eat” Tagalog kan- “eat” Medebur, Wogeo, Arop anna “food” Sanskrit an- “food” Nissan anian- “food” Sa anan “food” Kerepua, Narango, Polonombauk, Butmas, Nambel anyam- “food” Amblong anyan- “food” Batunlamak aniani- “food” Lametin, Matae, Akei, Fortsenal an, anan, aniani, ani “to eat” common Melanesian anana “mouth” Sanskrit, also anjali “cavity made with hollowed palms”. ana “mouth, hollow” Hawai'i ana- “cave” Tahiti, Anutan anu, ano- “saliva, spittle” Anutan *p-r-k- “pig” varaha “hog” Sanskrit { EIEC *porkos “young pig, piglet” Proto-IndoEuropean orc “young pig” Middle Irish porcus “young pig” Latin purka “pig” Umbrian fearh (cf. NE farrow) “young pig” Old English far(a)h “young pig” Old High German prastian “young pig” Old Prussian pars^as “young pig, castrated male hog, farrow” Lithuanian prase “young pig” Old Church Slavonian porosënok “young pig” Russian p&r&sa- “young pig” Avestan pa:sa- “pig” Khotanese IELS verre:s “pig” Latin loans: porsas “pig” Finnish purts “pig” Mordvin pors´ “pig” Zyrenian EBAE 7.7.5: ebur “boar” Old High German eBur- id. Old English eofur id. Old English jo,furr “prince” Old Norse *ebura- “boar” Proto-Germanic aper id. Latin *apruns acc. pl. > apruf id. Umbrian vepris id. Latvian veprI id. Old Church Slavonic `ifr “boar, pig” Arabic apparu “furry pigs” Akkadian appâru “wild boars” Akkadian CGRA *prag “sow, pig” Old Chinese phag “swine, hog, pig” Written Tibetan wak “hog” Written Burmese } vore- “pig” Fiji var- “pig” Ceram bolo- “pig” Florida polo- “pig” Savo, Sasar pula- “pig” Leon boro- “pig” Duke of York puaka, pua'a- “pig” common Polynesian bulugan, burugan- “male pig” Philippines bulaw- “young hog” Tagalog borom- “pig” Murray Island burumu- “pig” Motu balakiyo- “young hog” Chammoro bula- “young male hog” Bontok boroma- “pig” Gabadi, Central Papuan MTU boloma- “pig” Central Papuan LAL bar- “pig” Ndu *k-m-t- “shine, moon” chandra “moon” Sanskrit, also chando “moon” Prakrit { SIG, IESSG, VISW *k-m-t- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *kemd- > Proto-IndoEuropean *kend- Proto-IndoEuropean c^and- “shine” Sanskrit c^andrá- “shining; moon” Sanskrit *cando: Latin candeo: “shine, gleam” Latin cande:la “candle” Latin ac-cendo: “kindle, set on fire” Latin in-cendo: “set fire to, burn” Latin ci-cinde:la “glowworm; oil lamp” Latin with s-preformative *skend- Proto-IndoEuropean s´c^and- “shine” Sanskrit *X2-m-t.- Proto-AfroAsiatic Xama:t.u “light, shine, be aflame” Assyrian whence Xamt.u > Xant.u “firey, aflame” Assyrian Ximt.u, Ximit. urri “the gleam of the light” Assyrian Ximit. stat. constr. “fiery shining” Assyrian Ximt.itu “fire, flame” Assyrian EIEC *(s)kand- “shine, glitter (particularly of the moon)” candeo: “glitter, shine” Latin candidus “shining white” Latin incendere “kindle” Latin c^ándati “shines, is bright” Sanskrit c^andrá / sc^andrá “shining; moon” *(s)kend- “moon” *kend- cann “full moon” Middle Breton cann “brilliant” Welsh *skondna: ha:në “moon” Albanian (Gheg) hë:në “moon” Albanian (Tosk) candrá-ma:s “the moon (god)” Sanskrit candru “moon” Sindhi VMPSIE cand- “shine, gleam” Sanskrit candra “moon” Sanskrit canda “moon” Sanskrit cann “full moon” Old Irish candeo “shine, gleam” Latin candela “candle” Latin canus “white, grey” Latin caneo “be/become covered in white” Latin ma-hina “moon” Tonga hina-hina “white” Tonga } ninda chando- “moon” Kherwari, Santali chando- “moon” Mundari kan-che- “moon” Ang-Ki kan-kye- “moon” Mong-Lwe g'che- “moon” Sakai k'che- “moon” Semang gatu, k'tau- “moon” Talaing che- “moon” Wai k'e- “moon” Khmer gamnga- “moon” Kapau kulukum- “moon” Rerau kulogom- “moon” Jilim kagam- “moon” Bongu kine- “moon” Asabe kalam- “moon” Rempi, Mugil kakam- “moon” Male kenuk- “moon” Yupna kugu- “moon” Savosavo kua- “moon” Lavukaleve kamgu- “sun” Silo kana- “moon” Tsaga kamgo- “sun” Ngowugar kangu- “moon” Danara The form, chandra, may be a result of an attempt to make the Prakrit, chando, look more like Chandasi. The root ka- has been postulated in Austric and other Oceanic languages to denote the sky and is found in words for the sun, moon and stars. Possibly among the Austrics of India cha- > ka-. TP: The -r- of Sanskrit is particular to that language and not found in other Indo-European languages kanana “throat” Sanskrit, also kandhara “neck”, kanta “neck”. kana- “outside of neck” Hawai'i kani-ai- “throat, windpipe, Adam's apple” Hawai'i gandu- “neck” Western Huon kunkun- “neck” Erap kadi, kodi- “neck” Erap kuni- “neck” Suki kone- “neck” Boazi gado-gu- “neck” Bonelua, Ilo-Ilo, Suau, Bolowai, kati-kati- “outside part of neck” Anutan kul “to boil” Sanskrit tolo- “to singe”, Samoa, chulor- “scald” , Malay, kulo- “boiling” Tagalog. kula “slope” Sanskrit kula- “field, uncultivated land”, Hawai'i, kula- “locality”, Samoa, kulem- “slope”, Sundanese. kul “continue, accumulate” Sanskrit kulo- “continue, perservere”, Hawai'i, tulu'i- “endure”, Samoa. *kur- “dog” kurkura/kukura “dog” Sanskrit { IENH 652: *k[H]uwan-/ *k[H]uw&n- “dog” Proto-Nostratic *k[H](u)wo:n-/ *k[H]un- “dog” Proto-IndoEuropean s´ván- (s´vá: nom sg s´únah. gen sg) “dog” Sanskrit kúo:n (kunós gen sg) “dog” Greek canis “dog” Latin cú (con gen sg) “dog” Old Irish ci “dog” Welsh hunds “dog” Gothic hundr “dog” Old Norse hunt “dog” Old High German hund “dog” Old Saxon hund “dog” Old English s^uõ (s^uñs gen sg) “dog” Lithuanian ku (kon obl) “dog” Tokharian A zú-wa/i-n(i) “dog” Hieroglyphic Luwian (possibly a loan from Indo-Aryan) *k[H]&wan-/ *k[H]&w&n- “dog” Proto-AfroAsiatic (*k[H]&wán- > *k[H]wán- > *k[H]án- >) *kanya- “dog” Proto East Chadic kanya “dog” Dangla kany- “dog” Jegu *kan- “dog” Proto-Omotic kan, kanaa “dog” Ome kano “dog” Mao VISW: Alternative forms *g^.-p- “grab, grasp with a firm grip” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *k^-w- Proto-IndoEuropean : *G^.-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *d'.-P.- Semitic : *G^-P.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic extended with -Y.- Alternative forms *g^-p-Y.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *k^-w-Y.- Proto-IndoEuropean *kwéY.- Proto-IndoEuropean *kwo: “dog” Proto-IndoEuropean s^vá: “dog” Sanskrit s^u~ “dog” Lithuanian d.iba:Y.uN (coll. and plur.) Arabic s.&Bo:az Hebrew *kwo:n “dog” Proto-IndoEuropean kúo:n “dog” Greek spa:n- “dog” Avestan reduced *k^u:n- Proto-IndoEuropean su:n- “dog” Avestan d.ibY.anuN “hyena” Arabic : *G^.-p-Y.- Proto-IndoEuropean *d'-p-Y.- Proto-Semitic 'aP3å: “hyena” Syrian : *G^.-P.-Y.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic d.abuY.uN “hyena” Arabic s.a:Bo:az “hyena” Hebrew d.abY.uN “hyena” Arabic EIEC ??*(s)koli- “young dog” scalenix “setter, pointer” Old Prussian ka:le “bitch” Lithuanian skalìkas “hound, hunting dog” Lithuanian këlysh “young dog” Albanian skúlax “young dog; young animal” Greek (Hesychius) kúlla “young dog” Greek c'ul “young steer” Armenian EIEC calls this "a most doubtful grouping". This, I think, might suggest that they are loan-words loaned at different times. Within AfroAsiatic, an equally doubtful grouping: HSED 917: *ger- “dog, cub” *gVrw- Semitic gerru “wild animal's cub” Akkadian gu:r “cub, puppy” Hebrew guryo: “cub, puppy” Aramaic (Syria) garw-, girw-, gurw- “cub, puppy” Arabic yeru “cub, puppy” Harsusi *gyara- “dog” East Chadic gera “dog” Namchere gira “dog” Lele gara “dog” Kabalay Cf., probably, *giraw- “cat” Highland East Cushitic giraa?we “cat” Bambala HSED 1425: *kan- “dog” *kanya- “dog” East Chadic kanya “dog” Dangla kany- “dog” Jegu *kan- “dog” Omotic kana, kanaa “dog” Ometo kano “dog” Mao A morphonological variant of *kun- “dog”, *küHen- “dog” HSED 1434: *ka[ya]r- “dog” *ka[ya]r- “dog” West Chadic kare: “dog” Hausa k&ra “dog” Barawa kara “dog” Sayanchi kyara “dog” Bokkos gyara “dog” Kulere c^ira “dog” Dafo-Butura *kVyVr- > *ki:r- “dog” Central Chadic ki:rre “dog” Lamang k&re “dog” Mandara ki:rra “dog” Sukur k&re “dog” Gidar *kar- “dog” Saho-Afar kare “dog” Saho *ka[y]ir- “dog” Lowland East Cushitic kair, ker “dog” Arbore Secondary *-i- after *-y-. *Xa[y]ar- “dog” Werizoid Xero “dog” Warazi haaro “dog” Gawwata heero “dog” Gobeze karo “dog” Camay *kayar- seems to be a secondary formation based on *kar- preserved in SA and, to some extent, in West Chadic. HSED 1498: *kun- “dog” *kun- “dog” Berber cuna “dog” Guanche *kunan- “dog” Omotic kunano “dog” Kaffa kunano “dog” Mocha Partial reduplication. Related to *kan-, küHen- “dog”. HSED 1511: *küHen- “dog” *kuHen- “dog” West Chadic kweeng “dog” Fyer Fyer -ng goes back to *-n-H-. kwehen “dog” Mogogodo *keHen- “dog” Omotic keenu “dog” Dime Related to *kan-, *kun- “dog” HSED 1521: *kV(w|y)Vl- “dog, wolf” *kVwVl- “wolf, jackal” Berber aku:len “wolf, jackal” Tuareg *kVyal- > *kyal- “dog” Central Chadic kele “dog” Kuseri k&le “dog” Logone keli: “dog” Buduma Semitic *kalb- “dog” may also belong here as a reflex of *kal- with the suffix of harmful animals *-b-. Note the consonantal alternation *-w- ~ *-y-. } kuri, uri- “dog” Tahiti uli- “dog” Samoa uri- “dog” Samoa korii- “dog” Anutan kurii- “dog” Tikopian kuli- “dog” Tavio, Yeval, Bonkovia, Pt. Vato kuri- “dog” Yatuk, Iarkei, Lenakel, Ikiti *H-l-g- “stick, glue” lag “to adhere, stick to, join” Sanskrit { VISW *Y.-l-G.- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *al-g-, a reduced from o, Proto-IndoEuropean alégo: (-ízo:, -ú:no:) “worry about (something) minding (something)” Greek alga “sea-weed” Latin algos “sorrow, pain” Greek *Y.aláG.- transitive Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *l-g- Proto-IndoEuropean lágati “sticks to” Sanskrit di:-ligo, re-ligens, re-ligio, neglego Latin extended grade læ:ce “leech” Old English le:che Middle English leech English *Y.-l-k- (k < G.) Proto-AfroAsiatic Y.alika “it hung (bi-hi, to it), was (became) suspended (to it), clung, clave, adhered, stuck fast (to it), it pertained (to him), concerned (him), he had a hold (upon it), became attached by love (to), loved (her or him)” Arabic IV “he had (the animal of the chase) caught or stuck fast in his snare, he found (met with) a precious article” Arabic Y.alakuN “anything hung or suspended, attachment, love” Arabic as collective “leeches” Y.alakatuN “leech” Arabic Y.alakt “leech” Ethiopian Y.ela:ketha: “leech” Judeo-Aramaic Y.alakuN coll. “leeches” Arabic Y.ilkuN “a precious thing, thing held in high estimation” Arabic Y.ulkatuN “propensio, amor” Arabic Y.a:likuN “hanging, clinging, etc, pertinacious, adhering to affairs and minding them” Arabic Y.a:likuN “clinging, adhering, holding, sticking fast” Arabic Y.ila:kuN “a thing that is hung or suspended, amulet” Arabic Y.ala:katuN “an attachment, a tie, connection ,love, friendship” Arabic Y.ila:katuN “strap (or the like) from which something is suspended” Arabic Y.alikatuN “love” Arabic Y.alu:kuN “a thing that clings, cleaves, sticks to a man” Arabic > Y.alu:ka “leech” Hebrew Y.eluktha: “leech” Judeo-Aramaic > “calamity, misfortune, death” Y.alukå: “something hard” Syriac Y.ulukuN coll. “deaths, calamities, occupations, businesses” Arabic ta-Y.alluka:tuN “business, office” Arabic Y.ullaikuN dimin. “a certain plant that clings to trees” Arabic } lago- “glue, to stick to” Kwaio, laku- “together, to stick to” Kwaio, also lagu “to gather together” lago- “stick” Lau, lagu-lagu- “to put together, join” Lau, lado- “to join” Lau, lado- “to join, graft” Solomon Is., lado-ha “joining, joint” Solomon Is., leke- “sticky” Hawai'i. *gW-r- “heavy” garu “heavy, great” Sanskrit { IENH 339: *k'w[u|o]ry- “to be heavy, solid, bulky” Proto-Nostratic > *k'w(e|o)r- “to be heavy, weighty” Proto-IndoEuropean *k'w[a|&]r- “to be heavy, weighty” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kor- “to grow thick, solid, fat” Proto-Dravidian gur “hefty” Sumerian gur4, gur13, gur14 “thick; to be or make thick” Sumerian VISW *G.W-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *gW-r- “heavy” Proto-IndoEuropean extended with laryngeal *gW-ra- Proto-IndoEuropean extended with -w- barús “heavy” Greek kaurus “heavy” Gothic gurú- “heavy > important, distingushed” Sanskrit gravis “heavy” Latin *k.r- Semitic (Ciserythr.) with w-preformative (corresponding to the PIE w-suffix?) *w-k.-r- “be heavy” wak.ura intr. “was heavy” Arabic wak.ara tr. “made heavy > (God) made (his ear) heavy or deaf” Arabic wak.k.ara II “he treated (-hu him) with honour, veneration or respect” Arabic 'awk.ara IV “he loaded (a beast) heavily, (the tree) was (became) laden with fruit” Arabic mu:k.aruN “(a man) having a heavy load” Arabic muwak.k.karuN “honored, regarded” Arabic ak.a:ru “be valuable” Assyrian III “appreciate, honor” Assyrian ak.ru “valuable, expensive, precious” Assyrian ya:k.a:r “precious, majestic” Hebrew ya:k.a:r perf. “be valuable, precious” Hebrew wik.ruN “burden, heavy load” Arabic wak.a:ruN “gravity of conduct, dignity” Arabic yuk.rå: “burden, heaviness” Syrian yuk.ra: “heaviness, trouble, high price” Syrian yak.k.i:r “expensive, valuable” Hebrew “heavy, worthy” New Hebrew ya(k.)k.irå: “heavy, illustrious” Syrian yak.k.i:ra: “heavy, expensive, honored, distinguished” Syrian EIEC *gWr[e]H-u- “heavy” bair “heavy” Middle Irish bryw (< *gWer-) “lively, vigorous, strong” Welsh gravis (< *gWrwi- or *grau) “heavy” Latin kaúrjós (k ?< kW) “weighty, oppressive” Gothic gru:ts “heavy” Latvian barús “heavy” Greek gurú “heavy” Sanskrit zor “heaviness, trouble” Albanian *gWr[e|o]H-mr- krämär “weight, heaviness” TokharianB kramartse “heavy” TokharianB krämärtse “heavy” TokharianA CAIEH 9 *gWer-/*gWr- “heavy” Proto-IndoEuropean *beRat “heavy” Proto-Austronesian berat “heavy” Ml. } gal “big, large, great” Sumerian, also gula “great” karu- “great” Austro-Asiatic, kadui- “great” Malay tele- “great” Samoa garig- “big” Lakona koura- “big” Onjob tora- “big” Doromo toere- “heavy” Doromo torona- “big” Lametin tare- “big” Nambel tariu- “big” Narango taura- “big” Filakara, Mate turu- “big” Burumba terop- “heavy” Mpotovoro turob- “heavy” Vovo *H-l-gWH- “light” laghu “light, brief, not heavy” Sanskrit { EIEC *H1le(n)gwh- “light (of weight), light (on one's feet)” laigiu “lighter, poorer” Old Irish llei “less” Welsh *H1legwh-w-i- levis “light” Latin *H1le(n)gwh-t(y)o- létt-r “light” Old Norse le:oht (NE light) “light” Old English li:ht(i) “light” Old High German lungre “rapid” Old English lungar “rapid” Old High German leñgas/lengvùs “light, easy, slight” Lithuanian liêg-s “light” Latvian *H1lngwh-u-ko- ligûkû “light” Old Church Slavonian lehtë “light, soft, slight, nimble” Albanian *Hlngwh-ú- elakhús “small. little” Greek elaphrós “light, fast” Greek *H1lngwh-w-oko- ræwæg “light” Ossetic *H1lngwh-ú- (r|l]aghú “fleet, fast” Sanskrit *H1lngwh-tyo- lankwtse “light” TokharianB cf. lungo “lung” Old Norse lungen “lung” Old English lung English lunga “lung” Old High German lanjk' “breast”(< *lungs) Armenian Lungs are the lightest internal organ and will float on water, cf. *p-l- “float” in Latin pulmo: “lung” TP: The infixed -n- may originate from the present stem of the corresponding verb: EIEC lingid “leaps” Old Irish *lngwh-s-mn le:imm “a leap” Old Irish llam “leap” Welsh r&njaiti “speeds” Avestan lánghati “leaps” Sanskrit rámhate “hastens” Sanskrit } lango- “light, buoyant, floating” Samoa, Tonga, lana- “light, floating” Samoa, Tonga, lana- “light, floating” Hawai'i. lavana “seawater, brine, salt, Lavana Sea” Sanskrit roma “water” Sanskrit, also lota “tear (from eye)” Sanskrit { IENH 580: *l[a|&]w- “to shine” Proto-Nostratic > *l(e|o)w-k[h]- “to shine, to be bright” Proto-IndoEuropean *l[a|&]w- “to shine, to gleam, to glitter” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 581 (possibly derived from 580): *l[a|&]w-aH- “to wash, to clean” Proto-Nostratic > *l[e|o]wHh- “to wash” Proto-IndoEuropean luh “to wash, to clean” Sumerian luh (-luh) “to be washed, cleaned” Sumerian IENH 582: *l[a|&]H- “to make flow, to pour, to moisten, to wet” Proto-Nostratic > *l[e|a]Hh- “to pour out (liquids)” *l[a|&]Hh-w- extended form {TP or metathesis of 581} Proto-IndoEuropean *l[a|&]H- “to make flow, to pour, to moisten, to wet” Proto-AfroAsiatic làh “to wash, to clean” Sumerian làh “laundry, wash” Sumerian SIG, IESSG, VISW *l-H- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *la:- “lick, lap, absorb, wash” Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *la- extended *l-H-k- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *la:kh- Proto-IndoEuropean or extended *l-H-g- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *la:k- Proto-IndoEuropean loc^ã “lick, lap, absorb, wash” Old Church Slavonian loka-ti inf. Old Church Slavonian làk-ti “slurp” Lithuanian làkt “slurp” Latvian extended with -p- *l-H-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *la:ph- Proto-IndoEuropean lap`em “lick, lap, absorb, wash” Armenian *l-H-H.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *la:b- Proto-IndoEuropean laffan “lick, lap” Old High German luof perf. Old High German lapian “lap” Old English labe “drink, absorb” Danish leffil “spoon” Old High German perhaps lápto: German with n-infix *l-Hn-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic or *l-Hn-H.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic lambo: “lick, lap, absorb, wash” Latin *l-H- Semitic redupl. laHlaH “moisten” Jewish Aramaic la:HleHa “be moistened” Ethiopian single redupl. *l-H-H- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic 'a-lHeHa “moisten” Ethiopian laH “moist, fresh” Hebrew extended with -s- laHasa “lick, lap, wash” Ethiopian laHisa “lick, lap, wash” Arabic extended with -m- *l-H-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic læ`Hæm “dish, bread” Hebrew l&He:m “dish, meal” Biblical Aramaic laHmå: “bread, meal” Syrian > laHmuN “meat” Arabic extended with -k- *l-H-k- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic “lick up, eat up” Hebrew pi. “lick up, eat (dust)” Hebrew l&HaX “licked, lapped” Syrian laHika “licked (honey)” Arabic NS 110: *L/a/t'V “wet, soak” Proto-Nostratic *?V-t'V(l)- “drip, soak” North Caucasian NS 111: *L/ä/jV “water, pour” Proto-Nostratic la:j “pour, flow” Sino-Tibetan RVCFRN: loganam “I wash myself” Armenian lavare “to wash, bathe” Latin lautro Gaulish loúo: Greek VMPSIE: lâût “sea” Malay lavan.-ôda “sea” Sanskrit (Amara-Kôs^a) (from lavan.a “salt” + uda “water”) lahut “sea” Javanese lot “sea” Kavi } lau-t- “sea” Malay, Indonesia Philippines lawa- “lake, body of water” Philippines lewang- “sea” Solor lub-lub- “to submerge, immerse” Indonesia lau- “sea” Li'o, Sika laba- “washing of clothes (by immersion)” lab-han- “to wash by immersing in water” Philippines lub-og- “submerged” Philippines lubalob, lubo- “species of fish” Philippines lp- “submerge” Tai “water” Black Tai luup- “submerge, overwhelm” Shan, l lewa- “to float the sky” Hawai'i lau- “seaward, beachward” common Melanesian lau- “windward region” Fiji lo- “sea” Nifilole lojet “sea” Marshall Is. lom “wet” Pango, Eratap i-rom- “wet” Petarmur me-lom- “wet” Weda, Sawai rotu “heavy rain” Tahiti roi-mata “tears” Tahiti, Makatea ri-mata “tears” Fila, Mele rei-mata “tears” Futuna leo-mata “tears” Vowa luluhi “wet” Wusi, Kerepua lolo “to be wet, overflow” Samoa lofia “flooded” Samoa lolo “tide” Fiji linga “phallus, sacred stone image” Sanskrit linga- “phallus” Austric mala “field” Sanskrit, also malaya “garden.” mala- “garden, cultivated land” Hawai'i, mala- “plantation” Samoa, mara- “garden” Maori, moro, muro- “garden” Buru, mara- “garden” Sunda, melak- “to plant” Sunda, muro- “garden” Doromu, Maria, meroi, meru, mer- “garden” Bere. mala “loincloth” Sanskrit malo, maro- “loincloth”, common Polynesian and Melanesian. *r-g- “blood, red” rakta “blood” Sanskrit rokta “blood” Bengali rat “blood” Gypsy rath “blood” Kashmiri rekte “blood” Marathi rekt “blood” Hindi { EIEC *reg- “dye” rhézo: “dye” Greek rhéuma “dyed cloth” Greek rhegeús “dyer” Greek rhe:gos “blanket, rug” Greek raxt “red” Khwarezmian rang “color” New Persian rájyati/rájyate “is colored, reddens, is red” Sanskrit ra:ga- “color, redness” Sanskrit rakta- “colored, red” Sanskrit maha:rajana- “dye-paint, safflower” Sanskrit } rak- “blood” Pinalum, Wala, Rano, Atchin, Laul, Lironesa raku- “blood” Faulili reox- “blood” Toak reok- “blood” Maat reuk- “blood” Vao reng-, ryang, ring “red” Austro-Tai i-rak “red” Proto-Austronesian rokai- “red” Papuan rika “blood” Wadapi-Laut, Ambai rik- “blood” Biak, Ron riat- “blood” Wandamen riket- “blood” Dusner *s-m- “sea, salt” samicha “ocean” Sanskrit { VMPSIE: masíma “salt” Tongan } sami- “sea, saltwater” Samoa simuto- “salt” Celebes sim- “sea” Nate sima- “sea” Matepi simah- “sea” Gal, Mawan simahi- “sea” Saruga, Marupi simo:si- “sea” Kare VMPSIE: salila “water” Sanskrit hals, sálos “salt” Greek sal, salum “salt” Latin hani “water” Maori sarem “salt” Basa Krama sira “salt” Madagascar mâ-sin “salty” Malay (h)asin “salty” Javanese asin “salt” Tagalog mase-mase “salty” Madagascar mahine “salty” Madagascar (Chapelier) macin “aigre” Madagascar (Challin) *s-g- “hang on to, limb” sanga “having limbs, body” Sanskrit, also sakha “branch” Sanskrit { SIG, IESSG *s-G.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-g- “join” Proto-IndoEuropean segù, sèkti inf. “stick, hang on to” Lithuanian su-sèkti “stick together” Lithuanian pri-sèkti “stick on to” Lithuanian sája-ti “stick, hang on to” Sanskrit sak-tá, sakti “sticking, hanging” Sanskrit redupl. *se-sge-tai > sájja-te: “stick, hang on to” Sanskrit with n-infix o-se~gu “touch” n. Old Church Slavonian o-se~gati “touch” v. Old Church Slavonian o-segnati “stroke” v. Old Church Slavonian *s-G.- Proto-Semitic *s-k.- (G. > k.) Semitic with n-preformative n-s-k.- Semitic nasak.a “joined” Arabic n-s^-k.- “touch” New Hebrew n-s^-k.- “touch” Jewish Aramaic na:s^ak. “kiss” Hebrew n&s^ak. “kiss” Syrian nas^aku “kiss” Assyrian IEW *seg-, nasalized *seng- “stick, hang on to, touch” sájati “hang on to” Sanskrit se:n (< *segno-) “net” Middle Irish sègti “hang on to” Lithuanian sagati “marry” Old Church Slavonic } sanga- “branch, limb” Philippines sangal- “breaking of a branch” Philippines sangay- “division or branch” Philippines sungo-t “feelers, antennae” Tagalog saggod- “horns” Bontok sungey- “horns” Manobo sangil- “to strike with horns” Ilocano *sor- “woman” stri “woman” Sanskrit { IELS *sor “woman” Proto-IndoEuropean } sira- “woman” Laul, Lamenu, Nikaura Mate, Nul, Filakara, Yevali le-sera- “woman” Nuvi xarae- “woman” Tangoa sarip- “woman, wife” Wambon selo- “woman” Savara srey- “woman” K'mer sinu “thick, viscous, adhesive” Sanskrit hinu- “ointment” Hawai'i, Marquesas hinu- “oil, grease” Tahiti, Maori sinu-sinu- “coconut oil” Fiji sukha “happy” Sanskrit, also sata “joy, happiness” suka- “happy” Malay sagga- “happiness, pleasantness” Sumerian sayasak- “merry, cheerful” Ilocano saya- “happiness” Tagalo, sadya- “happy” Proto-Philippine senang- “comfortable, agreeable” Malay, Indonesia senang-hati “happy” Malay hoihoi, hau'oli- “happy” Hawai'i sara- “happy” Lau hari- “happy” Maori *s-w- “one's own, relative, friend” sawa-ni “wife” Lahuda, Multani, T'ali, D'anni syanini “wife” W. Pahari swasni “wife” E. Pahari swain “wife” Gar'wali sakha “friend” Sanskrit, also siva “friendly, auspicious, happy” Sanskrit { IENH 169: *sY[a|&]w- “to give birth, be born” Proto-Nostratic > *s[e|o]w(H)- “to give birth” Proto-IndoEuropean *s^w- “to give birth, be born” Proto-Kartvelian *ce:(y)- “son, child, lad, youth” Proto-Dravidian SIG, IESSG, VISW: Two roots: 1 *s-p- “abstain” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *s-w- “abstain” Proto-IndoEuropean + t- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *sápat- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + d- Proto-IndoEuopean *s-wd- intr. Proto-IndoEuropean eúdo: Greek = *s-b- “abstain” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + f- > Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + p- Proto-IndoEuopean *sw-p- Proto-IndoEuropean swefan “sleep” Old English sofa id. Old Norse svápnas “sleep” n. Sanskrit svefn id. Old Norse swefn id. Old English somnus id. Latin húpnos id. Greek svefja “becalm, quiet, pacify” Old Norse o-grade so:pi:re “put to sleep” Latin sæ:fa “kill” Old Norse + laryngeal *sw-pâ- Proto-IndoEuropean svápiti “falls asleep” Sanskrit = + X- Semitic sabaXa “he was free from work, he slept deeply” Arabic sabXuN “the being unoccupied, free from work, the being in a state of rest, or in a state of sleep” Arabic tasbi:XuN id. and “the sleeping every hour, he sleeping soundly” Arabic + laryngeal(H.- ?) Proto-IndoEuropean *sapáH.- (: Semitic *s-b-H.- ?) > *swa:- Proto-IndoEuropean + kW- or ghW- Proto-IndoEuropean geswo:gen ptc “swooned” Old English swo:ghenen, swo:unen “to swoon” Middle English geswo:gung, -swo:wung “swooning” Old English swo:uning id. Middle English + y- Proto-IndoEuropean *s-wy- intr. Proto-IndoEuropean perhaps savjá- “link” Sanskrit havja- id. Avestan *sw-y- tr. Proto-IndoEuropean + m-suffix svi:mi “dizziness, unconsciousness, swoon” Old Norse swi:ma id. Old English swi:me id. Middle Low German zwijm id. Dutch swi:men “become unconscious” Middle Low German zwi:men > zwijmen id. Dutch swi:mel “dizziness, vertigo” Middle High German swi:mel id. Middle Low German zwijmel id. Dutch beswi:melunge “extasis” Middle High German swimra “feel dizzy” Old Norse swi:men, sweimen “soar” Middle High German sweim “soaring” n. Middle high German + n-suffix swi:nan “dwindle, waste away, lessen, be reduced, abate” Old high German swi:nen id. Middle High German swi:nen “faint” Middle high German derived or /m/ > /n/ before dental? swintilo:n “feel vertigo” Old High German swindeln id. Middle High German svina “abstain; abate” Old Norse and several derivatives of *sw-y- “abstain” + k- or gh- Proto-IndoEuropean swi:ge:n “be silent” Old High German sweigen “becalm, quiet, pacify” Old High German sweigen id. Middle High German + bh- Proto-IndoEuropean sveiban “abstain, cease” Gothic swifast w. gen. “abstain, shrink from” Old Norse swifte “calm, quieted” Middle High German giswifto:n “becalm, quiet” Old High German swiften id. Middle High German swebe:n “swim, soar = be carried (by the water or air) without own effort” Old High German sweben id. Middle High German sweibo:n “soar” Old High German sweiben id. Middle High German + g- svai~kti “become dizzy” Lithuanian svaigìmas “dizziness” Lithuanian svai~ginti “make dizzy” Lithuanian swi:can “abstain, cease” Old English swi:can “become weary, negligent” > “become untrue, a traitor” Old Saxon swi:hhan id. Old High German + Y.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *sapáY.- Pre-IndoEuropean.AfroAsiatic *swo:- Proto-IndoEuropean so:a “kill” Old Norse so:inn ptc Old Norse + n- *swo:na:- “abstain from hostlity, praise peace” Proto-IndoEuropean swo:ne, so:ne “atonement” Middle Low German zwoens “atonement, peace” Middle Dutch suona id. Old High German giso:nian “atone, reconcile, recompense” Old Saxon suonen id. Old High German with r-suffix svaran, svo:r “swear” Gothic sverja, s(v)o:r id. Old Norse swerren, swuor id. Old High German : *s-P.-Y.- > Proto-Semitic s^-b-3- Hebrew ni-s^ba3 niph “swear (someone peace)” Hebrew hiph “let swear, swear to someone” Hebrew ithpe “swear” Jewish Aramaic aph “swear to someone” Jewish Aramaic a^eBu3a: “oath (of allegiance)” Hebrew s^EBu3Ta: id. Jewish Aramaic : *s-P.- Proto-Semitic s-b- Semitic + t- > Semitic s-b-t- Semitic s-p-t- in s^apattum = u:m nu:X libbi “Tag der Beruhigung des Herzens” Assyrian with /p/ = Proto-IndoEuropean /w/ : Semitic /b/, or /p/ written for /b/ s^a:BaT “stop (working), rest” Hebrew sabtuN “stillness, rest” Arabic s^æ`BæT “stopping, abstaining” Hebrew s^abba:T “day of rest, sabbath” Hebrew sabata “he was (became) quiet, still, ceased from works, rested, took rest” Arabic suba:tuN “heavy sleep like a swoon, lethargic slumber” Arabic musbiyuN “motionless, lethargic” Arabic subita pass. “he was (became) affected with suba:t, he swooned, he became prostrated like him who is sleeping > he died” Arabic masbu:tuN “in a swoon > dead” Arabic 'asbata IV “he was (became) motionless” Arabic caus. “(a medicine) produced suba:t, it torpefied or benumbed” Arabic If E. Mahler in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 62, p. 33- is right in the assumption that Semitic s-b-t- originally meant intr. “be finished”, tr. “finish, complete”, then s-p-t- : s-P.-t- (> Semitic s-b-t) acquired the sense “abstain, rest” already in Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic. + H.- Semitic sabaH.a “he swam (also “the stars”), was empty, he was at rest, he slept” Arabic ta-sbaH.u “glide along = pass along (in the firmament)” Arabic sabH.uN “the being still, quiet, motionless, the state of sleeping” Arabic + h- (partly = *sw-y- Proto-IndoEuropean) sabahuN “senile dementia, dotage” Arabic suba:huN “apoplectic fit” Arabic subiha “was demented because of senility” Arabic + H.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *s-p-H.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *s-wa:- “beget” Proto-IndoEuropean savi-tá: “male originator” Sanskrit savi-trí: “female originator” Sanskrit reduced *suH- > *su:- su:- “originator, creator” Sanskrit su:s “pig” Latin hus “pig” Greek sy:r “sow” Old Norse su: “sow” Old English su: “sow” Old Low German su: “sow” Old High German hu: “pig” Avestan su-kará- “boar, swine” Sanskrit su:nú- “son” Sanskrit su:nùs “son” Lithuanian synU “son” Old Church Slavonian sú:-te: “begets” Sanskrit with n-infix *sunéH > *suná: Proto-IndoEuropean huna:-mi “beget” Avestan whence, perhaps, analogically with short -u- hunu- “son” Avestan *sunu- “son” Germanic Alternating forms *s-p- “pour, shed” Semitic extended with -k- safaka “poured out, shed” Arabic s^aPaX- “poured out, shed” Hebrew s^apa:ku “pour out” Assyrian is^pak pret. Assyrian extended with -z^- s^-p-y- “abound” West Semitic s^a:Paz^ “flowed abundantly” Modern Hebrew s^&Paz^ “flowed abundantly” Syrian s^&Paz^ “flowed abundantly” Jewish Aramaic s^&Pz^å “effusion” Syrian : s-b-z^- “abound” Arabic extended with -H- s-p-H- “pour, shed semen” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic safaHa “he poured out or forth (water), shed (blood, tears)” Arabic sa:faHa-ha: III “he shed semen with her” Arabic sifa:HuN “the commiting fornication with another” Arabic mu-sa:fiHuN “a fornicator” Arabic s^iPHa: “slave woman (especially of the wife whom she can give to her husband as a concunine” Hebrew mi-s^pa:Ha: “tribe, clan, nation, people” Hebrew : *s-P.- > *s-b- Semitic extended with -l- sabaluN “rain, shower” Arabic 2 *s-X^-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic with w-preformative and metathesis *sw-k^-r- Proto-IndoEuropean socer “father-in-law” Latin hekurós Greek s^vas^ura Sanskrit swehur Old High German swaihra Gothic hekurá: f. Greek s^vas^rú: f. Sanskrit socrus f. Latin swigar Old High German swaihro: Gothic *s.-h-r- Semitic s.ihruN “father or brother or other kinsman of a man's wife, relationship consisting in being a father or brother or other kinsman of a man's wife” Arabic s.ihratuN “mother-in-law” Arabic Germanic e: > West, North Germanic a: = Arabic a: swa:ger “brother-in-law” Middle High German swa:ger “brother-in-law” Low German sværa “mother-in-law” Old Norse s.a:hara III “he became that kind of relation called s.ihr” Arabic *z-w- Pre-IndoEuropean *s-w- “move” Proto-IndoEuropean *z-w-y- Pre-IndoEuropean *s-w-y- Proto-IndoEuropean *séwy- > sávi (high tone) Sanskrit savi-tár- “impeller, driver” Sanskrit sávi-man- “impulse, drive” Sanskrit *suy- > su:- (toneless) Sanskrit su:tá “moved, impelled, driven” Sanskrit z-w-y- “impel, drive” Semitic za:ya (perf.) “impel, drive” (camel) Arabic zåy (perf.) “moved, was moved” > “trembled all over” Syrian (aph.) “moved, confused, frightened” Syrian whence zawyå: “motion, confusion” especially “eartquake” Syrian za:y (inf. zu:ay) “yield, be agitated, tremble” Jewish Aramaic (pa.) “make tremble, frighten” Jewish Aramaic z-w-y- “tremble” > “show fear” Hebrew za:y “trembled” Hebrew zEwa:ya: “worry, fear” Hebrew “earthquake, storm” Modern Hebrew zo:ya:, zo:yATa: f. “earthquake, storm” Jewish Aramaic KMNL 18: Kartvelian *siz^e- “son-in-law” si'e- id. Georgian si/n/z^a-, sinda- id. Mingrelian siz^a- id., “bridegroom” Las c^iz^e- “son-in-law” Svan AfroAsiatic East Cushitic *s/s^Vz- “in-law” sóddog “father-in-law” Somali sóddóh “mother-in-law” Somali seyyóh., soyyóh. “mother-in-law” Rendille seyyóh. “father-in-law” Rendille sìddâh “mother-in-law, father-in-law” pBoni [sic] sodd-a “...in-law” Oromo soqo “son-in-law” Gollango soddá; sóh “in-law” Arbore suoz “in-law” Dasenech West Chadic *c^a/sy/a “in-law” NBauc^i The old metathesis from *syac^a-? Egyptian sd_.tj “child, ward” Uralic *c´ec^ä “uncle” IEW *se-, *s(e)we- originally “aside, separate” Proto-IndoEuropean then reflexive pronoun “oneself” Proto-IndoEuropean possessive adjective *s(e)wo- “one's own” Proto-IndoEuropean *sewe-, *swe- Suio:nes “Swedes” Latin swe:s “own; property” Gothic sva:ss “dear, loved” Old Icelandic swa:selinc “father-in-law, son-in-law, brother-in-law” Middle Dutch *s(w)e-bh(o)-, *swo-bho- “of a separate kind” sa-bhá “community, community house” Sanskrit sibja “family, all of one's own people” Gothic sjafni “love” Old Icelandic Semnones (< *Sebnan-ez) Sabi:ni: Sabelli (< *safnolo-) Samni:tes Sue:bi names of peoples Latin svoboda freedom (the state of the family) Old Church Slavonian *suedh- svadhá- “particularity, habit, mores, homestead” Sanskrit ethos Greek *sekw- “follow” *sokwios “companion” dubious because of -kh- : sákha “companion, friend” Sanskrit socius “companion” Latin *swe-k- <-> *sekw- ? (cf. the IE forms for six) UEL 12: *suH-e/o- “set in motion, propel” Proto-IndoEuropean suváti “sets in motion, propels, agitates, animates”; “grants” (mostly of the god Savitar, Rig Veda Sanskrit hunaiti “propels smt. to sby., tries to get smt. for sby.” Avestan apa-h_vanvainti “they divert” Avestan *suH-to- > Proto-IndoEuropean su:ta Sanskrit pra-su:ta “set in motion, propelled, sent” Sanskrit nr.-su:ta “driven by men” Sanskrit mainyu-s^u:ta- “driven by spirit” Avestan with active sense su:tá-h. “charioteer, stable master” (“driver”) Sanskrit s^uwa:i “push, shove” Hittite *sewH-/*suH- Proto-IndoEuropean Savitár a god Sanskrit eáo: “let, permit” (< “let go”) Greek loaned into *suxi_ Proto-Uralic > *su:Ge > *su:ke sukkâ- “row” Sami s^ua-, s^ue- “row, paddle” Cheremis si_n “row” Syryan tow- “row” Vogul t&w “row” Ostyak *tu- “row” Samoyed su:G-ta- > Baltic Finnic souta (inf. soutaa) “row, move back and forth” Finnish sõuda- “row, soar, move, be agitated” Estonian sõudik “rower, helmsman” sõudma (sõuan, sõuda) “row” South East Estonian suw'de “transport by rowing” Sami > *so: > suo- (inf. suoda) “grant sby. smt.” (especially of God and other higher powers) Finnish soovima “grant, wish for sby. else” Estonian sõudma (sõuan, sõuda) “grant, wish for sby. else” South East Estonian UEL 16: *sewH-/*suH- Proto-IndoEuropean sú:-te (med.) “gives birth to, begets, produces” Sanskrit (pra-)su:yate (pass.) “be born, come into being” Sanskrit sú:- “producer, begetter; birth” Sanskrit su:tí “birth, coming into being” Sanskrit huna:mi “give birth” Avestan haota- “gender” Avestan *suH-nu- > su:nú- “son” Sanskrit su:nùs “son” Lithuanian synU “son” Old Church Slavonic loaned into *suke-/*suki- Early Proto-Finno-Ugric suke-utu- (sukeutua < suke-) “become, come into being” Finnish (-utu- reflexive-medial) suke-a-, suke-ne- (inf. sueta < suke-) (dial., old) id. and “create, get” Finnish suke- (inf. sukea) “create, get” Finnish suge- (inf. sugeda, 1st sg. pres. soen, sugen) “happen, become, grow, procreate” Estonian su'gg&^ “become, come into being, appear, happen” Livonian *suke- Baltic Finnic suku “gender; descendance, birth; (older) brood” Finnish sugu “manner, gender; fruit, child, increase” Estonian sokkâ “gender” Sami DSDE *swe-m- “move” Proto-IndoEuropean [cf. Estonian sõudma and soovima] *swem- Præ-Germanic *swim(m)- > Proto-Germanic suemme irr. “swim” Old Danish sømme reg. “swim” Old Danish etc *swum- [TP: should be *sum-] > Proto-Germanic symja “swim” Norwegian dial. *swem-d-ne- > to-senn- “persecute” Old Irish *sum-Da Pre-Germanic *sun-da Popto-Germanic sund “sound, strait” Danish, Old Danish, Swedish, Old Norse sunt “lake, sea” Middle Low German sund “lake, sea” Old English Probably identical with sund “swimming” Norwegian, Old Norse, Old English thus something which can be swum over IELS *su- “give birth” Proto-IndoEuropean *su:nu- “son” Proto-IndoEuropean sunu- “son” Sanskrit hunu- “son” Avestan sunus “son” Lithuanian synU “son” Slavic huiús “son” Greek soyä “son” TokharianA sä “son” TokharianB *swesor “sister” Proto-IndoEuropean svasar “sister” Sanskrit xvanhar “sister” Avestan kcoyr “sister” Armenian soror “sister” Latin swistar “sister” Gothic sestra “sister” Old Slavic s^ar “sister” Tokharian eor “daughter, cousin, relative” Greek where *-sor “woman” Proto-IndoEuropean *swekuros “father of husband” Proto-IndoEuropean s´vás´ura “father of husband” Sanskrit xvásura “father of husband” Avestan skesr-ayr “father of husband” Armenian socer “father of husband” Latin hekurós “father of husband” Greek swáihra “father of husband” Gothic svekrU “father of husband” Old Slavic and, slightly altered sesuras “father of husband” Lithuanian chwegrwn “father of husband” Welsh *swekru:s “mother of husband” Proto-IndoEuropean s'vas´ru: “mother of husband” Sanskrit skesur “mother of husband” Armenian socrus “mother of husband” Latin hekurá “mother of husband” Greek svaihro “mother of husband” Gothic svekry “mother of husband” Old Slavic *swos (< *swe-) reflexive possessive pronoun, “personal belonging” Proto-IndoEuropean svoj id. Russian swes id. Gothic sva id. Sanskrit ... Slavic, Baltic and in particular Germanic ... in this group the terms derived from *swe refer to kinship by alliance and not to consanguineous kinship. svat “suitor; related by marriage (eg. as between husband's father and wife's father” Russian svojak (< svoj) “brother-in-law” Russian svest' (f.) “wife's sister” Russian sváinis “wife's brother; sister's husband” Lithuanian svainé “wife's sister; brother's wife” Lithuanian swîo, geswîo “brother-in-law, sister's husband” Old High German If we have in these derivatives survivals of an ancient lexical state of affairs, we can see how interesting they are for the interpretation of those fundamental words common to all Indo-European languages, which seem to be composed with *swe, that is 'sister' (*swesor-) and 'parents-in-law' (*swekru:-, etc). It would mean that these terms connect those so designated with the other exogamic 'moiety'. In fact, the sister belongs there potentially, and the mother-in-law does so in fact. Theoreticians, who might be prompted by the present study to reconsider the analysis of kinship in Indo-European societies, will be better able to assess the significance which is to be attached to this observation. *swed- Proto-IndoEuropean ídios “private, which belongs to somebody” Greek whediestas (pl.) id. Dorian soda:lis “companion, colleague” Latin *swet- Proto-IndoEuropean éte:s “kinsman” Greek hetaîros “companion” (in some activity, eg. battle) Greek *swedh- Proto-IndoEuropean eío:tha “be accustomed to” Greek éthos “habit” Greek su:-s “pig” Latin su: facere “to sacrifice by means of an animal” (old abl.) Latin hû:-s “pig” Greek su:kara “pig” Sanskrit hu:- “pig” Avestan xu:k (< *hu:kka) “pig” Iranian Thus Indo-Iranian had a form with a suffix -k which, over the domain of Indic and Avestan, referred only to the wild species. The reason is that neither in India nor in Persia were pigs bred in ancient times. There is no mention of pig breeding in our texts. The situation which has been reconstituted by this connexion reproduces the proper sense of Indo-European *swe, which implies both distinctiveness from all else, the isolation of the 'self', the effort to separate oneself from everything which is not *swe, and also, within the exclusive circle thus marked off, the close relationship with those who form part of it. From this comes this double heritage, both 'idió:tes' the isolated member of society, and also the 'soda:lis', the member of a closed fraternity. This duality survived, as is revealed by the etymology, in the two forms 'se' in Latin, which have become independent; the reflexive 'se', indicating 'self', and the separative 'se-', 'sed' "but", marking distinction and opposition. Nostratica-L 32: sval “to live” Etruscan sawl “health, prosperity” Hurrian NEOVF 2: *s^ew'V “to want, agree, allow” Nostratic *seuH-/*suH- “to let, encourage” IndoEuropean suváti, sávati “urges, encourages” Sanskrit eáo: “I permit, leave” Greek *suH-mo- (noun) > vir-su:men “to miss[, neglect]” Old High German versäumen id. High German *s^w' “to ask” AfroAsiatic *s^w' Semitic s^w' “to ask for help” Old Hebrew *s^Vw- Cushitic s^i:w- “to ask, demand” Bilin s^iw- id. Kemant säw- id. Kwara s^äw- id. Dembea c,aw- id. Khamir *s^w- “to let, leave” Kartvelian s^v- id. Georgian s^k(w)- id. Chan, Megrel s^gvan “to let go, dispatch” Svan *seb or *s´eb “to like” (< “to want”) Turkic säb- “to like” Old Turkic säv- “to like” Old Uighur *s´öbV- “to ask” Tungusian s^uburme “I ask” Manchu *s^ewV- “to allow, agree” Uralic hevillä, hevin “easily, with pleasure” Finnish dial. *ci:v- “to agree, to give (to the socially disadvantaged)” Dravidian i:(v-) id. Tamil i:vu “pressure, present, distrubution” Tamil i: “to allow” Kannada iccu, ivv- “to permit, allow” Telugu si:- “to give” Kolami si:ana “to give, allow” Gondi si:va-, ji:va- “to give, permit” Kui According to origin, grammatical affixes that can be traced back to the root *s^ew'V have two meanings: desiderative and causative. Both meanings can be considered to be a derivative of the meaning for the analytical construction 'X + *s^ew'V' "to want X, agree to X" *-s- : IndoEuropean desiderative s´us´rus.ate “wants to hear” Sanskrit *weid-s-o: > vi:sso: > vi:so: “I want to see” Archaic Latin > future deíkso: “I shall show” Greek leipso: “I shall release” Greek dixo “I shall tell” Old Latin faxo “I shall do” Old Latin capso “I shall take” Old Latin fust “will be” (3rd sg.) Oscan duos “he will give” Lithuanian *-syo- IndoEuropean desiderative > future bu:-s.ia-nt “he who will be” Sanskrit bys^a,s^c^e-ye “future, coming” Old Church Slavonic bú:siu “I shall be” Lithuanian *-su/*-sü, *-su:/*-sü: voluntative (the speaker's desire to perform an action) Mongolian *ora-su “let me enter!” Mongolian *ögsü “let me give!” Mongolian -su, sü kele-sü “I will say” Middle Mongolian -su:n (with secondary -n) Moghul -su-gay, -sü-gey Written Mongolian *-sun/*-sün 3rd pers. optative Turkic -zun, -zün Old Turkic -sun, -sün Old Uighur -sun Modern Uighur -sun, -sün, -sïn, -sin Azerbeidjani *su irregular 3rd and 2nd sg. imperative in some archaic verbs Tungus bi-su “let it be, be!” Manchu bi-su “be!” Nanaj o-su “let it be, be!, come to be!” Manchu o-su “come to be!, become!” Nanaj gay-su “take!” Manchu ga-su “buy!” Nanaj bay-su “ask!” Manchu di-su “come!” Nanaj -sâi > se me_k-se “I want you to eat, I want to eat, he may eat” Korean *-s^V- causative prefix and suffix AfroAsiatic *s_V- Semitic s^V Akkadian s^ Ugaritic s Minaean sV-, -hV- Aramaic hV- Old Hebrew 'V- Arabic s.- Egyptian *sV-, *-sV Cushitic a-so:-dir “I make someone kill someone” Beja te-so:dir-a “you make someone kill someone”Beja a-s-gidifé “I make someone kill someone” Saho possibly causative Yukaghir -su, -se Tundra -s^ Kolyma -s- causative Japanese TP Si- 'instrumental mood' prefix Austronesian NS 169: *sVx.V/*?sx.V “blood” Proto-Nostratic *sagV “blood; health” Proto-Altaic *sVHwV “soul, breath” Sino-Caucasian *sua: “breathe, live” Sino-Tibetan *du?(x.) “smoke” Proto-Yeniseian *si_?_wV “soul, breath” North Caucasian NS 171: *s^/E/wV “bear, produce” Proto-Nostratic *s^(V)wV “bear; son, offspring” Sino-Caucasian *su: “grandchild, descendant” Sino-Tibetan *ïs^wV “bear; son, daughter” North Caucasian KI sua, bersua dengan, tersua “meet with; find, come across”, “turn out, work out” Indonesian mempersuakan “bring into contact with, introduce to” Indonesian suai (sesuai), bersuai “fit, fitting, suitable, appropriate, corresponding” Indonesian suami “husband” Indonesian CELR III 27: *wun- “son” West Chadic *xwan- “sister” Central Chadic h.wn “son” Egyptian IEIE *s^w- “boar, pig” Kartvelian e-s^v-i “tusk” Georgian o-sk-u “pigsty” Mingrelian *su(:)- “pig” Proto-IndoEuropean xWy- “pig” Ossetic xWydon “pigsty” Ossetic xWygæs “swineherd” Ossetic *zisxl.- “blood” Kartvelian sisxl- id. Georgian zisxir- id. Mingrelian dicxir- id. Laz zisx id. Svan *esH-r.- id. Proto-IndoEuropean Reduplication with voicing of *s-, typical of Kartvelian *s^w- “give birth, be born” Kartvelian s^w- id. Georgian s^v-il-i “son” Georgian *p'ir-m-s^we- > p'ir-ms^o- “first-born” Old Georgian cf pu:rva-sú:- id. Sanskrit skw- “lay egg” (of bird) Mingrelian skua “son” Mingrelian sg- “give birth, be born” Svan &msge “son” Svan *seu- “give birth, be born” Proto-IndoEuropean sú:h. m., f. “parent”, “sire, stud”, “dam” Sanskrit + t- suth “birth; fruit, fetus” Old Irish sú:tu- “pregnancy” Sanskrit + y- huiús, gen. huiéos “son” Greek soy “son” Toch. B } sawa “wife” SE Papuan, Proto-Austronesian sawe “wife” Ngaju-Dayak a-sawa “wife” Philippines sa “wife” Sui suong “wife” Axamb saoi “wife” Letemboi a-soan “wife” Maskelynes asu-k “wife” Lironesa aso-ku “wife” Faulili, Maat hoang “wife” Vowa asa-k “wife” Nume sawani “husband” Wandammen swa- “husband” Biak-Numfor sau-ki “woman” Kosirava Maisin, Uyaku Maisin PMA: soa- “friend, friendly” common Polynesia, hiwa?- “beloved, esteemed, choice black color, pet black pig” Hawai'i hoa- “friend” Hawai'i sahabat, sobat- “friend” Malay, Indonesia, saing- “friend” Malay sinta- “loved one” Tagalog sakay, sangkay- “friend” Proto-Philippine (Zorc & Charles) hata, hagu, hai- “friend” Arosi si'ohana, hoe-na- “friend” Are'are sa- “friend” Fiji sata- “friend” Lau { TP: A pig in this context is interesting, cf IE *su-, *su-in-. } purus^a “man (vir), soul, spirit” Sanskrit This word is rather mysterious and it may be that it lost its original root sense. { TP: persu “god of the underworld” Etruscan persona “mask used in plays” Latin < Etruscan VMPSIE: poso “heart” Tagalog foo, foh, fô “heart” Madagascar máfu “heart” Tongan } A similar word is found in Ilocano: parsua “man, humans (as created)” Ilocano from root sua “to create” There is also Mamar-sua “Creator” Ilocano Related terms in Austronesian probably derived from the same “sua” root are sua-hasoli “man” Iarkei suah “person” Iarkei hua “progeny, product, to bear fruit” Maori hua “to give birth, product, produce” Hawai'i fua “to give birth, product” Samoa sua-haha-ku “child” SE Papuan sisuh “child” Sanskrit sisu, susu “child” Prakit sisua Mate susua Api cingmai Lehalurup suahaha-ku SE Papuan susngei Lehali susu-pwau Arosi susu “youngest child” Saa, Ulawa, Are'are ha'a-susu “to bear child” Arosi susu-buri “youngest child” Lau sua-hasoli “man” Iarkei suah “person” Iarkei AG: SIBLING. *(n)tsi PAustric *ci(q), *ñ'ci 'sibling' PAA *Suaji 'younger sibling' AN (ACD) MK: (1) *ci(q): kynsi 'spouse's sibling' Khasi kam.ci /k?mci?/ 'sister' Mon (Old) kum.ci /k?mci?/ id. Mon (Old) ici /i?ci/ 'parent's younger sister' Mon (Spoken) ache 'great-grand child' Pacoh *kmcii? 'younger sibling, sister' Proto-Mon (2) *ci > *ñci > *ji(q): ji-duat /ci:tù?t/ 'great-grand-parent' Khmer ji /ci:/ 'polite title used by old people to a young man, especially if he has been a novice' Khmer ji-tun 'grandmother' Khmer ji-ta /cI:ta/ 'grandfather' Khmer je? 'neveu [nephew]' Khmu' si/soe/ 'parent's younger sister' Mon (Spoken) si gni /s?ni/ 'spouse's younger sibling' Mon (Spoken) di ro.ch 'mother's younger sister' Muong (Khen) di 'mother's younger sister' Vietnamese chi. 'elder sister' Vietnamese Munda: (1) *ci > *ñci > *ji: aji?, 'elder sister' Juang (P38) ?ji 'elder sister' Santali (P38) aji 'elder brother's wife' Kharia (P38) aji 'sister-in-law' Kurku (P38) aji 'grand mother' Mundari (P38) (2) *ñ’ci: a:yin 'younger sister' Sora (P38) a:yi? 'younger sister' Sora (P38) Comment: Cf AT *(s[o]w)a(ñ)ji 'sibling (younger)' Previously compared with AN (Ben75) *sua(ñ)ji 'younger sibling' Also note WMP (ACD) *enzi, *enzi-q 'term of address to girls', where *z appears to reflect *nts > *ñc > *z in parallel development to AA *ts > *ñc > *j The *Su element of PAN *Suaji may correspond to the unpublished PAA *caw 'grandchild', suggesting that the antecedent of *Suaji was *saw/a/n/tsi, the slashes denoting morpheme boundaries Last updated: 10/2/01 Published: A1:159,162 as *(i,a)(n)ci(q) TP: Both Møller and Manansala sees this as two roots. Møller has *s-p-H- and *s-X-r-. But in the latter he lets IndoEuropean introduce a -w- ("w-preformative and metathesis"), after which it might as well have been derived from his *s-p-H- (or rather, both might be derived from a *s-p- with extensions). The semantics of Manansala's roots follow those of Møller, ie. he has a “wife” and an “in-law, associate”, *s-w- and *s-k-, respectively, I reconstruct, but then I know nothing of phoneme developments in Austronesian. What intrigued me, was the occurence of a “pet black pig” in the among the descendants of the *s-k- root. In IndoEuropean, the root for “sow, pig” *su:-, *su-in- belongs with the *s-w- root. The three first of Manansala's examples seemed out of place (soa- “friend”, hiwa?- “beloved, pet black pig”, hoa- “friend”) in having no discernible velar, so I might have decided to allocate them to *s-w-, but given my ignorance of Austronesian historical sound laws I can't rule out that they once had a -k- and thus belong with *s-k-. To solve this problem I have gone along with Pokorny (IEW)'s proposal, that there is a metathesis(?) *s-kW- <-> s-w-k-. This obviates the need for Møller's "w-preformative and metathesis". *H-s “fire” asira “fire, heat” Sanskrit, and astha “burnt” (s > h) { IENH 381: *H[a|ë]s- “to burn, to be hot” Proto-Nostratic > *Hh[a|ë]s- “to burn, to be hot” Proto-IndoEuropean hshs “to burn, to be hot; (n.) fire, flame” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic *äse- “to heat, to ignite” Proto-FinnoUgric EIEC *H2eH- (pres. *H2éHor) “burn, be hot” ha:- “be hot” Palaic derived verbal abstracts *H2eH-ti- a:ith “kiln” Old Irish *H2éHo:s ha:s (acc. ha:ssan) “soda ash, potash; soap; (pl.) ashes” Hittite *H2eH-seH3 “hearth” a:ra “sacrificial fireplace, fire-altar” Latin ha:ssa “fireplace, hearth, fire-altar” Hittite *H2eH-ter- “fire” (< “burner”) a:tar “fire” Avestan *H2eH-mer- “(heat of the) day” e:mar “day” Greek *H2eH-s-ter “star” with a present-forming suffix *-dh- ardeo: “burn” Latin *H2eH-s-dh-ró- a:stär “pure” TokharianA astare “pure” TokharianB Associated with “fire-altar”, “[sacred] fire”, “pure”. HSED 82: *?es- “fire” *?is^- “fire” Semitic ?is^at- “fire” Akkadian ?is^t “fire” Ugaritic ?es^ “fire” Hebrew ?s^ “fire” Phoenician ?s^h “fire” Aramaic (Emp) ?es^s^a: “fire” Aramaic (Bibl) ?is^s^a:ta: “fire” Aramaic (Palest) `s?t? “fire” Aramaic (Mand) ?&sat “fire” Ge`ez ?&sat “fire” Tigre &sat “fire” Amharic *HVs- “big fire” Berber a-h&s “big fire” Ahaggar *?yas- “fire” West Chadic wus “fire” Angas wuss “fire” Ankwe wus “fire” Gerka osi “fire” Bolewa yasi “fire” Karekare yasi “fire” Ngamo wos^i “fire” Maha ihi “fire” Bele wu:s^i: “fire” Kirfi wusi “fire” Gera wus^i “fire” Galambu us^i “fire” Geruma is^i “fire” Geji was^e “fire” Kulere Forms in *w- are not clear. Contamination with *wus^- “roast”? *?is- “fire” East Chadic ?issi “fire” Birgit Probably, from an earlier *?yasi-. Cf. *?as^- “fire” Rift as^a “fire” Iraqw as^a “fire” Gorowa as^a “fire” Alagwa as^a “fire” Burunge Lateral -s^- An alternative reconstruction of the AfroAsiatic word for “fire” may be based on the fact that wi- pattern is forbidden in Semitic. If initial AfroAsiatic *wi- (or *we-) yielded to Semitic *?i-, it could also explain dubious West Chadic forms in *w-. NS 38: *?aSa “fire, be hot” Proto-Nostratic *-cV “burn, heat” Sino-Caucasian *ca/*cha “hot, heat” Sino-Tibetan *£e:-cV “hot, heat, roast” North Caucasian } PMS izi “fire” Sumerian PMA asie- “fire” Arosi usu- “fire” Asenara, Moni asuwain- “fire” Ulau-Suain isa- “fire” Maranomu, Maria Maiagolo, izi- “fire” Binandere asu- “smoke” Samoa aso- “smoke” Tagalog usa- “fire” Warkay *H-p-u- “fire” { DCM a:po “fire” Nahali phu, pfu “fire” Burushaski *pu:/*b(h)u: “burn, roast, boil” Sino-Tibetan *(?a)pV “heat, hot” Yeniseian CAAA 9: api ~ abe “fire” Ainu *apuy “fire” Austronesian GELP: AfroAsiatic *p£i./u. “fire, heat” Egyptian p£(-w?) “fire” Egyptian Chadic fuu id. Logone Berber (e-)fiw id. Taneslemt (ti-)fau(-t) id. Mzab Sino-Tibetan *phwâr “fire” Tibeto-Burman *pwâr(/*bwâr) id. var id. Moshang *xwâr id. Archaic Chinese assuming that -r is a suffix, as in IndoEuropean *paXwo:r id. Amerind *p'iXwV “fire, to burn” Penutian *p'i “hot” Maidu Hokan pwe “to burn” Jicaque Equatorial *pawa(-ta) “to make fire” Arawakan NS 144: *p'iGwV “fire, heat” Proto-Nostratic *-pVHV (~b-) “heat, burn” Sino-Caucasian *pu: (~b(h)-) “burn, roast, boil” Sino-Tibetan *(?a)pV- “heat, hot” Proto-Yeniseian CELR V 36: *'a-fu'- “fire” Central Chadic p´w id- Egyptian CELR VIII 37: *fwas- “burn” West Chadic *puc- “roast” Central Chadic wps “burn” Egyptian CELR VIII 42: *fyay “burn” Central Chadic `3fy id. Egyptian } ahi- “fire” Maori, Teor., Goram ahu- “burnt, scalded” Tahiti ahe- “fire” Banjak Is. ahu- “heat, fever” Tahiti ahu- “fire” Buru afi- “fire” Fila, Mele, Futuna *t-r- “star” tara “star, class of deities”. { EIEC: *H2sté:r, (e)r- “star” ser “star” Old Irish sêr (collective ) “stars” Welsh seren (singulative) “star” Welsh ster(enn) “star” Breton ste:lla (< *ste:r(o)la:, *ste:l-na:?) “star” Latin stjarna (fem.) “star” Old Norse steorra (masc.) “star” Old English star English sterno “star” Old High German staírno: (< *stern-o:n) “star” Gothic astér (masc.) “star” Greek astl “star” Armenian hasterz(a) (< *H2ste:r-s) “star” Hittite sta:r&m (acc.) “star” Avestan tá:rah (pl.) “stars” Sanskrit strbhih (pl. instr.) “with the stars” Sanskrit sreñ (pl.) “stars” TokharianA scirye (fem.) “star” TokharianB TP: According to EIEC, the root should be derived from H2eH-s- “burn” (see above), which would make -te:r a suffix. I suggest instead that -te:r- is an independent morpheme meaning “star” found also in Sanskrit ta:ra- (and so this form is no longer a problem, as in EIEC' analysis. } kalo-kalo- “star” Fiji kalo-u- “falling star” Fiji tolu- name of star or planet in Melanesia and N. Zealand tol- “star” Ceram tolu- “star” Matabello tala- “star” Philippines kalo- “class of gods” Hawai'i tera-k- “meteor” Malagasy taura- “star” Ouma n-tala- “star” Manggarai dala- “star” Ngada, Li'o, Sika taleyan- “star” Nimowa dara- “sun” Siko tala- “to shine, of sun and moon” Lau pan-tala- “star” Solor dalo- “star” Sentani thila- “to shine” Fiji taliso- “to glitter” Fiji tilang- “sky” Ambrym tare- “light” Yui kita “to observe, perceive”, Sanskrit kite- “to see” Mangar., Tonga, Maori, kita- “root meaning to see, visible” Philippines, Atayal kita, kite- “eye” common Austronesian. jambala “mud” Sanskrit jobo- “mud” Santal jobhi- “swampy ground” Kharia jubila- “a wet field” Kharia jobe- “mud” Ho. jambu “apple” Sanskrit jambu- “apple” common Munda kakh/gaggh “to laugh” Sanskrit kata- “to laugh” S. Polynesia gah-gah- “to laugh” Mentawej Is. kata- “laugh” Aniwa, Futuna, Fila, Mele, Makatea *k-k- “chicken” CAD 03.550: kuka “chicken” Paiwanese tarokoko id. Tanan tarokoko id. Mantauran troka id. Maga taokoko id. Tona tahokoko id. Labuan kukur& n&tu id. Irarutu nadu [kakaro] id. Nyindrou n&t-n&-k&karuk id. Tolai nat “little, child” Tolai na connective Tolai k.ok&re:G nalu “chicken” Buang kokoroku natu-na id. Motu tuna kokorako id. Roviana kHokorako id. Maringe gala karaikoa id. Lau G: -kókó “chicken” Proto-Bantu M: -cang “chicken” Proto-Bantu -cogod- “look for food (like chickens)” Proto-Bantu -kókó “chicken” Proto-Bantu DSDE: *keuka- “small lump” Proto-Germanic sideform kjuka “small lump” Norwegian dial. *keuk-i:na dim. Proto-WestGermanic ku:ken “chicken” Middle Low German cy:cen id. Old English with dim. *-li:n Küchlein id. German with dim. *-ling kylling id. Danish kykling id. Middle Danish kylling, kjukling id. Norwegian kyckling id. Swedish kok “rooster” Danish dial. (Jutland, Fyn) kock id. Swedish dial. kokr id. Old Norse cocke id. Middle Dutch cocke id. Old Engelsk coq id. French kurkuta- id. Sanskrit onomatopoeic? *k-l- “call, sound” kal “to sound” Sanskrit { SIG, IESSG, VISW In Semitic, forms with laryngeal as second literal occur mixed with those with the laryngeal in third place. This also occurs in IndoEuropean. Thus *k-l-H.- “call” Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *kaláH.- Pre-IndoEuropean *kla:- Proto-IndoEuropean cla:mo: “proclaim” Latin cla:rus “loud” Latin ki-klé:-sko: “call” Greek lüejen “roar, yell” Middle High German hlo:wan “low” Old English low English kalH.a perf. “called” Ethiopian kalleH.a intens. “called” Ethiopian and *k-H.-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *ka:l- Proto-IndoEuropean cala:re “proclaim, announce” Latin halo:n “speak” Old High German IEW *kel-, *k(e)le:-, *k(e)la:-, kl-? “shout, scream, sound” kala- “making a slight sound, barely perceptible” Sanskrit kalakala- “screaming, noise” Sanskrit kaléo (for *kálo) “call, name” Greek ca:la- “call out, call together” Latin nomencla:tor “name caller” Latin cla:ma- “call” Latin hlo:ian “roar” Old High German hal “sound” Middle High German } kala- “to proclaim, cry, publish” Hawai'i tala- “to speak, tell” Tonga, Samoa tala-i- “proclaim” Polynesia tala-u- “noise, call” Polynesia tala-k “talk loudly” Philippines talaka- “discussion” Philippines kalatog- “a kind of sound” Philippines kala-ntog- “sound” Philippines kala-tong- “a clang of metallic objects” Philippines kalatis- “extremely soft noise” Tagalog kalavea- “low-voiced, indistinct” Hawai'i kalaha- “quarrel” Hawai'i kala-kala- “confused noise” Hawai'i kelu- “to call out” Morouas kel- “to call out” Tur, Nambel *k-m- “love” kama “to desire, love” Sanskrit kamya “pleasant, agreeable” Sanskrit kanim “to have intercourse” Sanskrit { EIEC *kem- “love” kamaros (pl.) “lasciviousness” Lithuanian ka:me:t “hunger” Latvian ka:mayáti “desires, longs for, is in love with, copulates with” Sanskrit kamra- “charming, beautiful” Sanskrit kamana- “greedy” Sanskrit *ko:m-ne/o- käñm “play” TokharianB IELL kamoles “beloved” Thracian } kami-kami- “desire” Marquesas, kami-kami- “pleasant, sweet” Fiji; kama- “eager” Maori, kama-kama- “to practice prostitution” Hawai'i, kama'i- “to visit prostitutes” Hawai'i; dama- “to feel” Indonesia, dama- “feelings” Philippines, damdamin- “passion, feelings, grief” Philippines, kama, dama- “fire, heat” common Austronesian, damag- “resin, light, torch” Indonesia, damag- “burning, burnt field, fire” Formosa. VMPSIE hamo “to wish” Tongan *s-m- “together, one” sam “with, together with, conjoined with, preposition prefix” Sanskrit, also samaj “assembly, group” { IENH 184: *s[a|&]m- “to resemble, to be like” Proto-Nostratic > *s(e|o)m- “like, same” Proto-IndoEuropean *s[a|&]m- “to resemble, to be like” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, IESSG *z-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-m- “same” Proto-IndoEuropean *sem-s > eís “one” Greek sám “one” Sanskrit ham “one” Avestan ama “one” Greek homí-s “same” Greek samá- “same” Sanskrit sam-r “same” Old Norse sa sama “the same” Gothic der samo “the same” Old High German homó-s “similar, same” Greek hamo: “equal to, constant, the same” Old Persian samá- “equal to, constant, the same” Sanskrit in composites homo- “same” Greek sama- “same” Gothic sama- “same” Old High German sam- “same” Old English sam- “same” Old Norse ha:mo: “self” Old Persian samU “self” Old Church Slavonian reduced *sm.- Proto-IndoEuropean sa- Sanskrit ha-, a- Greek sim-(plex) Latin *z-m- Semitic redupl. zimzimatuN “a company or collection of men” Arabic single redupl. z-m-m- “accompany > lead” Arabic zamma “he went before or ahead in journeying” Arabic zima:muN “leader (one who goes the same way as you)” Arabic extended with -l- *z-m-l- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-m-l- Proto-IndoEuropean semol-, semel- Proto-IndoEuropean semol, semul “one” Old Latin simul “one” Latin semel “once” (“one and the same time”) Latin z-m-l- Semitic zumlatuN “a company of persons travelling together, or with whom one is together, a company or collection” Arabic zamala-hu “he rode with him (> made him to ride behind him)” Arabic zumi:luN “a travelling companion (> one who rides behind another)” Arabic extended with -n- *z-m-n- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *s-m-n- Proto-IndoEuropean sámana “being together, company” Sanskrit samaná: “together, at the same time” Sanskrit samana “tagether” Gothic saman “together” Old Norse saman “together” Old High German samano:n “collect” Old High German samna “collect” Old Norse homados (n > a) “crowd of people” Greek z-m-n- Semitic z-m-n- “came together (> was invited)” Syrian Ethpa. meþtazmånuþÅ: “union” Syrian z&minÅ: “companion” Syrian extended with -r- *z-m-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic samará “coming together” Sanskrit zumratuN “a company, congregated body of men” Arabic CERL X 12: *sum- “together” West Chadic sm3 id. Egyptian EIEC *somós “same” -som “self, that one” Old Irish *som-dhe > *sondo hwn “(this) one” Welsh sam-r “the same one” Old Norse sami “same” Old Norse sem (adv.) “just as” Old Norse same (adv.) “same” Old English same English sam[a|o] “like, in the same way” Old High German sama “the same one” Gothic samû “himself” Old Church Slavonian homós “similar, same” Greek omn “some, certain, any” Armenian sanai-? “one and the same, a single one” Hittite hama- “same” Avestan samá- “equal, like, same” Sanskrit sam “like, even” TokharianAB compounds: sam-fedhra “having the same father” Old Norse homo-páto:r “having the same father” Greek hama-hayr “having the same father” Armenian hama-pitar- “having the same father” Old Persian soma-pa:ca:r “having the same father” Sanskrit } sama- “go with, accompany” Tagalog samahan- “society, club, organization” Tagalog ka-sama- “companion” Tagalog sama- “correspond with, row in order, mate, fellow” Saa, Ulawa, Arosi dama- “mate, fellow” Lau tama- “in line with, together with” Are'are sama- “clanfriend” Beami hame- “clanfriend” Fasu *t-n- “to sound” tan “to sound” Sanskrit, also tantra “instrumental music” tana “musical note” { VISW, SIG, IESSG Alternative form *t-n- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-n- “sound, thunder” Proto-IndoEuropean tánya-ti “sounds, rushes, thunders” Sanskrit tona:re “to thunder” Latin thunian “to thunder” Old English thunor “thunder” Old English donar “thunder” Old High German with s-preformative *st-n- Proto-IndoEuropean stána-ti “roars, thunders” Sanskrit stanáya-ti “roars, thunders” Sanskrit sténo: “pant” v. Greek stenù “pant” v. Lithuanian stenyã “pant” v. Old Church Slavonian stynja “pant” v. Old Norse *d-n- Proto-Semitic reduplicated dandana “it buzzed, made a buzzing sound” Arabic single redupl. danna “(a fly) emanated a buzzing sound, (a man) spoke in a soft tone, so that his speech was not understood” Arabic extended with -m- dannama “(the bow, bowl) emitted a ringing sound” Arabic : *T.-n- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *dh-n- “sound” Proto-IndoEuropean with w-infix *T.-w-n- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic or w-preformative with metathesis *wdh- > *dhw- Proto-IndoEuropean dhvána-ti “sounds” Sanskrit dhvá:naya-ti caus. Sanskrit dhúni- “rushing” Sanskrit dyne, dyn “din” n. Old English dynnan “din” v. Old English dynja “din” v. Old Norse *t.-n- Semitic redupl. t.-nt.-n- Semitic t.ant.anatuN “the sound of the t.unbu:r (a kind of mandoline) and the like, such as the lute” Arabic single redupl. *t.-n-n- Semitic t.anna “it made a sound of a continued or reiterated kind, (the bowl) made a ringing sound, (the mosquito, fly) made a buzzing sound (the duck) quacked” Arabic t.ani:nuN “the sound of the flies (humming or buzzing) or the ear (ringing or tinkling)” Arabic = *dh-n- “die” Proto-IndoEuropean e-thanon Greek extended with -A2- *dh-na-, *dhná:- “die” Proto-IndoEuropean thné:-sko: Greek thne:-tós Greek reduced *dhna- Proto-IndoEuropean thána(thos) *t.-n- Arabic single redupl. *t.-n-n- Arabic t.anna “he died” Arabic (originally “made a gargling sound”, the same as t.anna above) t.unnuN “human corpse” extended with -A- t.-n-A- Arabic 'at.na'a “he suffered not to retain the last remains of life” Arabic t.in'aN “the last breath” Arabic EIEC *(s)tenH- “groan, thunder” tona:re / tonere “to thunder” Latin stynja “groan” Old Norse thórr “thunder” Old Norse stunian thunian stenan “groan” Old English thunor “thunder” Old English thunder English donar “thunder” Old High German stenù, stenéti “groan” Lithuanian stenjõ, stenatî “groan” Old Church Slavonian stón “groaning” Russian sténo: “thunder, sound, drone” Greek ténnei “to thunder” Greek (Hesychius) stanáyati / tányati “thunders” Sanskrit ??*tén-tlo-m “(that which is) pulled tight” sasin-tinclo “rabbit-snare” Old Prussian tinklas “net” Lithuanian *tanthra- > ta:r “thread, warp” New Persian tántra “warp, woven chain” Sanskrit VMPSIE: tan.i “cry” Tongan tânis “cry” Malay tan.is “cry” Tagalog SSIRG 1.4.a: tanaitnú “thundering, resounding” Vedic Sanskrit tányati “thunder” Vedic Sanskrit tátanat redupl. 3 sg Vedic Sanskrit tona:re “thunder” Latin tonitrus id. Latin donar id. Old High German þó,rr id. Old Norse ðunian, þunian “moan, roar, thunder” Old English ténno: “moan” Lasbian (Hesychios) *tenH2- > *tetH2- > tethi 3 sg “thunder” Hittite stanayitnú “thunder” Vedic Sanskrit stan- root Vedic Sanskrit stanátati causv. Vedic Sanskrit stan 3 sg ijv. Vedic Sanskrit asta:ni:t aor. id. Vedic Sanskrit stunian “groan” Old English stöhnen id. German sténo: “moan, lament, wail” Greek Stento:r lit. “roarer” Homeric name stenákho: “groan” Greek stenéti id. Lithuanian stenati id. Old Cghurch Slavonic stón “groan” Russian } tani- “to sound, instrument” Tahiti kani- “various sounds, humming, noises” Hawai'i tangi- “to make noise” Marquesas, Samoa Tonga, Maori, Fiji dan- “sound, voice, song” Tai tun-og- “sound, timbre” Tagalog tangi- “to cry, moan” Anutan tangi-karanga- “to cry, shout, whoop, bark, call” Anutan *t-w- “fear, evil” tank/tang “live in distress, shake” Sanskrit { IENH 154: *t'Y[a|&]w- “bad, evil” Proto-Nostratic > *t'(e|o)ws- “bad, evil; (prefix) ill-, un-, mis-” Proto-IndoEuropean AfroAsiatic d_w “bad, evil” Egyptian d_w-t “bad thing, wickedness, evil” Egyptian d_wy “evil” Egyptian g^owt “base, lowly, rejected” Coptic } takot “fear” Tagalog takut “fear” Malay, Javanese ma-ta'u “fear” Tahiti me-ta'u, “fear” Marquesas tim “be wet” Sanskrit timu- “rain, to rain” Samoa tunu- “left-over water” New Hebrides VMPSIE, PMA toya “water” Sanskrit toya- “water” Javanese toi- “dip in water” Maori ka- “to flow” Hawai'i *s-k- “sea” VMPSIE: tai “sea” Javanese tahi “sea” Tongan tasik “sea” Kavi, Bugis tâsek “sea” Malay sic^-, sîk- “sprinkle” Sanskrit sikta- “sprinkle” Sanskrit sêcaka “cloud” Sanskrit s^îk- “sprinkle” Sanskrit s^îkara “drizzle, water drops” Sanskrit *sk-lk- “must; debt” VISW, SI: *s-l- “(be) whole” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *s-l- id. Proto-IndoEuropean solidus “complete, whole” Latin exteded grade *sò:l- so:lor, con-so:lor “solace, console, soothe, relieve” Latin *so:la: f. > so:la:-men “(source of) solace, comfort” Latin -tium “solace, comfort; relief in sorrow/misfortune” Latin e:-grade se:lra “better” Old English *so:liz > Proto-Germanic se:l adv. “better” Old English *se:l- Proto-Germanic se:l-s “gracious” sæ:ll “happy” Old Norse sa:lida “happines, bliss” Old High German sæ:lde id. Middle High German sæ:lð id. Old English sa:lig “happy, blissful” Old High German = *s-l- Semitic with originally suffixal m- salima intr. “was whole, unharmed, well, he was (became) secure or free” II “(God) saved, secured, freed (him)” Arabic s^Elem “is complete, (the moon) is full, has stayed whole” Syrian s^Ele:m “was completed” Jewish Aramaic s^a:le:m “complete(d), unharmed” Hebrew s^a:lam perf. “was s^a:le:m” Hebrew s^ala:mu inf. “be unharmed, safe, unimpaired” Assyrian sala:muN “safety, health, peace” Arabic sala:m id. Ethiopian s^alo:m id. Hebrew s^Ela:m id. Biblical Aramaic s^Ela:ma: id. Jewish Aramaic s^Elåmå: id. Syrian s^almu “whole, unharmed” Assyrian s^almu:tu “well-being” Assyrian s^almå: “perfect” Syrian s^alma: “complete, perfect” Jewish Aramaic : *s.-l- Semitic s.-l-H.- Semitic s.aluH.a, s.alaH.a “(the man) was whole, (the thing) went right” Arabic s.ala:H.uN “wholeness, goodness” Arabic s.ulH.uN “peace” Arabic + t- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic + d- Proto-IndoEuropean *s-ld- Proto-IndoEuropean IndoEuropean ld > Latin ll sollus “whole and solid” Old Latin soll(-ers) “(quiye) skilled” Latin : + t.- Semitic s-l-t.- Semitic salat.a “be whole, unharmed, perfect” Ethiopian selu:t. part. “solid, perfect” Ethiopian sela:t.e: “wholeness, perfection” Ethiopian salut.a, salit.a “(a solid hoof) was (became) strong or hard” Arabic sali:t.uN “strong or hard, solid (hoof)” Arabic s^-l-t.- > “be powrful” Assyrian, Aramaic sult.a:nuN “strength, might, power” Arabic s^alt.u “shield” Assyrian s^æ`læt. “shield” > “quiver” Hebrew with suffix w- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic sárva- “whole, unharmed” Sanskrit haurva- id. Avestan haruva- id. Old Persian hólo-s id. Greek oú^lo-s id. Ionian salvus id. Latin oú^le “ointment” Greek salu-s nom., salu:t- “integrity, health, well-being” Latin sarvata:ti- “salus” Sanskrit haurvata:t- id. Avestan = with originally suffixal w- s^a:le:w “live calm and content” Hebrew salwatuN “the state of mind of being free of worries, peace of mind” Arabic s^alwå: “calm” Syrian s^alwi:þa: id. Jewish Aramaic s^a:la: perf. “was safe, calm” Hebrew sala: “his mind was free of worries” Arabic + y- s^eli: “he was at rest” Syrian s^Ela:, s^Eli: “was without worry” Jewish Aramaic s^elyå: “quiet, rest, leisure” Syrian s^aliå: “quiet” Syrian s^alyuþå: “calm” n. Syrian s* alyu:þa: id. Jewish Aramaic EP: skal/skulum “owe(s), shall” Old High German skal/skulom id. Old Norse scal/sculun id. Old Saxon skel/skil id. Old Frisian sceal/sculon id. Old English Soll “debit” German schuld “at fault, to blame” German Schuld “guilt” German Schulden pl. “debts” German schulden “to owe” German skéleti “to owe, be guilty” Lithuanian skìlti “to get into debt” Lithuanian skolà “debt, guilt” Lithuanian skallisnan (acc.) “duty” Old Prussian skellânts “guilty” Old Prussian po-skulit “admonish” Old Prussian sal/suld “owe(d), shall/should” Northern English dial., incl Scottish al “shall” Swedish Gutnish *skalkaz m. “servant” Proto-Germanic skalks id. Gothic skalkr id. Old Norse skálkur “rogue” Modern Icelandic scalc “servant” Old High German Schalk “wag, rascal” German scalk “servant” Old Saxon skalk id. Old Frisian scealc id. Old English shalk id. English, poet. obs. *skalH-/skulH- Proto-Germanic (Beekes) *skolHV-/skulHV- > Proto-Vasconic *skolV-/*skulV- > zor (zorr-) “debt” Basque Soldurii brotherhood of men sworn to follow each other in life and death Aquitanian (Caesar Bell. Gall. III. 22) FKUINR 6: *kelke- “shall, must” Proto-FinnoUgrian kul- “be necessary” Votyak kol- id. Zyryene kell- “must, shall” Hungarian galga- “shall, must” Saami The Permian (Voty., Zyry.) phonological form is etymologically a bit irregular (the lobial vowel is too open for a Fi.-Ugr. e-stem (...) which is a further indication of foreign origin; as if the verb had wandered from west to east (but cf. Hungarian kell-. The substitution of the IndoEuropen sequence -lH- by FinnoUgric -lk- might be explained by the fact that FinnoUgric +-ls^- wasn't possible. SSIRG A3.5 *ghel-dh-, *skel- fra-gildan “repay” Gothic gild, gistr “tax” Gothic geld, gield “payment” Old English gieldan “pay” Old English yield English *geldjam > Proto-Germanic gildi “contribution” = “guild” Old Norse Geld “money” German scyld “guilt, obligation” Old English skuld id. Old Norse skuld id. Old High German Schuld id. German skulan “be under an obligation” Gothic sculan id. Old English scolan / solan id. Old High German sollen id. German shall/should id. English S-addition. TP: I think the *-k- suffix of Proto-Germanic *skalkaz and Finno-Ugric *kelke- is the agentive suffix *-k- I've met in several other roots; it shows examples of the *-d- objective suffix also (Schuld, Soldurii). CAD: *saláq “sin, error, mistake” Proto-Austronesian *kay- “body, tree, wood” VMPSIE: kâya “body” Sanskrit kâyû “tree” Malay kayu “wood” Javanese *wit- “branch, tree, trunk” VMPSIE: vit.apa “branch” Sanskrit vit.apin “tree” Sanskrit vit “tree, trunk” Javanese *chag- “leave” VMPSIE: tyaj “leave” Sanskrit tyâga “leaving” Sanskrit chiagi “leave” Tongan *l-k- “body” VMPSIE: dêha “body” Sanskrit leik (leika-) “body, flesh” Gothic Leiche “corpse” German lîh “body, flesh” Old High German aleh “body” Bugis dagin. “flesh” Javanese *k-w-l- “hollow, ditch” PMA: kulya “rivulet, canal” Sanskrit, also kulin “river” { SIG, IESSG, VISW *k2-L- (*kW2-l-) “contain, hold” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic Alternative form *kW-l- Proto-IndoEuropean kaliù “am prisoner” Lithuanian kaleti “be prisoner” Lithuanian kaline~ “prison” Lithuanian ka:ra: “prison” Sanskrit *kW-l > *k-w-l- North Semitic ka:lu inf. “hold, carry, hold up, exalt” Assyrian ta-ka:ltu “container” Assyrian ka:l perf. “contain, measure” Hebrew extended *k-l-y- “measure” Ethiopian whence ma-klit “talentum” Ethiopian *k-y-l- (?< *k-l-y-) Arabic ka:la perf. “measured” Arabic *kW-l- Proto-IndoEuropean *k-l-y- > keliù pres. “raise” Lithuanian extended with t- (orig. only pres.?) *kWòlt-mo > (with hW > h before a) halthan, haltan “hold” Old High German fully redupl. kilke:l “contain, hold, endure, maintain” Hebrew k-l-l- redupl. “contain, surround” Semitic whence kullatu “enclosed space, living room” Assyrian s^u-klultu “enclosure” Assyrian extended with A- (orig. A2-) *k-l-A- Common Semitic kal'a perf. “protect, contain, hold back, keep” Ethiopian kala'a “guarded, served” Arabic kelå “hindered” Syrian ka:la:' “enclose, retain, hinder, constrain” Arabic kalu: inf. “finish, block, lock up, hold back” Assyrian kilu (< *kil'u) “blockade, prison, chain” Assyrian kæ`læ “prison” Hebrew extended with A2- *k2-l-A2- > *kla:- “close” Proto-IndoEuropean cla:-vi-s “key” Latin kle:-is “key” Greek kla:-is “key” Dorian Greek *kla:wi-d- > claudo “close, block” Latin : *k.-l- Semitic extended with -Y.- k.alY.atuN “citadel, fortress” Arabic extended with -t-/-t.- k.altuN “reservoir” Arabic : k.a:lat. New Hebrew k.&lat. Jewish Aramaic extended with -d- k.alada “collect (water) in reservoir” Arabic IEW *kau-l-, *ku-l- “hollow; hollow stem, bone” kulyá- “stream, ditch, canal” Sanskrit kaulás “stem, shaft” Greek caulis “plant stem” Latin caulan “bone” Old Prussian hol “hollow” Old English } kuala- “canal, watercourse” Malagasy kulu- “to flow as water” Hawai'i turu- “to drop as water” Fiji kolo- “water” Roviana kolo- “lake, rain water” Florida kupa “well, pit” Sanskrit kupa- “to dig, hollow” Hawai'i tupa- “to dig, hollow, scoop” Tahiti *d-y-w- “divine, light” deva “god, spirit, demon, heavenly” Sanskrit dina “day” Sanskrit dinakara “sun” Sanskrit { IENH 119: *t'[a|&]y- “to shine, gleam, be bright, glitter, glow, burn brightly” Proto-Nostratic > *t'[o|e|Ø]y- “to shine, be bright” Proto-IndoEuropean *ti:(y)- “to scorch, burn, roast; to shine brightly” Proto-Dravidian dé “to smelt” Sumerian dé, dè, dè-dal “ashes” Sumerian dè, di5 “glowing embers” Sumerian dè-dal-la “to torch” Sumerian di5 “to flare up, light up; to be radiant, shining; to sparkle, shine” Sumerian SIG, IESSG *D.-h- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *d-y- (y < medial h) “shine, light” Proto-IndoEuropean *deyo-s Proto-IndoEuropean deus (pl. di:) “god” Latin extended *d-y-n- deina “day” Old Prussian denà “day” Lithuanian sin-teins “daily” Gothic sin-teino: “always” Gothic dína-m “day” Sanskrit dînî “day” Slavic nun-dinae “market day (novem + dies -> held every ninth day); traffic” Latin extended with g^: G.^ > Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic k^ : g^ Proto-IndoEuropean *d-yk^- Proto-IndoEuropean deiknu:mi “sign, omen” Greek dae:sa “sign, omen” Avestan zeigo:n “point to, show” Old High German : *d-yg^- Proto-IndoEuropean taikns “sign” Gothic pro-digium “omen” Latin digitus Latin extended *d-y-d- (broken reduplication?) Proto-IndoEuropean teitr “bright” Old Norse extended *d-y-w- Proto-IndoEuropean whence *deiw- and *dyew- deivás (gen.) “of the sky” Sanskrit (Diós Greek) diva: (instr.) Sanskrit díva: (adv.) “by day” Sanskrit extended with a guttural (A2 or H) in *déyâ- Proto-IndoEuropean dé:a-tai- “shines” Greek déa-to “appeared” Greek and in *dyá- Proto-IndoEuropean Dia:na Latin akk. *dyâm, with circumflex from dyéA2om? Dãn Greek (Dorian) Ze~n Greek (Ionian) and reduced in *di-, toneless Proto-IndoEuropean di-ti- “shine, splendor” Sanskrit extended with -r- ti:r-r “splendor, gloris, honor” Old Norse ti:r “splendor, gloria, honor” Old English ti:r “splendor, gloria, honor” Old Saxon ti:r “light opening” Norwegian ablauted form *ti:r- whence the root syllable of ze:ri, ziari: “splendid, beautiful” Old High German ziere “splendid, beautiful” Middle High German to which the abstract fem. ziari Old High German ziere Middle High German Zier German extended with -l- perhaps in s.-h-l- “shine, make light” Hebrew (Hiph.) but uncertain, since s. is ambiguous extended with the frequent determinative -r- *D.-h-r- (= germ. tir-, ti:r-) Proto-AfroAsiatic z.ah.ara “it appeared, became apparent, manifest, plain > he mounted, went up, IV he made it apparent > he elevated, exalted” Arabic z.iha:ratuN “what is uppermost and apparent to the eye (of a germent etc.)” Arabic z.a:hiruN “appearing, apparent, manifest, conspicuous” Arabic z.ahi:ratuN “the point of midday (in summer)” Arabic z.a:hiratuN “the coming (of camels etc.) to the water at noon” Arabic z.uhruN “midday, noon” Arabic t.i:hâra: “noon” Jewish Aramaic t.ahrå: “noon” Syrian s.a:hêrayim “noon” Hebrew s.òhar Gen. 6, 16 “light opening” Hebrew s.-h-r “shine” Modern Hebrew EIEC *dei- “shine, be bright (primarily of the sky?)” teit-r “glad” Old Norse tæ:tan “gladden, cheer” Old English zeiz “delicate” Old High German déato “is seen” Greek déelos “visible” Greek dideti “shines, is bright” Sanskrit *dye(u)- “day” dia “day” Old Irish dydd “day” Welsh die:s “day” Latin zicolo- “day” Oscan endíos “at mid-day” Greek tiw “day” Armenian si:watt- “day” Hittite díva:- “during the day” Sanskrit divasá- “day” Sanskrit with n-infix : *de[i]no- “day” *dino- tre:denus “three-day period” Old Irish nundinae “the ninth (market) day” Latin dînî “day” Old Church Slavonian dina-m “day” Sanskrit *deino- sinteins “daily” Gothic deinan (acc.) “day” Old Prussian diena “day” Lithuanian dìena “day” Latvian *d(e)inye/o- gdhin “it dawns” Albanian with u-suffix : *deiwós “god” dia “god” Old Irish duiu-tir “divinity” Old Welsh deus “god” Latin Týr name of war god Old Norse ti:var (pl.) “gods” Old Norse Tiw name of war god Old English Tiwesdæg “Tuesday” Old English Zi:o name of war god Old High German deiw(a)s “god” Old Prussian die:vas “god” Lithuanian dievs “god” Latvian divû “demon” Old Church Slavonian sius “(sky) god” Hittite dae:va “demon” Avestan devá- “god” Sanskrit *diwyós di:us “divine” Latin dios “divine” Greek divyá- “heavenly” Sanskrit *dhéH1s (gen. *dhH1sós) “god” fe:riae “festival day” Latin fe:stus dies “of a holiday, festive, festival (day)” Latin *dhH1s-ó- theós “god” Greek théosphatos “spoken by god, ordained, divine” Greek *dhH1ses dik' (pl.) “gods” Armenian dhisá: “with impetuosity” Sanskrit *dhH1s-én- “endowed with supernatural force” *dhH1sno- > *fasnom fa:num “temple” (< *“consecrated place”) Latin fíísnam “temple” Umbrian dhisána epithet of various gods Sanskrit Dhisána name of a harmful demon Sanskrit dhísnya epithet of the Asvins Sanskrit Dhisána Brhaspati (god of devotion) Sanskrit disari evil female deity Kati däsäri female monster Ashkun IELL tin- “day” Etruscan HSED 615: *daf- “heat, sweat” *dVf- “warmth” Berber ddfa “warmth” Aksimen *daHVf- “sweat” West Chadic d.aafau “sweat” Ngizim *(mu)daf- “sweat” Central Chadic mu-d.ufa “sweat” Ngwahi ngu-d&fa “sweat” Glavda ngwu-d.ufa “sweat” Gava mu-tfu “sweat” Logone n-dafy “sweat” Kuseri Kuseri n- is assimilated from *mV- duf “sweat” Bed -u- < *a before a labial *dif “sweat” Agaw dif “sweat” Bilin Irregular vocalism *daff- “sweat” Highland East Cushitic daffa “sweat” Darasa *duf- “sweat” Omotic duf, duuf “sweat” Hamar -u- < *a before a labial Nostratica-L 32: tin “day, Jupiter” Etruscan de(n) “day” Nakh -n only recently lost in Chechen } dina- “day” Motu, Mekeo, Kuni, Doura dani, dangi, etc.- “day” Arosi, Sau, Saa, Kwaio, Ulawa dina hari- “daybreak” Malay dina- “sun” Motu, Proto-Central Papuan diwa- “god, spirit, self, idea, sense” Proto-Austronesian diwata- “god, spirit” Proto-Philippine dewuta- “sun” Selepet dewuta- “moon” E. Huon davi- “sun” Alite du- “sun” Nengone do- “sun” Papuan do- “devil” Ambrym dua- “body, self, spirit” Lao ma-a-dua- “God” Kapingamarangi a-dia- “soul” Nabaloi tua- “body or spirit of animal” Dioi do- “body, spirit” Kam-Sui tuan, tuwan- “deity” Malay, Indonesia Tuhan- “Supreme God” Philippines (Badjao) tua- “deity, spirit, image, idol, corpse”, (a variant of a-tua) common Polynesia, also kua and akua; tuai- “spirit, god, demon” Efate jiwa- “deity, spirit” Proto-Austronesian diu- “to exalt, beyond” Arosi, Wango, Lau kwi- “demon” Vietnamese *t-w- “to forge, strike” tud “to strike, hit” Sanskrit { SIG, VISW, IESSG *d-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *t-w- “push, strike” Proto-IndoEuropean to:-mara “spear” Sanskrit *t-w-p- túpto: “beat, hit” Greek túmpanon “hand drum, tambourine” Greek *t-w-d- tudá-ti “pushes” Sanskrit tudes “hammer” Latin present with n-infix (Indo-European *tunéd-, *tund-) tundo: “beat, hit” Latin o-grade (*towd- from *tw-d) with s-preformative *st-wd- Proto-IndoEuropean stautan “push” Gothic stauta “push” Old Norse sto:zan “push” Old High German *t-w-bh- , with s-preformative stuphelízo: “beat, hit, drive, push away, scold” Greek *d-p- single reduplication *d-p-p- Semitic daffa “(a bird) beat its sides (with its wings)” Arabic daffuN, duffuN “thing with which one beats, tambourine” Arabic *d-p-Y.- dafaY.a “he pushed, impelled, drove” Arabic *d-p-i- do:phi: “(push >) hurt, insult” Hebrew (pausal form) extended with -G.- or -k- *t-wg- “push” Proto-IndoEuropean tujá-ti, tunákti “pushes, drives” Sanskrit *d-p-k.- Semitic da:phak. “knock on the door, driving (the cattle) too hard” Hebrew d-f-k- “pour forth with vehemence” Arabic EIEC *(s)teud- “push, thrust” do-tuit “makes to fall” Old Irish tu(n)d- “push, strike” Latin stude- “strive, study” Latin studium “zeal” Latin stauta “thrust” Old Norse sto:zan “thrust” Old High German *stu:dnye/o- shtyj “push” Albanian túdati/tundate “pushes, strikes, stings” Sanskrit IELL tund- “to push, to knock” Thracian SSIRG 1.4.b: tudáti (arch. vb-type) “hit” Vedic Sanskrit tódas “stab” Vedic Greek þót “draught of air, impetuousity, violence” Old Norse tundo: “pound” Latin stautan “hit” Gothic stossen German *stu:dnyo: > shtynj 1sg, phon [s^tüñ] id. Albanian studium “hitting at” > “striving” Latin studeo: “be hitting” > “strive” Latin HSED 2358: *takoc- “trample, pound” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tVkVs- “trample” Senitic tks id. Aramaic (Judaic) *takac- “pound” West Chadic takwsu id. Ngizim Derived from HSED 2416 *tuk- “beat, press”. HSED 2358: *tak.ar- “stick, pole” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tak.r- “stick, sceptre” Semitic taqr- id. Aramaic (Syrian) *tak.ar- “long bamboo pole” West Chadic takarwa id. Ngizim HSED 2370: *taq.-/*tiq.- “strike” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ti:h_- “strike (with a stick)” Semitic tyh_ [-i-] id. Arabic Based on *tVh_-. *taq.-/*tiq.- “strike, kick)” West Chadic ti:k.a id. Hausa t&ku id. Ngizim HSED 2388: *tek- “take” Proto-AfroAsiatic tkk- “grasp, seize” Egyptian (Middle Kingdom) partial reduplication *tyak- “take” West Chadic t&k “take” Sha tyek “take” Dafo-Butura *tyak- “take” Central Chadic taka, tega “take” Musgum HSED 2399: *tuk.- “strike, break” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tVk.-tVk.- “break, be broken” Berber t&Gt&G id. Ahaggar reduplication *tuk.- “strike” Lowland East Chadic tuq- id. Oromo HSED 2410: *tok- “speak, ask” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tVk- “inquire” Berber s&-t&kk-&t id. Ayr s&-t&kk-&t id. Tawlemmet *twak- West Chadic tok “talk” Angas taku “ask” Paa HSED 2414: *tug- “strike” Proto-AfroAsiatic tug- “pound, thresh” West Chadic tuge id. Tangale *twagVy- “strike” Central Chadic togiya id. BM toia id. Masa *twaga- “strike” East Chadic tagi id. Nanchere togoi- id. Gabri *tug- “strike” Omotic tuug, tuuge id. Kaffa TP>: It seems to me that *-wa- in some of the reconstructed forms were posited to explain what would otherwise be an -a-/-u- alternation. HSED 2416: *tuk- “beat, press” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tuk- Semitic taka:ku- “press” Akkadian tkk [-u-] “destroy, cut” Arabic *tVk- “knock” Berber t&g-&t- id. Ahaggar *tak-/*tuk- West Chadic ta:ka “trample, step on” Hausa tako “beat” Ngamo tuk “push” Bokkos tuk “push” Dafo-Butura tak-du “trample, step on” Ngizim *tukwa- Central Chadic tukwa- “clap” Gisiga tku “strike” Logone *tak-/*tok- “strike” Saho-Afar tak-, -ootok- id. Afar *tuk- “hit, strike” Omotic tuk- id. Kaffa HSED 2434: *tVk-tVk- “trample, knock” Proto-AfroAsiatic *tVk-tVk- “trample” Semitic tktk- id. Arabic *tVk-tVk- “knock slightly” Berber t&kt&k id. Ahaggar tktk “trample (enemies)” Egyptian reduplication of HSED 2416 “beat, press” HSED 2455: *t.ah.an- “grind, forge” Proto-AfroAsiatic *t.Vh.an- “grind corn, pound” Semitic t.h.n id. Hebrew t.h.n [-a-] id. Arabic t.ah.an id. Jibbali t.ah.an id. Soqotri t.eh.a:n id. Mehri t.h.a:n id. S^h.eri *t.aHan- West Chadic ten- “press down” Anaggar toni- “forge” Tangale Contractiom. TP: Or the two don't belong together, and one should reconstruct West Chadic *tan- instead. HSED 2468: *t.i?uh.-/*tiwuh.- “kill, destroy” Proto-AfroAsiatic *t.uh.- “perish” Semitic t.wh. id. Arabic t3h. “kill” Egyptian (Greek papyri) *t.i?uh.- “kill” West Chadic tu id. Sura tu id. Angas to id. Chip t&G id. Warji t&:G- id. Kariya tu id. Diri t&u id. Miya tiyu id. Cagu t&G id. Siri t&G id. Mburku tiy- id. Jimbin tuge id. Burma Consonantal alternation *-?- ~*-w-. TP: Or the Semitic/Egyptian and the West Chadic roots don't belong together and the latter should be *tiG-/*tuG- with vowel alternation? EBAE 6.26: *stunkWa Proto-Vasconic > *zunkWa > zunka “Stoss mit dem Kopf, den die Kälber beim Saugen geben, head-butt” Basque sunka “Schlag, Stoss” Basque sunkatu “stossen” Basque loaned as *stugqan > stigqan “stossen” Gothic TP: (s)tuk- Proto-Vasconic > EWBS: sunka “Schlag, Stoss” Basque junka id. Basque unki n. “emotion, touch, feel, Stoss, Ruck” Basque ünkhüde, ünküde, ünküdü, ingure “smith's anvil” Basque ingude id., “ring in oxen-yoke” Basque TP: -nk- givesv it away as a loan; native words have -ng- FTIG 20: *tukk-, *tu:k- *tuk- ? “mistreat” Nordwestblock tu:kian (tukian ?) id. Old English tuck, touk id. Middle English zoche “club” Middle High German FTIG 21: *tuk-, *tukk- “pull, tug at, shake, torment” Nordwestblock zochen “tug at, shake” Middle High German tucken id. Middle English tucken id. Middle Dutch tucken id. Middle Low German zucken, zücken? id. German FTIG 22: *twakk-, *twikk- Nordwestblock zwacken “pinch; annoy” German zwicken “pinch; torment” German zweck, zwick “pin, small nail” Middle High German TP: a-, i-infix? FTIG 23: *tak-, *takk-, *te:k- “touch, grasp, take” Nordwestblock te:kan “touch” Gothic taka “take” Old Norse tacan “grasp, take” Old English taken “take, grasp” Middle Dutch tacken “touch, grasp”, also “take” Kiliaen tetsen “touch” Kiliaen takken “touch” Flemish Dutch tacken “touch” Middle Low German ticken “touch” Low German tocken “touch” Kiliaen tucken “touch” Kiliaen toccare “touch” Italian tocar “touch” Spanish toucher “touch” French touch Italian toetsen “touch” Dutch tek-/tak- “touch” Tocharian B ta:g- “touch” Old Turkish tak- “fetch” Ainu þaccian “touch lightly, stroke” Old English thakolon “touch” Old Saxon *þegjan “accept, get”, also “ask” Proto-Germanic þiggia Old Norse þicgan Old English tagha “take” Old Swedish taga “take” Swedish tangere, tagere, pf. te-tigi “touch” Latin in-teger “untouched” Latin contagium “touch” n. Latin te-tago:n “grasping” Greek FTIG 24: *tang- “reaching to smt., touching it” Nordwestblock ge-tang Old English ge-tenge also “oppressing” Old English gader-tang, -teng Old English ge-tang Old English bi-tengi also “oppressing” Old Saxon gi-zengi Old English adv.: ge-tangr Old English sam-tenges (-tinges) Old English gi-zengo Old High German con-tiguus (< *-taguus) Latin tengia “get in touch and then join” Old Norse sibbeon bitengi “related by family” Old Saxon ge-tengan “join and defeat” Old English *ge-tingan “join in battle” Old English (Andreas V. 138) Zange “tongs, pliers” German *ad-taccare > attacare “attack” Italian attaquer “attack” French cf. an-greifen “attack” German FTIG 25: *twang-, *tweng- “force, press” Nordwestblock twingan, twengan id. Old English zwingan id. Old High German thwingan id. Old English dwingan id. Old High German twingan id. Middle High German þwingan id. Old Norse (< Low German?) þwengr “strap (for fixating)” Old Norse dwenge id. Middle Low German dwang id. Old High German þwang, þweng id. Old Norse TP: i-infix? DEE: thwack “to beat” English variant of þakken “to stroke” Middle English þaccian “to stroke (a horse)” Old English þjökka “to thwack, thump” Icelandic TP: I'm not convinced. I'd say 'thwack" is FTIG 21 with an a-infix; the rest not directly related DSDE: *twe(:)y- “hew, strike” Proto-IndoEuropean > ? þwi:tan “cut” Old English þveit “small piece of land” Old Norse > (loan) þwait “clearing” English -tved (in placenames) thwet n. “cut (off)” Old Danish tveit “chip; clearing” English tvet, tveit n. “cut in wood” Swedish dial. TP: Or from *tud- with i-infix? DSDE: *tong- “think, feel” Proto-IndoEuropean tonge:re “know” Latin *þankian “discover, recognize, understand” Proto-Germanic þagkjan “think” Gothic þencan “think” Old English thenkian “think” Old Saxon denken “think” Old High German, German denken “think” Middle Low German > tænke “think” Danish thænkia “think” Old Danish tenke “think” Norwegian tænke “think” Danish þænkia “think” Old Swedish tänka “think” Swedish þenkia “think” Icelandic TP: Or perhaps 'me thinks' < 'it strikes me' DSDE: þekkr “pleasant” Old Norse thæck “pleasant” Danish tekk “pleasant” Norwegian täck “pleasant” Swedish þekkja “make pleasant” Old Norse tekke “seem, appear, please” Old Danish þækkia “seem, appear, please” Old Swedish tækkes “please” Danish thæckes “please” Old Danish tekkes “please” Norwegian täckas “please” Danish þekkjast “please” Old Norse þinga “hold assembly; negotiate” Old Norse tinge “hold assembly; negotiate, agree; bargain; rent; buy” Danish tinghe id. Old Danish tinge id. Norwegian tinga id. Swedish dingen “hold trial; negotiate; bargain” Middle Low German dingo:n id. Old High German dingen id. German þingian id. Old German TP: Cf. FTIG 24. EHWL: tund “to hit, run into” Etruscan PKMa: takoa “to forge” Finnish *TukTuk “hammer, hit with a hammer” Proto-Austronesian (Blust) *dakdak Proto-Austronesian (Dempwolff) G: -tind- “to push” Proto-Bantu -túd- “to forge” Proto-Bantu M: -tudi- “log, mortar” Proto-Bantu -tu “pestle” Proto-Bantu -tunt- “palpitate (heart), beat against” Proto-Bantu -tuut- “strike, beat” Proto-Bantu -td- “forge” Proto-Bantu PMS: tud “to strike, beat” Sumerian} PMA: tut- Hiw, Toga, Lehali, Mota, Mosina, Tam, Vetumboso tutu- Lakona duki- Sesake tuki- Anutan tu- common Polynesian tuk-tok- “to knock at door” Tagalog tug-tug- “to play instrument, ring bell, strike gong” Tagalog tukain- “to peck” Tagalog TP: Forging means taking or touching the thing (- ? object) with tongs with one hand while thwacking it with the other. Thence the seemingly disparate semantics of all these words, which after so long time and erosion of possible suffixes are difficult to disentangle. Probably from the high status of the new craft the word for “forge” came to be used in all kinds of transferred senses until it meant just “strike”. u “sound” Sanskrit u- “to emit sound” Hawai'i ua- “scream” Tahiti uo- “to crow” Tonga *kan- “reed, tube; pitcher” DSDE: kanna “pitcher” Old Norse kande id. Danish kanne id. Norwegian kanna id. Swedish kanna id. Old Saxon either loan from canna “reed, tube; flute” Latin (“clay container with spout” > “pitcher”)? cf., with suffix cana:lis “canal” Latin loan from kánna “tube” Greek loan from qanu: Babylonian-Assyrian gin id. Akkadian-Sumerian or *gan(dh)- Proto-IndoEuropean gann “vessel, container” Middle Irish *gandhna- Proto-IndoEuropean kani “plate” Old Norse kane “boat” Danish dial. “sleigh” Danish kane id. Norwegian kane “bowl with handles”, “scoop” Norwegian dial. kani “boat” Old Swedish kana type of sleigh Swedish dial. kani “small wooden bowl”, “trunk, snout”, type of boat Icelandic kane “boat” Middle Low German Kahn id. German kaan id. Dutch with different ablaut grade kæna type of boat Old Norse Demp: *kenD(ih) “pitcher, water jar” Proto-Austronesian AG: *(kEn)zeh “pitcher” Proto-Austric *(kEn)zeh “jar, pot, dish” Proto-AustroAsiatic PKMa 3638: *kundu “gourd” Proto-Austronesian *kundu “jar” Proto-Austronesian *H-gH- “day” aha(n) “day” Sanskrit { IENH 461: *h(a|&)g- “to burn, be on fire, be aflame, be ablaze, shine brightly” Proto-Nostratic > ahi-h. “the sun” Sanskrit, IndoEuropean aha: “day” Sanskrit, IndoEuropean *h(a|&)g- “to burn, be on fire, be aflame, be ablaze, shine brightly” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, VISW *Y.-K.-r- *Y.éghor- > *óghor- high tone Proto-IndoEuropean áhar “time of day, day or night” Sanskrit *ògh-r- low tone Proto-IndoEuropean ahr-, ahn- n-extension for the oblique cases besides -r- “time of day, day or night” Sanskrit ahas^ ca krs^mám áhar árjunam ca, Rgv. VI 9 1 “the black and the white time of day = night and day” Sanskrit asn- “day” Avestan áhani: (dual) “day and night” Sanskrit ahaná: epithet of dawn Sanskrit Y.gh1ò:ra: > gh1ò:ra: > *gh-r-, o-grade ho:ra “time of day” Latin *Y.-s.-r- Proto-AfroAsiatic Y.as.aruN, Y.as.ruN “a time, space of time, an hour, a time of the day, day (as opposed to night), night (as opposed to day) the morning (before or after sunrise)” Arabic al-Y.as.ra:ni “(the two times of day =) day and night” Arabic HSED 24: *?ah^- “fire” 3h^.t “fire” Egyptian (Book of the Dead) *?aG(u)- “fire” Central Chadic ?u?u “fire” Bura hu?u “fire” Kilba uGu “fire” Fali Kiria ahu “fire” Kuseri u “fire” Gulfey au “fire” Buduma hu: “fire” Mbara Assimilation of vowels in several languages. In Gulfey, u goes back to *?uGu- with the consequent loss of the second syllable. Reduplication in Bura and Kilba. HSED 129: *?ug- “burn” *?ug- “burn” Semitic ?gg [-u-] “burn” Arabic *?ig-/*?ug- East Chadic yuga “burn” Ndam ?iggo “fry” Migama Ndam yu- < *?u-. Related to *?eg- “fire” Lowland East Cushitic ?eeg “fire” Arbore HB: egun, egu-, egur- “day” Basque } aho- “day, light, world” Tonga, Nanumea, E. Euvian; aso- “day” Samoa, Tikopian aso- “sun” Lolsiwoi ao- “day, light” Tahiti, Hawai'i, Anutan, oso- “day, light” Bugui aho- “sun, day” Solomon Is. aho- “sun” Wailengi, Nggala m-aho- “sun” Kerepuna maten-aho, matan-aho- “sun, as eye of the day” Lolomatui, Ngwatua Leper's Island hora “predictive art, division of time or space” Sanskrit huro'a- “daytime” Are'are horo “time, period” Arosi hula “prediction, prophecy” Philippines ulana “prophecy” Hawai'i hura “moon, lunar month” Are'are hura-ana “until, till” Melanesia hara-tahi “adverb of time and place” Melanesia huri-huri “origin, source” Melanesia haro “adverb of time” Solomon Is. hara pote “phase” Solomon Is. hor'ai “daybreak,sunrise” Solomon Is. hora'i “to begin” Arosi hororaha “irregular or intermittent periods” Arosi horam “year” Maat huram “year” Toak huli “late” Tagalog ulit “time according to repeated acts” Tagalog hulu-gan, hulo-g “installment payments” Philippines hulo “source” Philippines huli “to turn, repeat” Philippines horota “time, period” Melanesia horang “sun” Kate *H-w-s- “dwell, wear” vasanti “to dwell” Sanskrit, also vasana “dwelling” vas “to wear” vasi, vasana “clothing” { IENH 368: *?[a|&]w- “to sleep” Proto-Nostratic > *?h[e|a]w- “to spend the night, to sleep” Proto-IndoEuropean 'wn “to sleep, to slumber” Egyptian, AfroAsiatic SIG *A2-w-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *w-s- Proto-IndoEuropean *wes- Proto-IndoEuropean vása-ti “dwells” Sanskrit wesan “stay, be” Old High German *awes- Proto-IndoEuropean aesa núktu “spent the night” Greek (Homer) whence *aws- Proto-IndoEuropean iaúa “spend the night” Greek extended *A2-w-s-y- > *w-s-y- Proto-Semitic tu:s^iya “permanent” Hebrew wa:sa: (“let be” >) “made (someone something)” Beduin Arabic transposed *w-A2-s- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *wá:s- Proto-IndoEuropean vá:stu n. “abode, house” Sanskrit whence reduced *vas- Proto-IndoEuropean vastu n. “place” Sanskrit wastu “town” Greek EIEC *H2wes- “dwell, pass the night, stay” *H2woseti “passes the night, dwells” vesa “be, stay” Old Norse wesan “be, stay” Old English wesan “be, stay” Old High German wisan “stay, dwell” Gothic was “was” Gothic núkta a(w)esa “passed the night” Greek *H2wos- goy “is, exists” Armenian aganim “spend the night” Armenian awt “night's rest” Armenian hues- “live” Hittite *H2us-ske/o- huski- “wait for, linger, procrastinate” Hittite vaohaiti “dwells” Avestan vásati “dwells, passes the night” Sanskrit wäs- “dwell” TokharianB weswe “trace” (< “what lingers after”) TokharianB HSED 117: *?i(w)- “be, become” iw “be” Egyptian (pyramids) *?i- West Chadic g?yi “become” Angas i- “be, become” Bolewa *?ya- “become” Central Chadic ye- “become” Gisiga Related to HSED 118: *?iw-/*?iy- “come”, cf. English become ~ come? Note that the original root seems to have a structure CV, i.e. *?i-. HSED 118: *?iw-/*?iy- “come” iy, iw “come” Egyptian *?ey- “come” Coptic i “come” Bohairian ey “come” Sahidic *iy- “go, come” Central Chadic iy “go, come” Masa ?i- “come” Bed *?i- “go” Lowland East Cushitic ?i?it- “go” Arbore Consonantal alternation of *w ~ *y. Cushitic data may indicate an earlier form of the root, namely, *?i-. IENH 460: *h[a|&]w- “to put on, get dressed, wear” Proto-Nostratic > *h[e|a]w- , *hw-[e|o]s- “to put on, wear” Proto-IndoEuropean *h[a|&]w- “to put on, get dressed, wear” Proto-AfroAsiatic EIEC *wes- “be dressed, dress” *wes(t)o “is dressed, wears” *wes-n(e)u- ennumi “get dressed” Greek z-genum “get dressed” Armenian wess- “be dressed” Hittite wass(a)- “be dressed” Luvian vaste “wear” Avestan váste “wear” Sanskrit wäs “be dressed” TokharianAB *woséyeti “dresses, clothes” verja “dress” Old Norse werian “dress” Old English wear English werian “dress” Old High German wasjan “dress” Gothic vesh “dress” Albanian wassezzi “dresses” Hittite } wahi- “place, space” Hawai'i, wahi-noho- “dwelling, residence” wahi- “to cover, wrap” Tahiti, Marquesas, bahay- “house” Philippines bahag- “g-string, covering” Philippines. ulka “firebrand, meteor, fireball” Sanskrit ura- “flame, to blaze” Tahiti, Mangar. ula- “flame” Tonga urung- “flame” Sunda uru- “to be aflame, to glow” Anutan bukka “heart” Sanskrit buk “heart” Bengali { EIEC pulmo } put-puti- “heart” Munit but-but- “heart” Dema putu- “heart” Indonesia boyok- “heart” Hiw borok “heart” Mosina poot- “lungs” Nung bhuka “hole” Sanskrit, also pota “concavity”. puka- “hole, entrance, door” Hawai'i buca- “valley, gorge, pass” Fiji puta- “hole, aperture” Marquesas, Tahiti poko- “hole” Tolomako *bhudh- “to fathom, awaken, understand” budh “to fathom, penetrate, awaken, understand” Sanskrit, also buddha “wise, enlightenened, awakenend”, budhi “intellect” { IENH 1: *b[a|&]w- “to be or become aware of or acqainted with, to notice, to observe” Proto-Nostratic > *b(h)(e|o)w-d(h)- “to be or become aware of” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|e]w- “to be or become aware of” Proto-AfroAsiatic *bu-i (rare) “knowledge, learning” Sumerian SIG, IESSG *P-w- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bh-w- Proto-IndoEuropean phúo: trans. “let come, bring forth, produce” Greek phúomai “come (= descend) from, come forth (plants), is brought forth, become” Greek phutón, phuteúo:, phúsis Greek bháva-ti “is prepared, becomes, happens, occurs” Sanskrit bhávja- “future (adj.)” Sanskrit fore, futurus Latin extended with guttural *bh-w-A2- > *bhéwa-, toneless *bhú- in bhavi-s^yá-ti “will occur” Sanskrit bhavi-tum, bhavi-s^ya- “which will come, future (adj.)” Sanskrit bhu:-tá-, a-bhu:t Sanskrit ephu: Greek (Homer) bu: “abode” Old High German, Old English, Old Norse bhu:- “space, location, cosmos” Sanskrit bu:an “inhabit” Old High German bu:a “inhabit” Old Norse buj “sleep (overnight), inhabit” Albanian b-w-A- (b-w-'-) Semitic “come, occur, come true” Hebrew “let come” Hiph ba:'ha:-ye:d “the time will come” Hebrew iami:m ba:'i:m “days will come” Hebrew hab-ba:'o:d (plur.) “futura, things to come” Hebrew ba:'u (inf.) “to come” Assyrian bo:a (perf.) “enter” Ethiopian ba:'a (perf.) “came back, went back, withdrew to, rested, remained, matched, corresponded, was equal of” Arabic ( cf. ánu bhu: with acc. “be equal of” Sanskrit) II V “he abode, took a place of abode” Arabic IV “took back the camels to their nightly resting place; fled from” Arabic VI “became equal” Arabic ba:'atuN “nightly resting-place of camels” Arabic The sense “returned, went back”, IV “fled” (related to the original sense as e.g. 'reverto' to 'verto' (= “become”)) may be compared to the extension *bh-w-g2- Proto-IndoEuropean (from *P-w-k2- “turn” Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic) bhug´á-ti “bends” Sanskrit bhugna- “bent” Sanskrit fugio Latin phugás Greek pheúgo: Greek extension *P.-w-K1- Proto-Indoeuropean-AfroAsiatic *b-w-s.- Proto-AfroAsiatic ba:s.a (perf.) “fled” Arabic *bh-w-gh- Proto-IndoEuropean pukh- “bend, fold” Greek biugan “bend” Gothic us-baugjan “turn inside out” Gothic G: -bá- “to be; to become” Proto-Bantu M: -bá- “be, become, dwell” Proto-Bantu IEW *bheudh-, nasal. *bhu-n-dh- “be awake, wake up, observe; be spiritually mature” bó:dhati “wakes up, awakens” Sanskrit baodhati “perceives” Avestan peúthomai “experience, perceive” Greek bodd “free will, consent” Welsh HKNH: puin “stem, root” Nordwestblockese in German bun id. Irish bon id. Welsh VMPSIE boto “wise, intelligent” Tonga budh “know” Sanskrit budî “sense, insight” Malay budhi “sense, insight” Sanskrit budha “knowing, wise, learned” Sanskrit } potu- “to know” Proto-Austronesian, budhi?- “conscience” Tagalog, bud-long “impulse” Tagalog, buka- “to open” Philippines puk-awin, buk-awin- “to awaken, enlighten” Philippines pudno- “truth, reality” Ilocano, pot-o- “wise, shrewd, wisdom, experience” Polynesian, bota- “blessed, fortunate, lucky” Lau, pudno- “to reveal, make known, truth” Bontok, pokka “to talk, walk in sleep” Bontok, pukaw- “awaken, arouse” Bikol, Bisayan, poto- “wise, expert” Anutan, budhna “depth, bottom, base, lowest part, etc” Sanskrit { SIG Alternating forms *p-w-t- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic with nasalisation púndax Greek *P.-w-t- Proto-IndoEuropean-Afroasiatic *bhud- Proto-IndoEuropean fundus (< *bhudno-) “bottom” Latin *but-no-, *but-ma- Germanic botn “bottom” Old Norse botm “bottom” Old English *P.-w-T.- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *bhudh- Proto-IndoEuropean budhná- “bottom” Sanskrit puthmé:n “bottom, ground” Greek IEW *bhudh-m(e)n “bottom” > *bhudh-mo-, *bhudh-no- budhná-h “ground, bottom” Sanskrit puthmén (< *phuth-) “bottom (of a bowl)” Greek fundus “bottom of a bowl, ground” Latin bond “sole, foundation, support” Middle Irish bodam “bottom” Old High German VMPSIE: bhû “be” Sanskrit bhâvaya (caus.)“make (cause to be)” Sanskrit facio “make” Latin fiucca, fucca “make” Tongan faa “make” Tahiti waka “make” Maori fei “make” Tongan tai-fa “impossible, unable” bûat “make” Malay bhavat “being” Sanskrit bhûayat “making” Sanskrit } buk-al “spring, foundation” Philippines po'o- “pit, hole” Hawai'i poo-poo- “deep, hole” poko-poko- “deep” Manga. boto- “bottom” Maori ka-po'o- “to enter, sink” Hawai'i boto- “tail” Lau potu- “to go through opening, a puncture, perforation the end of an object” Anutan potuaa- “end of a house” Anutan *yug- “join, pair” yug “to join, unite, mix” Sanskrit, also yoga “union, a spiritual discipline” yuga “epoch (joining of cycles)” yuva “bind, fasten” yuta “added to, joined to” yukti “union, connection” yama “forming a pair, twins, double” { VISW, SIG: *3.^-w- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *gI-w- “join, pair” Proto-IndoEuropean yuvá-ti yáu-ti “joins, harnesses” Sanskrit yutá participle + laryngeal extension *gy-wH2- jáutis “draft ox” Lithuanian reduced *gy-u:- yu:ta “joint” Avestan ju:tis “joint” Latvian with old half reduplication *3.^awáG- trans. Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *gyw-g- Proto-IndoEuropean with nasal infix yunákti “joins” Sanskrit iungo “join” Latin *3.^áwaG- intrans. Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *gI-wg- Proto-IndoEuropean zeûgos Greek zeúgnumi “to join, harness” Greek reduced zugón “yoke” Greek + s, o:-grade *gIo:s < *gIo:ws yo:h- “to gird” Avestan jústi “to gird” Lithuanian zo:nnumi “to gird” Greek zo:stós participle zo:ste:r, zo:stron “girdle” Greek *z-w- “join” Proto-AfroAsiatic single redupl. *z-w-w- zawwuN “a pair or a couple, two coupled together” Arabic ázwa: IV “he came having with him another” Arabic + H *z-w-H- za:Ha “gathered (camels)” Arabic + r *z-w-r- extended grade ziwa:ruN “rope between breast and hind girdle of a beast of burden” Arabic za:ra Perf. “tied (a beast of burden) with a type of rope called ziwa:r” Arabic + g- *z-w-g- “join (influenced, not borrowed from Greek)” Syriac, Arabic Ethiopian zawguN “a thing that is one of a pair or a couple, a woman's husband or a man's wife, a consociate, a fellow” Arabic zawga:ni Dual “a pair or couple” Arabic zawgatuN Fem. “wife” Arabic zawgå: “yoke, similar” Syriac zawg “one of two, equal, associate” Ethiopian zo:ga, zawa:ga Perf. “was (someone's) associate” Ethiopian ta-za:waga “was equal (to), had intercourse with, joined” Arabic astaza:waga “joined, had intercourse with” Arabic zawwaga II “he coupled or paired a thing with a thing, gave in matrimony (to somebody)” Arabic V “led (somebody) in matrimony, married (to somebody)” Arabic VIII “(the birds) paired one with another” Arabic Proto-IndoEuropean -gI- denotes the sound which in Anlaut > Greek z-, otherwise j- and which derives from Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic 3.^, an emphatic spirant. TP : Note here processes typical of both Proto-IndoEuropean and Proto-Austronesian: n-infixing (typically in the verb) and reduplication. See below on morphology. EIEC *yugom “yoke” iou “yoke” Old Welsh iugum “yoke” Latin ok “yoke” Old Norse geoc “yoke” Old English yoke English joh “yoke” Old High German jùngas (n-infix) “yoke” Lithuanian zygón “yoke” Greek luc “yoke” Armenian yukan “yoke, couple, pair” Hittite yugam “yoke” Avestan jugh “yoke” NPers yugám “yoke” Sanskrit *yugtóm “yoke” geoht “yoke” Old English yuktám “yoke” Sanskrit *yuges “yoke” gycer “yoke” Old English *jukizi, progressive assimilation of vowel > jukuzi “yoke” Gothic igo (pl. izhesa) “yoke” Old Church Slavonian igo “yoke” Russian *yew- “bind, join together” jáutis (< “that which is joined”) “ox, steed” Lithuanian ju:tis “fork in a road, separation” Latvian yáuti “binds, unites” Sanskrit *yeu-g- “to join, harness, yoke” (pres. yu-né-g-ti with n-infix) iungo: “join, harness” Latin untar-jauhta “subjugated” Old High German jùngti “join, harness” Lithuanian zeúgnumi “join, harness” Greek yuj- “join, harness” Avestan yunákti - yañjati “joins, harnesses” Sanskrit yojayati “joins together” Sanskrit *syuH1- “sew” (TP: *s-yu-H1-, “sew, make join”, with causative s-preformative) suo: “sew, sew up/together” Latin sy:ja “sew, tie the planks of a ship together” Old Norse se:owian “sew” Old English sew English siuwen “sew” Old High German siujan “sew” Middle High German siuvù “sew, stitch, tailor” Lithuanian shuvu “sew” Latvian shijõ “sew” Old Church Slavonian *kat-súo: > kassúo: “sew” Greek sívyatti “sews, joins” Sanskrit su- “sew” TokharianB *syuH1men schumeno “waxed thread, shoemaker's thread” Old Prussian humén “thin skin, membrane, sinew” Greek sumanza “thread” Hittite syú:man- “band, strap; thong, girdle; seam” Sanskrit *syuH1tos su:ð “sewn planks of a ship” Old Norse sjo:ðr “pouch, bag” Old Norse se:od “pouch, bag” Old English siut “thread” Middle High German siùtas “sewn” Lithuanian shityj “sewn” Russian syu:tá- “sack” Sanskrit SSIRG 5.6.a: *yewH-, *yew-h- ~ *syewH- or *sewH- [variant/allomorph: ?secondarily formed?] yu- root “tie, bind” Vedic yáuti, yuváti yutá- vbl.-adj. yutí-/yu:tí vbl.-noun ~ syu- root “sew” Vedic syu:tá- vbl.-adj. syu:man “seam, bond, tying” Vedic but su:tra-m “thread, string” Vedic with *-y- -less variant: not secondarily formed, since Lat. and Gmc. cognates with the same *-y- -less allomorphy show that it must be inherited ju´´tis pl- “joint, crossroads” Lithuanian jáutis “ox”, lit. “youked animal” Lithuanian a type of metonomy, semantically a transfer from action-noun “joining” to passive object of action, “join-ee” (acute accent guarantees the *-H-) a link with root *yewg- “join. yoke” is probable, but it is unclear how: yunákti Vedic zeúgnu:mi Greek iungo: Latin yukam nt. zero grade Proto-Germanic > juk Gothic geoc Old English juch/joch Old High German siujan “sew” Gothic sýja id. Old Norse *siu:- sjóðr “sewn bag” Old Norse seowian “sew” Old English siowan id. Old High German siuvù, siúti id. Lithuanian siútas ptc. s^uvu id. Latvian schumeno “cobbler's thread” Old Prussian s^ityj “sewn” Russian *syuweno- > sIvenU id. Old Church Slavonic *syu:yo: >, s^ijo, s^iti “sew” Old Church Slavonic *syu:-y- > *su:-y- (by dissimilation?) > suo: “sew” Latin su:-bula “cobbler's awl” Latin su:-tor agent noun “cobbler” Latin su:tus vbl.-adj. *syu- (no *-H-) > humé:n “sew” Greek *syuH-dhleh2 > siula “awl” Old High German *su:-maz “seam” Proto-Germanic soum id. Old High German saumr id. Old Norse se:am id. Old English sum(m)anza “thread” Hittite CAIEH 63: *su(ng)kit Proto-Austronesian sungkit “forked pole, hairpin” Tagalog sungkit “embroidery” Ngaju sukitrâ “work with a sharp instrument” Mer. cf. (verb)-tr-,-tl- “tool with which to (verb)” Proto-IndoEuropean thukit-a “dig with a stick” Fiji i-thuki “digging stick” Fiji su?i “to thread, embroider” Samoan CAIEH suggests a connection with either Proto-IndoEuropean *(s)teu-k- “prick, dig; hammer” or (the alternative form) *(s)teu-g “press, push; stick”. I think it belongs here among “yoke” and “sew”. } yug-yug- “to mix, beat together” Ilocano yayoyag- “to bind, tie together” Woleaian yoka pa- “side by side” Kewa yoka-taba - “join together” Kewa yaka- “to knead together, press together like dough” Chamorro yakap, yapos- “to embrace, hug” Tagalog yapar- “to join, unite” Nengone yalaka- “to mix, stir” Chamorro yuhod- “point of contact of surfaces” Tagalog yu-yong- “to lift or bear together” Bisayan yong- “to bump, collide with, brush against, engage in battle” Iban yokeva- “to collaborate with” Papuan yovai- “to marry” Papuan yemyem- “to squeeze together, to close up” Bontok yet-yet- “to bind, tighten” Bontok yom-yom- “to gather, bring together” Bontok yakit- “pair, couple” Indonesia ya- “two” Sui, Mak Then, Kam yiri- “two” Sepik yakag- “to invite someone to join you or come with you” Tagalog yacore- “to cling” Nengone yethi- “to sew” Nengone yetutu “chain” Nengone yewagi- “hook and line” Nengone yeyeth- “to sew” Nengone yigey- “to add, put together with” Yap jodoh- “to be compatible, match for marriage” Indonesia ber-jodoh- “to be married to” Indonesia jujun- “to attract, be attractive” Javanese hunga- “company of people, group” Maori hui- “to join, connect, mix, assemble, assembly, union” Hawai'i aukahi- “united, flowing together” Hawai'i ugnay- “union, connection” Tagalog ugnayan- “to unite, join, connect, increase, make long” Tagalog aug-wiya- “to join” Auyana atha/atho “but” Sanskrit atia- Marquesas, aka- Hawai'i, a- Samoa. *H-bH/p/H- “bind; pole; catch; to divide, apportion, feed, protect” pac “to bind” Sanskrit bhag/bhaga “to divide, allot” Sanskrit pa “to guard, protect, preserve” Sanskrit { IENH 25: *b[a|&]y- “to apportion, divide into shares, distribute, allot” Proto-Nostratic > *b[h][e|o]y- “to give” Proto-IndoEuropean (found only in Anatolian) b[a|&]y- “to apportion, separate into equal parts, distribute into shares” Proto-AfroAasiatic ba:ya(n) “rich” Proto-Altaic ba “give as a gift or ration” Sumerian *payuG- “to bring food or supplies to” Proto-Eskimo payuk- “to bring a gift to” East Canadian Inuit payuk- “to give food, clothing to those remaining” West Canadian Inuit VISW, IESSG *Y.-P.-G.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *Y.aP.áG.- ? transitive Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *bh-g- Proto-IndoEuropean bhája-ti “apportions” Sanskrit bag- intrans. “to be apportioned to, + dat. to belong to, to be meant for” Avestan bhaktá- partcp. “defined portion” Sanskrit baXtá- partcp. “defined portion” Avestan baXt “destiny” New Persian bhága- “what the gods have apportioned to you, wealth, happiness” Sanskrit ne-, u:-bogU “pauper” Old Church Slavonian boga:tU “rich” Old Church Slavonian bhága- (nomen agentis) “apportioner”, name of Savitar and a son of the Saviti Sanskrit baga- “lord, God” Old Persian baGa- “lord, God” Avestan baG “God” Middle Persian *Y.áP.iG.- ? intransitive Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic Y.abika “(a garment) clung (to the body), (a smell or a thing) clung (to somebody), was stuck (in a place), he became attached (bi-hi, to him or it)” Arabic *Y.abákuN Arabic = bhága- Sanskrit, bagha- Avestan + r Y.abkaruN “abode of demons, a place which the Arabs assert to be the land the Jinn” Arabic (ginnuN coll. “genies, demons, spiritual beings among whom are good or evil” Arabic) Y.abkari:yuN “perfect (in every respect), good, excellent (applied to anything wondered at or admired), strong, a lord or chief of me, one who has none above him” Arabic Y.abkari:yu kawmin “a lord or chief of people” Arabic EIEC *bhag- “divide, distribute” (also “receive, enjoy”) phageîn “eat” (< *“enjoy, share”) Greek Bagaios epithet of Zeus Phrygian bogU “god” Old Church Slavonian bog “god” Russian (Slavic ?< Iranian) bag- “apportion” Avestan baga- “good fortune, share” Avestan bagha- “god” Avestan ba:ji- “tribute” Old Persian bhájati “divides, distributes, receives, enjoys” Sanskrit bhága- “lord, dispenser (epithet of gods)” Sanskrit päk “share, portion” TokharianA päke “share, portion” TokharianB (Tokharian ?< Iranian) UEL 10, 22: *bHeh1- Proto-IndoEuropean *bHeh1-(ye/o-) “heat, roast” Proto-IndoEuropean > *be:-je/a- id. Proto-Germanic > *ba:-je/a- id. Proto-Germanic ba:(j)en “heat, roast (bread)” Old High German bæ(j)en id. Middle High German bähen “heat (in wraps), (dial.) roast bread” High German participle, zero grade *bHh1-to- > *bH&-to- “heated” Proto-IndoEuropean *baþa- “bath” Proto-Germanic extended with -g-, o-grade phó:go: “roast, fry” Greek zero grade *baka- “bake” Proto-Germanic loaned into *pexi- Proto-Uralic p´ije- “be cooked” Mordvin (Ersa) p´ij&- id. Mordvin (Moks^a) pu- “cook, be cooked” Zyryan pa:j- etc “be cooked” Vogul fo´´- “be cooked” Hungarian *pi- “ferment, be cooked” Samoyed In Proto-Uralic times there weere not yet any fireproof pots. Uralic *pexi- probably referred to cooking pits covered with earth, in which the food fermented (cf. Germ. 'bähen') [TP: Or rather, they were luaus: in a hole dug into the ground a fire was set with large stones; after the firewood burns out, dump meat onto hot rocks, cover with earth - some hours later, nice steak. And the pit might be used for a bath afterwards, by pouring water onto the remains - hot rocks covered with ashes and animal fat, which is how you produce soap BTW.] and loaned into *pes^ä-/*püs^ä- Proto-FinnoUgric bâsse- “fry, roast” Saami pi:t- “cook, scald” Vogul päl-, pät- etc “deep fry, cook” Ostyak pi_z^ “fry, bake” Votyak pe,z^ “heat (by wraps), scald; stew, be cooked” Zyryan deriv. pe,z^as “heating by wraps, scalding” Zyryan and *ba:-je/a- id. Proto-Germanic loaned into *pa:-ista- > paista “fry, shine (sun)” Finnish AAA: *bha:gos “beech” Proto-IndoEuropean phagein “eat” Greek HB: fagu- > “beech” Latin bago, pago, fago “beech” Basque bago + ? > bakaila, makaila “beechnut” Basque CAD: *ban.i “cook over a fire” Proto-MalayoPolynesian SIG, VISW, IESSG: *H.-b- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *ap- “bind” Proto-IndoEuropean apere “bind with a chain” Latin ape imp. “hinder, restrain” Latin ap-tus perf. part. “attached to > apt” Latin apta:re “attach, adapt” Latin with prefix co- (= Germanic ga-) co:pula “rope” Latin a:pi- “friend” Sanskrit a:ptrá-m “friendship” Sanskrit a:ptá- “familiar, suitable” Sanskrit = *H.-b- Egyptian with n-prefix n-H.-b- “rein on” Egyptian “reined-on bulls” Egyptian > nahB “yoke of bulls” Coptic extended with -k- *Habàk- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *p-g- Proto-IndoEuropean *pegnos > pignus “pledge (security for debt)” Latin = *H.-b- Semitic extended with -k- H-b-k- Semitic H.abaka perf. “he bound, tied, weaved (garment)” Arabic H.abbaka “he made firm or fast (a knot)” Arabic H.abikuN “bound, made fast or firm, vowen well” Arabic H&BaX “connected, yoked together” Syrian with originally suffixal l- Ha:Bal “give as security” Hebrew “accept as security” Modern Hebrew niph. “be given as security” Modern Hebrew HaBo:l “security given in a pledge” Hebrew HaBo:la: “security” Hebrew HaBi:la: “pledging with security” Hebrew Habala “he bound with a rope or cord > he entered a treaty” Arabic H.abluN “rope, cord, bond, covenant” Arabic ablu “measuring line” Assyrian Hæ`Bæl, HaBl “rope, cord, measuring rope, snare” Hebrew HaBlå: “rope” Syrian H.ibala:tuN “snare” Arabic H.&Bo:l, H&Bo:la: “pledge (security for debt)” Syrian extended with -y- H-b-y- Semitic H.abi: “bondsman, guarantor” Ethiopian H.ebi:t “bail, security” Ethiopian 'aH.baya “offer security (to someone for someone” Ethiopian ta-H.abaya reflex. “offer oneself as security (for someone)” Ethiopian extended with -s- H-b-s- Semitic H-b-s^- “bind, tie, join, lock up” Hebrew aba:s^u “bind, twine” Assyrian abs^a:nu “rope, yoke” Assyrian H&Bas^ “took, held captive, blocked (water)” Syrian H&Bs^å “recluse, monk” Syrian H.abasa “he confined, kept in, imprisoned, hindered” Arabic abs^u “loop, snare” Assyrian abs^a:nu “rope” Assyrian H.absuN “prison, jail” Arabic ma-H.basuN id. Arabic H.ibsuN “a dam to confine the water” Arabic H.abi:suN “anything bequeathed for the sake of God” Arabic H.ebu:s part. “incarcerated” Ethiopian H.abs “prison” Ethiopian extended with -r- Alternative form *H.-b-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic H-b-r- Semitic *X-b-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic H-b-r- Semitic Xabra, Xabara “be joined” Ethiopian Xebr “rope” Ethiopian 'aXbara “join, associate” Ethiopian Xebu:r part. “joined” Ethiopian H-b-r- “be connected, ban” Hebrew H-b-r- “be connected, ban” Aramaic Hæ`Bær “connection, ban” Hebrew Ha:Be:r “companion” Hebrew HaBrå “associate, companion, ally” Syrian aba:ru “bind, confine, ban” Assyrian ubburu “put under ban, curse” Assyrian ibru “friend” Assyrian ibru:tu “friendship” Assyrian ebi:ru “union” Assyrian aburru “enclosure” Assyrian aburris^ adv. “in safety” Assyrian na:bartu “cage” Assyrian '-b-r Assyrian uburru II 1 inf. “joined” Assyrian EIEC: *peH2[g|k]- “fasten securely” Proto-IndoEuropean pango: “drive in” Latin fa: “capture” Old Norse fo:n “capture” Old English *pa:keye/o fe:gan “join, bind, unite” Old English fa:han “capture” Old High German fahan “capture” Gothic pégnumi “plant, make solid” Greek pa:syati “binds” Sanskrit pa:x “peace (a binding together by treaty)” Latin pacisci “agree” pa:gus “district, province, country (as opposed to the city)” < *“boundary staked out on the ground” Latin WORDS: paca- “pacify, subdue” Latin palatum “palate” Latin TP: an area fenced in by teeth TP: fang English pang “jab (of pain)” English NEW: paaien “placate, appease” Dutch (of fish) “spawn” Dutch DELL: baculum n. “stick, staff” Latin bacc “curved staff” Irish bachall Irish bagl Britannic bacillum (-us) dim. “small staff” Latin baktron, bakte:ría “stick, staff” Greek imbe(:)cillus “weak” Latin HB: baccilla > Latin makilla “stick” Basque TP: *pagin > (Carrasquer Vidal, Vennemann) Pre-Pre-Basque EWBS: agin, hagin, haghin “molar, cutting edge” Basque agin- “promise, command” Basque TP: *paga > (Carrasquer Vidal, Vennemann) Pre-Pre-Basque DBF: aga, haga “staff, stick” Basque hagin “yew, tree” Basque TP: *pat-sV- > Pre-Pre-Basque EWBS: ats, hats, has, as- “trace, finger” Basque hats “paw, foot of an animal, footstep, imprint of any kind, trace, example to be imitated, joint, seam, race” Basque hats “lower edge of piece of clothing, false seam on women's coats” Basque has- “nourishment” Basque has- “seed” Basque has- “nail, claw, paw” Basque eman “be busy with sth.” Basque atseman, atsaman, ats^eman, ats^aman hatsaman, hats^eman “seize, grasp, catch, find” Basque APG 10: *pag-, *pa:g- “fasten” Proto-IndoEuropean pango: “insert, drive in” Latin pé:gnumi Greek *pegg- “peg” Nordwestblock pegge id. Middle English pegge id. Middle Dutch pegge id. North Frisian pássalos id. Greek *paxlos > pa:lus “pole” Latin paxillus dim. Latin pessulus “bolt” Latin APG: (pfand “security for pledge” German) Pagin > Peine town in North West Germany at the confluence of the Pisser and Fuhse rivers Nordwestblock Pein farm on the Pinnau river in Holstein Nordwestblock Pahin-, Pagindrecht > Pendrecht deserted village near Rotterdam Nordwestblock fakin “weir for catching fish” Old Norse CGOF: apala (acc.pl.) “pile as part of pile- planking (against water)” Old Frisian DELL: paca “causa:” adv. Umbrian pase “pa:ce” Umbrian pacer “propitious” Umbrian pacrer n.pl. Umbrian pacre n. “propitious” Marsic in Italy pacris “pa:ca:ti” Paelignian fac “area” Old Saxon pagus “district, canton” Latin paz “joint” Czech, Polish, Russian prupukid “ex antefacto:” Oscan note the -u- Personal names: Pa:cius Latin Paccius Latin Pakis Oscan Pa:culus Latin Pakul Oscan Pa:culius Latin Pakullis Oskan Pacuvius Latin Pacuies Marsic in Italy Pa:conius Latin Pa:culeius Latin AHDIE: *pag-, *pak- “to fasten” Proto-IndoEuropean *fo:gjan “to join, fit” Proto-Germanic fe:gan “to fit closely” Old English nasalised form *pa-n-g- Proto-IndoEuropean *fangiz “seizure” Proto-Germanic fang, feng “plunder, booty” Old English vangen “to catch” Dutch pangere “to fasten” Latin root form *pa:k- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:x “a binding together” > “peace” Latin paci:sci: “to agree” Latin suffixed form *pak-slo- > pa:lus “stake (fixed in the ground)” Latin probably pa:la “spade” Latin lenghtened grade form *pa:g- pa:gus “boundary staked out on the ground” > “district, village, country” Latin pa:gina “trellis to which a row of vines is fixed” > “column of writing, page” Latin pro:pa:ge:s “a fixing before” > “layer of vine, offspring” Latin pe:gnumai “to fasten, coagulate” Greek AE: pignus “pledge (security for debt)” Latin > Meyer (EWA) peng, -u id. Tosk Albanian pe~ng id. Geg Albanian DSDE: fad “vat; clothing item; bagage” Danish fat id. Norwegian fat id. Swedish fat id. Old Norse fat id. Old Saxon vazz id. Old High German Fass id. German fat > vat English *fata- Proto-Germanic *ped-, *pe:d-, *pod-, *po:d- > Proto-IndoEuropean *podo- Proto-IndoEuropean fæta “deal with” Old Norse *fatila- > fetill “shoulder band” Old Norse fezzil “link, chain” Old High German Fessel id. German perhaps palla- “grain container” Sanskrit vaten “catch; understand” Middle Low German fat(t)en id. Low German > loan fatte id. Danish fatte id. Norwegian fatta id. Swedish fatte sigh “occupy oneself with” Old Danish fazzo:n “catch; understand” Old High German fassen id. German fatian (wif) “take home a wife” > “marry” Old English fata (veg) “find one's way” Old Norse DEE: padlock English prob. coined by adding to pad, ped “pannier” English (Norfolk) pedlar, pedler, peddler English the old word was usually peddare, pedder A man who hawked about fish in baskets called peds, or occasionally pods. peddir “pedlar” Lowland Scots The orid. sense was prob. “bag” and the word is to be identified with pad, pod. pad “soft cushion” English “saddle” (Levins, 1570) “bundle” (Halliwell) “stuffed bag, cushion” pod “husk” English orig. “leather bottle, bag” pude “cushion” Swedish dial. pude id. Danish put “large buoy, inflated sheep-skin” Gaelic Duden: vanden > “seek out, visit” Middle Low German fahnden “search”, esp. of searching for persons in investigative police work German WORDS: pando, pandi, passus “spread out” Latin passis manibus “with hands outstretched” Latin pand-us “spreading round in a wide curve arched” Latin IEIE: bah_a “defense, defender” Elamite pa:- id. Sanskrit pah_s^ “defend” Hittite G: -bèNg- “to chase game” Proto-Bantu M: -baga “cattle pen” Proto-Bantu -big- “fence in, enclose with hedge” Proto-Bantu -pad-(ad-) “spread everywhere” Proto-Bantu -pak- “adjoin, be close to, border on” Proto-Bantu -pak- “border on, adjoin” Proto-Bantu -pak-a “limit, separation” Proto-Bantu -pak-a “separation, limit” Proto-Bantu -pát- “seize” Proto-Bantu IENH 52 : *p[h][a|ë]H- “to eat” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|a|o]Hh- > *p[h][a:|o:]- “to feed” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h][a|ë]H- “to eat” Proto-AfroAsiatic VISW *p-A.- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic *pa:- Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *pa- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:bulum “fodder” Latin pa:nis “bread” Latin pa:sco “let eat” Latin fo:djan “feed” Gothic fø:ða “feed” Old Norse fe:dan “feed” Old English patéomai med. “eat” Greek ápastos “sober” Greek fatunga “feeding” Old High German fo:ðr “fodder” Old Norse fo:der “fodder” Old English fuotar “fodder” Old High German *p-A- Semitic extended *p-A-m- fa'ama “(the camel) filled its mouth with herbs, he drank (a draught of beverage) with his mouth (not with his hand), he satisfied his thirst (mina-l-ma:'i, with water)” Arabic 'af'ama II “put a morcel into (someone's) mouth, offer bread to a beggar” Ethiopian reflex. III “fill one's mouth with a morcel, swallow a morcel” Ethiopian IV “seek out, beg for a morcel” Ethiopian EIEC *peH2- (pres. *péH2ti / *peH2-s(k)eti “guard, protect, cause to graze” ai:nches “bread basket” Old Irish pawr “meadow” Welsh pa:sco: “feed, lead to pasture, nourish” Latin fo:ðr “fodder” Old Norse fo:dder, fo:ðor “fodder” Old English fuoter “fodder” Old High German pasõ “protect, guard” Old Church Slavonian pa:nía: “satiety” Doric Greek hawran “herd” Armenian pah(has)s- “protect” Hittite pa:iti “guards” Avestan pá:ti “guards” Sanskrit päs- “guard, protect, practice moral behaviour” TokharianA päsk- “guard, protect, practice moral behaviour” TokharianB cf. *póH2yu po:u “flock of sheep” Greek pa:yú “protector” Sanskrit poimén “guardian, herder” Greek piemuo “herder” Lithuanian *poHiweH2- “open meadow” pieva “meadow” Lithuanian póa: “grass, grassy place” Greek IEIE: unexpected b- bósko: “(I) herd, feed; graze” Greek boté:r “herdsman” Greek bósis “food, fodder” Greek boú-botos “cow pasture” Greek HSED 1927: *pah_- “field” ph_3.t “field” (n.) Egyptian (mew) Vocalic -3. *pah- “cleared open space, farm” West Chadic fage: id. Hausa APG: Powe placename near Osnabrück Nordwestblock HKNH: pa:- Proto-IndoEuropean pa:-ro- Proto-IndoEuropean pawr “pasture” substrate in Welsh pori “graze” substrate in Welsh IEIE": bah_a “defense, defender” Elamite CAD: *pa+cek “drive in (as post, nail or wedge)” Proto-Austronesian *pager “fence, enclosure” Proto-Hesperonesian(?) *páju? “stake; nail” Proto-MalayoPolynesian PKMa 3703: *penet “fish-trap, spear-trap” Proto-Philippine (Zorc) panti “fish trawling net” Tagalog *piket “to force, compel” Proto-Philippine (Zorc) *pana “bow and arrow” Proto-Austronesian } pa'a- “to be fast, make fast, hold back, detain” Hawai'i bat- “bind fast” Indonesia bahagi- “division, part, fraction, to divide (with prefix)” Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia; poka- “to divide” Polynesia, bota- “to divide” Efate, Proto-Oceanic, fita- “to divide” Melanesia, baang- “to divide” Thai vase, wase, waha, etc.- “to divide” Proto-Oceanic ba “to give” Sumerian, also ba “rations, wages” ba- “to give” Paz wa- “to give” Ruk pa- “to give” Thao bigay- “to give” Philipines foake- “to give” Maori, Tuamotus, Rarotonga patuau- “to give” Sesake pitua- “to give” Nguna, Woraviu ptu- “to give” Pango bayad- “payment, damages” Philippines *dm-pd- “domain and its master” DSDE: *dm-ped- Proto-IndoEuropean *tumfetiz Proto-Germanic tomt “plot for a house” Old Danish, Swedish tomt “ruin of a house” Danish *dm-pedom Proto-IndoEuropean *dápedon “floor (org. plot)” Greek NO: toft “allotted area for constructing a house” Danish (personal name) + -tofte (pl.) common type of village name in Denmark, the Danelaw and Normandy Danish cf *A-d-m- “create” and *p(/kW)-d- “flat (land); foot” TP: *dm-pot- “master of the house” Proto-IndoEuropean despóte:s “master, ruler” Greek *tumfaþ- Proto-Germanic NO: tomte “supernatural being living in a house, spirit of the house, gnome, pixie (> Santa Claus)” Swedish TP: *dm-pot-nya “mistress” Proto-IndoEuropean > TA: tamfana “goddess of the Marsi” Marsic at the Rhine (Nordwestblock?) cf *A-d-m- “create” and *p-t- “master, mistress” *k-r- “bark, skin; turn, circle, enclosure” chira “bark, cloth, rag” Sanskrit { IENH 239: *g[u|o]r- “to turn, twist, wind, wrap, roll” Proto-Nostratic *g[o]r- “to roll, rotate” Proto-Kartvelian *g[a|&]r- “to roll, revolve” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kura- “to twist, turn, plait, tie (together), twine together, braid” Proto-Uralic *göre- “to turn, twist, wind, wrap” Proto-Altaic gur “to bend (tr.)” Sumerian gur “to wind up, roll up; to turn, twist” Sumerian gur “basket” Sumerian gúr “ring, circle” Sumerian gúr “to bend, bow (intr.)” Sumerian gurú “to wriggle, writhe” Sumerian gurum “to bend, bow (intr.); to bend (tr.)” Sumerian IENH 247: *k[h][a|&]r- “skin, hide; bark, rind” Proto-Nostratic > *k[h](e|o)r- “skin, hide; bark, rind” Proto-IndoEuropean *kere- “bark” Proto-FinnoUgric IS: */k'/erV “bark” Proto-Nostratic *Kar'ä “bark” Proto-Nostratic 231: *K'ar'ä “bark, crust, rind” Proto-Nostratic IENH 263: *k[h][a|&]r- “to twist, turn, wind” Proto-Nostratic > *(s)k[h](e|o)r- “to twist, turn, wind” Proto-IndoEuropean *k[h](a|&)r- “to twist, turn, wind” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kerä- “round; to turn, twist, wind” Proto-FinnoUgric *kere “any round thing or object” Proto-FinnoUgric *kar_ “to whirl, spin, turn around” Proto-Dravidian IENH 267: *k[h][a|&]d- “to twist, wind, wrap, bend” Proto-Nostratic *k[h]ad > (with progressive voicing assimilation) *k[h]at[h]- “to twist, bend together, fasten, tie” Proto-IndoEuropean *k[h][a]d- (“to be or become bent, twisted, crooked”) > “to be wrong, mistaken” Proto-Kartvelian *k[h][a|&]d- “to cover, wrap” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kat.i “protection, shield” Proto-Kartvelian *kat.ikay “bolt, pin” Proto-Davidian *kat.t.- “to tie, bind, fasten; to clasp, yoke, shut” Proto-Davidian *ked- “to put on clothing” Proto-Altaic kàd “to fasten, tie, bind” Sumerian kad5 “to tie, fasten” Sumerian IENH 293: *k'[a|&]r- “to twist, turn, bend, wind; to tie (together), bind; (adj.) curved, bent, crooked” Proto-Nostratic > *k'(o|e)r- “to twist, turn, bend, wind, tie (together)” Proto-IndoEuropean *m-k'erd- “breast” Proto-Kartvelian *k'[a]r- “to bind, tie together” Proto-Kartvelian *kär3- “to twist or tie (together), bind, thread” Proto-FinnoUgric *kar_r_ “collection, bundle” Proto-Dravidian *kar- “lump, mass, knot, clot” Proto-Dravidian garadin, kàradin, karadin5 “bundle, sheaf” Sumerian IENH 303: *gY[i|e]r- “to enclose, gird” Proto-Nostratic > *g[h][e|o]r- “to gird, enclose” Proto-IndoEuropean *gY[a|&]r- “to enclose, gird” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ker_ “to join together, tighten, shut, close, block up, secure” Proto-Dravidian Dravidian: gru'- “to fence or surround” Kuwi gru:pa “to surround, encircle” Kui gír “girdle” Sumerian IENH 306: *kY[h][a|&]l-“to twist, twine, wind around, plait” Proto-Nostratic > *k[h](e|o)lH-, *k[h]loH- (> *k[h]lo:-) “to twist, turn, plait” Proto-IndoEuropean *k[h](e|o)lk'- “to twist, wind” Proto-IndoEuropean *kY[h][a|&]l-“to twist, twine, plait” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 317: *kW[h][u|o]l-“to bend, curve, turn, revolve, move around” Proto-Nostratic > *kW[h](e|o)l-“to revolve, turn, move around” Proto-IndoEuropean *kW[h][a|&]l-“to bend, curve, turn, revolve, move around” Proto-AfroAsiatic *kulka- “to ramble about, to roam or wander about” Proto-Uralic *kul- “to bend, to curve” Proto-Dravidian *kul- “to walk, run or move about, to round and round” Proto-Dravidian VISW Two roots: 1: *kW-r- “turn, bend” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *kW-r- Proto-IndoEuropean extension *kWarád (transitive) Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic > (since *kWr- >* kr-) *kr-t- “turn” Proto-IndoEuropean kr.n.átti “twines the thread” Sanskrit kre~no~tI “turns” Old Bulgarian kro~tU “spun” Old Bulgarian extension with -i- *kr-i- Proto-IndoEuropean with s-preformative skre:jù, skre~:ti “move in a circle” Lithuanian apskritùs “round” Lithuanian scri:nium “roll-shaped cover (for storing books, papers etc” Latin extension with -p- *kr-yp- Proto-IndoEuropean hreifi “wrist” Old Norse krei~pti tr. “turn” Lithuanian kraipýti frq.“turn back and forth” Lithuanian *kW-r- “turn” Pre-Semitic full reduplication 'an-kWarkWara“turn” intr. & tr. Ethiopian karkara “turned the millstone” tr. “he returned” intr. II “was turned over by air (of bird, cloud)” Arabic kirke:r “turn around, dance” Hebrew “turn back and forth” Modern Hebrew kirku:r “dance, jump” Modern Hebrew with assimilation (rk > kk) kikka:r “environ(ment)” Hebrew kikkar læ`Hæm“(bread-circle =) round loaf” Hebrew half reduplication *k-r-k- k&raX “encircled” pa. “enveloped” ethpe. “surrounded” Syriac k&råXå: “circuit” Syriac k&raX “wrap around” pa. “turn” intr. Jewish Aramaic ka:raX “wrap (around), unite” New Hebrew kæræX “book roll, bundle” New Hebrew k&ri:X m. “book roll, bundle” Jewish Aramaic adj. “going in circle” Jewish Aramaic k&ri:Xa: f. “wrap, bundle” Modern Hebrew single reduplication *k-r-r- karra “he wheeled round, turned, returned” Arabic karruN “a rope” Arabic with -w- infix *k-w-r- (< *kW-r) kawruN “a turn (of a turban)” Arabic ka:ra perf. tr. “he wound (-hu it) round” Arabic 2: *gW-r- “turn, bend” Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *kW-r- “bend” Proto-IndoEuropean [ > *gW-l- with r > l after labiovelar Proto-IndoEuropean *kW-l- “roll, turn” Proto-IndoEuropean c^árati “moves” Sanskrit c´araiti “moves around” Avestan pélei, péletai “moves around” Greek pereplómenos (eniaitós) “rolling, moving around” Greek hvel “wheel” Old Norse pólos “axis” Greek kolo n. “wheel” Slavic ( zero grade *kul- in kulíndo: Greek ) reduplicated *kW-kl- extended *kl-ng (kl- < kWl-) clingo “surround, encircle, ring” Latin hlekkr “ring” Old Norse gelenke “bend” Middle High German Gelenk “joint” High German *kl-nk- Pre-IE pokle~ca:ti “bend, arch” Old Bulgarian *gW-l- Pre-Semitic > *g-w-l- Pre-Semitic ga:la perf. “he went round, wheeled round” Arabic ga:luN, gu:luN “the wall that surrounds a well” Arabic mi-ga:luN “circle” Arabic full reduplication gilga:l “wheel” Hebrew galgal “wheel (mechanism)” Hebrew “zodiac” Modern Hebrew gilg&la: “zodiac” Jewish Aramaic gilge:l “roll, turn over” Hebrew galge:l “roll, turn over” Jewish Aramaic gulgòlæþ “skull” Hebrew gulgulta: “skull, ball, round stone” Jewish Aramaic single reduplication *gW-l-l- “roll” Amharic ga:lal “roll, turn over” Hebrew g&lal “roll, turn over” Jewish Aramaic ga:li:l “turnable” Hebrew subst. “roll, circle” Hebrew g&li:la: f. “outline” Hebrew extended with -i- gilla:yo:n “(parchment) roll, belt” Modern Hebrew ] whence also words meaning “ring”, “circle”, thus probably the m-formation *kWr.mi- “worm” Proto-IndoEuropean kr.mi-s. “worm” Sanskrit kirmis “worm” Lithuanian pryf “worm” Welsh w-formation *kWr.wi- Proto-IndoEuropean c^ervI “worm” Russian c^rUvI “worm” Old Bulgarian as in the w-participle curvus “curved” Latin y-formation *kr-y- (kr- < kWr-) Proto-IndoEuropean krei~vas “wound” Lithuanian kri:vu “oblique” Old Bulgarian kríkos “ring” Greek extended with -w- and -k- krúñc´ati “curves” Sanskrit (Dha:tup.) [alternative form *G.W-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *gW-r- Proto-IndoEuropean crumb “curved” Anglo-Saxon krumb “curved” Old Frisian krumb “curved” Old Saxon chrump “curved” Old High German *gr-mb- “curved” Proto-IndoEuropean crump “curved” Anglo-Saxon crump English krimpf “curved” Middle High German krampf “curved” Old High German krumpf “curved” Old High German krumpf “curved” Middle High German *kr-wk- “creep” Proto-Germanic *kr-wp- “creep” Proto-Germanic krüpfen “curve” Bavarian reduced *gru:p- (*gr- extended with laryngeal and -p-) Proto-IndoEuropean gru:pós “curved, hook-nosed etc” Greek ] The existence of the alternative form demonstrates that *gW-r- Proto-IndoEuropean is also the origin of the extension *kr-ngH- Proto-IndoEuropeqan hringr “ring” Old Norse hring “ring” Old High German kro~gU “circle” Old Bulgarian kro~glU “round” Old Bulgarian [alternative form *gr-ngH- Pre-IE kringr “ring” Old Norse krinc “circle” Middle High German kranc “circle” Middle High German *gr-ng^H- Pre-IE gre,z^iù, gre,s^ti “turn” Lithuanian ] Half reduplication *kr-k-, reduced *kr.k- Pre-IE circus “circle” Latin k from Pre-IE g, since *gW-r- Pre-Semitic half reduplication *g-r-g- (gr- < gWr-) Pre-Semitic gariga perf. intr. “moved in a circle (as a ring on a finger)” Arabic WM454: The form indeed seems at a glance to answer to the protoform *kurung, reconstructed by Otto Dempwolff (1938) for: kulong “pen, enclosure” Tagalog bang-kulong “trap” Tagalog hurung “put in captivity” Toba-Batak kurung “pen, enclosure” Javanese kurung “enclose, pen in” Malay kurong “penned, enclosed” Ngaju-Dayak horona “confined, enclosed” Merina-Malagasy Mark Harvey (MHSA, see there p. 56) included *kurung Proto-Austronesian as proposed evidence for recognizing *r as PAN phoneme, and cited: kurung “wooden frame for carrying firewood” Paiwan t-h-i-krungu “surrounding walls of a pig pen” Tsou re-krungv-a “mosquito net” Tsou kulóng “fortress” Tagalog kurúng “fortress” Ilokano kurúng “fortress” Bikol ku:ngan “cage” Tausug kolo “fortress, temporary fence of native cloth around a grave” Tonga ?olo “fort” Samoa I think that the reflexes assigned to *kurung actually reflect two protoforms, one authentic and one secondary or "doublet". The primary protoform (probably not PAN but PMP), I think, was: *kuDung > k_er_udung (infix -er-) “veil, lamp shade' Malay kudung “closed up, closed in' Kroe-Lampung kudung “cloth to cover or wrap around the head' Sundanese a-kurung “be closed in, pent up' Old Javanese kurung “confine, enclose, pen up' New Javanese kurungan “cage' New Javanese kòDung “wear over one's head' Madurese kuDung “head covering (of women), veil, cap' Balinese where ò is o with grave accent, D is d with dot under it (except *D which is the PAN reconstruct). The secondary protoform *kurung.... was probably at first a borrowing from Javanese into Malay, and then spread as Malay feature along the Java Sea-Strait of Makassar-Celebes Sea-Philippines-Taiwan route, resulting in the Western Austronesian reflexes ascribed to *kurung above by Dempwolf and Harvey. The one or other of the Philippine cognates could however directly reflect *kuDung (compare the meaning of the Kroe-Lampung reflex, which cannot be reconciled with a *kurung, but must reflect *kuDung). The Merina-Malagasy cited form could also reflect *kuDung. The following Javanese reflexes (perhaps also Sundanese kudung above), must be seen as borrowings from kudung < *kuDung Malay : kuDung “veil, hood' Old Javanese, kuDung “cloth to cover or wrap around the head, cover, lid' New Javanese TP: Note again the suffixes -g- (ergative?), -d- (accustive?): The *k-r-g- (e.g. “ring”) *k-r-'s (encircles?) the *k-r-d- (eg. Latin cardo “axis, pole”). NS 14: *c´arV “rind, crust” Proto-Nostratic *s^tArV id. Sino-Caucasian *t&r-ap Proto-Yeniseian *c^H&:rV North Caucasian CGRA: *(q)uR&n, “horn” Proto-Austronesian *kruk “horn” Old Chinese NS 45: *k'al´V “peel; bark, skin” Proto-Nostratic initial k'- because of *k'al´i- Proto-Altaic *qa_l_V “bark, skin” North Caucasian NS 54: kolV “peel, bark” Proto-Nostratic *q'wAl\HV “bark, skin” Sino-Caucasian *qhro:w (~kh-) Sino-Tibetan *qo:l “dandruff” Proto-Yeniseian q'wal\HV “bark” North Caucasian NS 72: *k'ErdV “heart, breast” Proto-Nostratic *ki:rV “breast, belly” North Caucasian NS 73: *k'ol`V “round, roll” Proto-Nostratic *gwVl(g)V id. Sino-Caucasian *kW(r)el\ “roll, wind” Sino-Tibetan *gwe:lgV “round” North Caucasian NS 81: *k'ar´ä “bark” Proto-Nostratic k'&_ri: “bark, shell” North Caucasian } kiri- “bark, skin” Maori, Rarot. kili- “skin, bark” Tonga koli “bark” Sula Is. hri “to bring” Sanskrit hali- “to bring, carry, bear” Hawai'i hila- “something pulled or drawn”, hilahin - “to pull, haul, drag” Tagalog lul “to shake, agitate”, Sanskrit loli- “to turn over, inside out” Hawai'i rori- “to turn over” Maori ruri- “to change, shift, pervert” Tahiti *A-r- “earth” ira/ila “earth” Sanskrit { IENH 419: *?[a|&]r- “earth” Proto-Nostratic > *?er- “earth, ground” Proto-IndoEuropean *?[a|&]r- “earth, land” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ere “clay, soil” Proto-Dravidian SIG, IESSG, VISW *Á-r- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic é:ra-ze: “onto the ground” Greek ero “earth” Old High German yor-wi- m. “sand, gravel” Old Norse extended with -g- erkir “earth” Armenian extended with -t- co-art “landowner” Old Irish es-ert “a landless man” Old Irish *er-þa:- “earth” Common Germanic airþa “earth” Gothic erda “earth” Old High German jorð “earth” Old Norse extended with -G^.- or -D.- *Á-r-G^.- Proto-AfroAsiatic or *Á-r-D.- Proto-AfroAsiatic 'ard.uN f. “earth, ground” Arabic 'aryå “earth” Syrian '-r-s “earth, (piece of) land” Phoenician 'ærs. “earth, (piece of) land” Hebrew '&raz “earth, (piece of) land” Aramaic 'arza: “earth, (piece of) land” Jewish Aramaic 'arzå: “earth, (piece of) land” Syrian ers.itu f. “earth, (piece of) land” Assyrian EIEC *H1er- “earth” Proto-IndoEuropean jorð “earth” Old Norse eorðe “ground” Old English earth English erda “earth” Old High German ero (< *era) “earth” Old High German airþa “earth” Gothic (Germanic < *erta:) erti “earth” Greek HSED 54: *´aric^.- “earth” *´ars^.- “earth” Semitic ers.etu “earth” Akkadian ´ars. “earth” Ugaritic ´rs. “earth” Phoenician ´rs. “earth” Punic ´rs. “earth” Moabite ´eres. “earth” Hebrew ´rq “earth” Aramaic (Emp) ´r` “earth” Aramaic (Nab) ´r` “earth” Aramaic (Palm) ´&ra` “earth” Aramaic (Palestine) ´&ra` “earth” Aramaic (Syrian) arqa, arda “earth” Aramaic (Mand) ´ard. “earth” Arabic ´rd. “earth” South Arabic ´erd. “earth” Jibbali *HVric^.- “earth” West Chadic ris^.a “earth” Paa hi:s^.e “earth” Cagu r&s^.u “earth” Siri ris^.i “earth” Mburku metathesis of vowels *´irac^.- “valley” East Chadic ´iraadya “valley” Bidiya May be connected with *´irVs^- “farm” Highland East Cushitic irs^a “farm” Sidamo *´aris- “till, plough” Agaw ares-&ng “till, plough” Aungi } ara-ea- “red earth” Tahiti ala- “red earth” Hawai'i ala-alai- “earth, clay” Hawai'i ma “prohibitive particle” Sanskrit mai- “prohibitive imperative prefix” Hawai'i, u-moi- “prohibitive” Marquesas. *m-gH- “great” maha- “great, prefixed to noun” Sanskrit { IENH 422: *m[a|e]?- “to increase (in numbers), to be many, to be abundant” Proto-Nostratic > *m[e|o]?- (m[e:|o:]-) “more, abundant, considerable” Proto-IndoEuropean *m[a|&]?- “to increase (in numbers), to be many, to be abundant” Proto-AfroAsiatic *me “abundant, plenty” Sumerian IENH 513: *m[a|&]H- “to increase, swell, exceed, surpass, be great” Proto-Nostratic > *m[a|&]H- “to increase, swell” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ma:- “big, great” Proto-Dravidian *ma:n- “to become excellent, glorious; to be full, abundant, great; (n.) greatness, excellence, splendor, glory” Proto-Dravidian mah “to be or make great, magnificent; to be much, many” Sumerian IENH 514: *m[a|&]G- “to be of great influence, importance or power; to be eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious” Proto-Nostratic > *maghali “high, great” Georgian, Kartvelian *m[a|&]g- “to be of great influence, importance, or power; to be eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, IESSG, VISW Alternative forms *m-k^.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *m-g^- Proto-IndoEuropean maj-mán- “greatness, power” Sanskrit mikils “great” Gothic mikill “great” Old Norse mihhil “great” Old High German mets Armenian extended with laryngeal *mgha- ága Greek mégas “great” Great magnus “great” Latin : *m-K^.- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *m-g^h- Proto-IndoEuropean máha:n nom. máha(n)t- “great, extensive, powerful” Sanskrit máhas “greatness, power” Sanskrit mazant- “great” Avestan mazah- “greatness” Avestan extended with laryngeal máhi- “great” Sanskrit *m-K^.- Pre-AfroAsiatic *m-s.- Proto-AfroAsiatic mas.u: “great, wide, broad, be sufficient, enough” Assyrian EHWL mex “nation”; “strong, great” Etruscan mex, mex-l “people, league, nation” Etruscan mexl “territory”; “the greatest” Etruscan EIEC *magh- “be able” mega “be able” Old Norse magan “be able” Old English may English magan “be able” Old High German magan “be able” Gothic magéti “to please, be agreeable” Lithuanian mogõ “am able” Old Church Slavonian me:khos “means, expedient” Greek ma:khos “means, expedient” Doric Greek mekhané “machine” Greek mart'ank (< *magh-thra-) “means” Armenian maghá- “gift, abundance” Sanskrit moghu- “magician” Old Persian magu- “magician” Avestan maga- “magician” Sanskrit "dubious"? ma:gulas “great” Lithuanian megále “great” Greek mahá- “great” Sanskrit *megH2- “large, great” (non-neuter *megoH2, neuter *mégH, gen. mgH2ós) maige “great, large” Old Irish mag- “large” Middle Irish Maglo-ri:x (proper name) Gaulish magnus “great” Latin mikill “large” Old Norse mjok “much” Old Norse micel “large” Old English mickle English mihhil “large” Old High German mikil-s “great, many” Gothic madh “large” Albanian mégas “large” Greek megaíron “envy” Greek mec “large” Armenian mecarem “esteem” Armenian me:kkis (< *megH2-i-) “much, many, numerous, in large numbers” Hittite maz- “large” Avestan máhi- “large” Sanskrit mäk “many” TokharianA mäka “many” TokharianB The distribution of "a" (Celtic, Latin, Albanian, Tokharian) and "e" (Germanic, Greek, Armenian, Hittite) is difficult to explain. *menegh- (if by n-infix) “abundant” meinic(c) “abundant, frequent” Old Irish mynych “frequent” Welsh mengi “multitude” Old Norse menigu “multitude” Old English manig “many” Old English many English menigi “crowd” Old High German manag “many” Old High German managei “people” Gothic manags “sufficient, many” Gothic managjan “make abundant” Gothic mûnogû “abundant” Old Church Slavonian mûnoz^îtî “increase, make to be more” Old Church Slavonian mnog “abundant” Russian maghá- “gift, reward. wealth” Sanskrit mámhate “give” Sanskrit *meH1[i]- “grow” *m[e|o]H1ros “large” *meH1ros mærr “known, famous, great” Old Norse mæra “announce, praise” Old Norse märi “news, narrating; known, famous, great” Old High German mären “make known” Old High German me:reins “news, gospel” Gothic me:rjan “proclaim” Gothic Vladi-merû personal name Old Church Slavonian *moH1ros ma:r “large” Old Irish mo:raid “magnifies” Old Irish mawr “more” Welsh enkesí-mo:ros “mighty with a spear” Greek HSED 1704: *mag- “be numerous, be big” *magwa- “big, long, high” Central Chadic mogwa “big, long, high” Musgoy *mag- “much, many” East Chadic ma:g “much, many” Tumak *mag-/*mang- Saho-Afar meng- “be strong” Saho meg- “be numerous” Saho mag- “fill” Afar mangoo “plenty” Afar Nasal infix in certain forms. } PMS mah “to be, make great” Sumerian PMA ma- “intensive prefix” common Austric maha- “much, many, prefix” Maori mah, mahu- “much” Malagasy, Sunda ekah, eka “one” Sanskrit ekahi, atahi- Hawai'i, Nanumea ita- Indonesia ata- Yami eta, kahi- Solomon Is. eja- Santa Cruz gai, ethi- New Hebrides e- Thai, Kam-Sui it- Ong-Be etahi, atahi, tahi- common Polynesian isa, sa, satu, esa- common Malay, dvau “two” Sanskrit duy “two” Prakit { IESSG, VISW *Y.-p- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ow- “duo, be double, fold (to make double)” Proto-IndoEuropean reduced *-Y.w in *o-Y.w- (oY. > o:) > -o:w dual ending Proto-IndoEuropean *w- “duo” Proto-IndoEuropean vi:-ginti “twenty” Latin extended with -gh- *w-gh- “boat, carry, road” (q.v.) with d-preformative *d-w- díu “two” Greek extended with -y- vi “in two” > “apart” Sanskrit vayá: “twig” Sanskrit with d-preformative *dw-y- Proto-IndoEuropean zwi: “twig” Old High German extended in twi:g “twig” Old English zwi:g “twig” Old High German *Y.-p- Proto-AfroAsiatic single redupl. Y.&PaP “fold double” Jewish Aramaic Y.ap “was doubled” Syrian Y.aPiPå: “double” Syrian with A-preformative 'eY.aP “doubled” v. Syrian 'aY.iPå: “doubled” part. Syrian with w-infix Y.åP “doubled” Syrian “be double, fold double” Jewish Aramaic Y.i:P “folded duoble” Jewish Aramaic extended with -y- Y.&Pi: “branches” > “foliage” Hebrew Y.&Pi: “branches” > “foliage” Biblical Aramaic extended with -s- Y.afasa “he doubled, folded (a thing), twisted (his arm or hand), wrung (a thing)” Arabic extended with -t- Y.afata “he twisted (a thing)” Arabic CAAA 2: tu “two” Ainu *d.uwa “two” Proto-Austronesian NS 180: *tu?V “two” Proto-Nostratic *(t')q'wE id. Sino-Caucasian *(t')q'wE id. Proto-NorthCaucasian In Sino-Tigetan and Proto-Yeniseian the original root obtained a nasal suffix and lost the dental element of the original cluster: *k-nij(s) “two” Sino-Tibetan *xï-na id. Proto-Yeniseian TP: If that's how the game is played, we should include ithnan “two” Arabic sn id. Proto-Berber IR 25: tq'áw´-s “two” Moses Columbian *t'q'u-b “twins” Kartvelian } dua- Malay, Dyak, Pulo-Nias, Buhui, Fate, Nguna duo- Batta, Lamih duwa- Sedi, Sunda a-dua- Kapampangan dalawa - Tagalog dava- Mindanao tua- Pwele, Siviri rua, lua- common Melanesian and Polynesia tri “three” Sanskrit tir “three” Hindi { VISW *th-l- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *th-r- l > r after th in anlaut Proto-IndoEuropean + y trayas “three” Sanskrit treis “three” Attic Greek thri:r “three” Old Norse dri: “three” Old High German *th-l- Proto-AfroAsiatic + th , half-reduplication ? thala:thuN “three” Arabic s^ala:s^u “three” Assyrian s^a:lo:s^ “three” Hebrew tela:th “three” Aramaic MCVc: *telu “three” Proto-Austronesian **tila[:]ti- id. *c^VlVc^- id. Proto-AfroAsiatic *t_ala:t_- id. Proto-Semitic **tilati- id. Pre-Proto-IndoEuropean *t[^]ret^- > *trey- id. Proto-IndoEuropean **tilut- > hirur id. Basque } toru, tolu, tilu, tiru, taru, tero, tru, tlu, tel, tal, tl- common Austronesian from Madagascar to Polynesia catvar “four” Sanskrit { MCVc: *xepate “four” Proto-Austronesian lepat id. Taokas *?Vp.t.-VGu > *?-p.-t.- > ?Vft.aw (jfdw) id. Egyptian afar id. Somali *p.t.-VGu > fad.iq id. Beja p(w)ud.u id. Hausa metathesis and t. > r *?arp.aG- > ?arba3- id. Semitic **putVwa:r > *pwetwor- id. Proto-IndoEuropean **lapt- > laur id. Basque CELR X 5: *fud.- ? “four” West Chadic *fwad.- id. Central Chadic *fwad.- id. East Chadic fdw id. Egyptian ifd.t id. Egyptian } kuver- Lenakel keta- Kwamera kuber- Lenakel kuwas- Ikyau kewet- E. Tanna, N. Tanna, Lenau ku-et- Iarkei, Loniel kefa- Isiai, Yatuk kuik- Wogeo kiki- Bam vari- Araki fari- Filakara beri- Lamenu, Mapremo, Nuvi, Bonkovia, Burupika bir- Fali bier- Baiap, Sesivi pat?- common Oceanic *p-n- “hand, five” pani “hand” Sanskrit { IENH 48: *p[h][a|&]l- “flat, level, broad” Proto-Nostratic *p[h](e|o)l- “even, level, flat, broad, wide” Proto-IndoEuropean extended forms *p[h]elhh-, *p[h]lehh- > *p[h]la:-, *pl.hh- *p{h][a|&]l- “flat, level, broad” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 49: derivate of IENH 48 *p[h][a|&]l- “flat of the hand, palm” Proto-Nostratic *p[h]lhh-meA “palm of the hand” Proto-IndoEuropean *pala “palm of the hand” Proto-AfroAsiatic SIG, VISW *p-m- or *f-m- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *p-m- Proto-IndoEuropean *pémkwe > *pénkwe “five” Proto-IndoEuropean km~(ma) “five” Lycian *kh-m- (kh < f) Proto-AfroAsiatic + s khamasuN “five” Arabic khams^i “five” Assyrian Ha:me:s^ “five” Hebrew Hams^å: “five” Syriac EIEC *pn(kW)sti- “fist” Proto-IndoEuropean fy:st “fist” Old English fist English fu:st “fist” Old High German kùmste (< *punkste) “fist” Lithuanian pesti “fist” Old Church Slavonian pjast “metacarpus” Russian cf. *penkWe “five” VMPSIE: pañc'a “five” Sanskrit pae “five” Tahiti lamh “hand” Scotch, Irish Gaelic lab “take” Sanskrit lambano, elabon “take” Greek ma-lafa “take” Madagascar VMPSIE: lima “five” most Austronesian nima “I take” Gothic nima “hand” Tongan AG: *l.ema “hand, five” Proto-Austric *(n)l.em[a] “hand, five” Proto-Austro-Asiatic pram “five” Stieng *lima “hand, five” Proto-Austronesian *l.em[a] Mon-Khmer *nl.em[a] Mon-Khmer *pl.em[a] > *tema Mon-Khmer *l.ema] Munda *nl.ema Munda ,nam “catch hold of, seize, arrest, receive, obtain accept, keep, hold, be caught” Sora *panl.ema Munda podom-ti “palm of hand” Bonda possibly SAPGOW 18: *pal'qV “foot” Proto-Nostratic > Proto-IndoEuropean, Proto-Kartvelian, Proto-Uralic, Proto-Altaic *bol(V)k.wV “foot” Proto-Sino-Caucasian *d'apal\ “foot” Proto-Austronesian *(C&)pVlh “ankle” Proto-Mon-Khmer *par “foot” Proto-Ge *pri_ “path” Proto-Ge ENH: *pinGV “hollow hand, palm of hand, fist, handful” Proto-Uralic (Rédei) *painGV, *palnGV Ilic^-Svityc^ Tungusic: han´n,a “hand, palm of hand, sole” Evenki han'n,a “hand, palm of hand, sole” Even xan´n,a “palm of hand” Negidal pa:na “palm of hand” Oroch xan'`a “palm of hand” Udihe pan´a “palm of hand” Ulchi payn,a, fan´n,a “palm of hand, sole” Orok *payn,a “palm of hand” Proto-Tungusic (Kolesnikova) aya “palm of hand” Turkic *pala-gan “palm of hand” Proto-Altaic (Kolesnikova) falan, gu “palm of hand” Manchu falandu “to applaud” Sibo halagan (loan?) Middle Mongolian (h)algan “palm of hand, flat of the hand, sole” Evenki (h)alg&n “palm of hand, flat of the hand, sole” Even halgan “palm of hand, flat of the hand, sole” Negidal palz^a(n-) “palm of hand, flat of the hand, sole” Negidal DEE: palma “palm of hand” Latin paláme: “palm of hand” Greek folm “palm of hand” Old English CAAA para “palm of hand” Ainu *pHalina “palm of hand” Proto-Altaic *palai “palm of hand” Proto-Austronesian } panek- “hand” Mota penek- “hand” Lehalurup pinik- “hand” Sasar, Mosina, Bek benik- “hand” Vetomboso binik “hand” Lehali, Vatrata binig- “hand” Koro pan, ban, ben- “forearm” Ok peni- “hand” Vureas pini-gi- “hand” Pak, Sasar peni-gi- “hand” Mosina pan- “hand” Torres Is. panei- “hand” Banks Is. *p-kW- “to cook” paka “cooking, burning” Sanskrit, also pash “to cook, roast” { SIG, IESSG, VISW *Á-p- Pre-IndoEuropean-Semitic extended with -XW- *p-kW- “cook” Proto-IndoEuropean pekã “cook” Old Church Slavonian pác^a:mi “cook” Sanskrit pesso: “cook” Greek *A-p- extended epu: “bake” Assyrian extended with -X- *A-p-X- Proto-Semitic the -A- is lost when a fourth consonant is added extended with -z- *p-X-z- Proto-Semitic p-H-z “boil over” Hebrew p&Haz “boil over, swell” Hebrew pa:Haz “boiling over” Hebrew faXaza, faHa-ra, faHa-ga “was haughty” Arabic EIEC *pekW- “cook, bake” *kWekW > pobiaf “bake” Welsh coquo: “cook” Latin metathesis p/k kepù “bake” Lithuanian cepu “bake” Latvian pekõ “bake, roast” Old Church Slavonian pjek “bake” Albanian *pekW-yo > pesso: “make ripen, cook” Greek pac^aiti “cooks” Avestan pacati “cooks” Sanskrit päk- “becomes ready for eating” TokharianA päk- “becomes ready for eating” TokharianB nominal derivatives *pekWtis “(act of) cooking” coctio: “cooking” Latin pectis “fire shovel” Old Prussian pes^ti “cooking” Old Church Slavonian pepsis “act of cooking, ripening” Greek pakti “cooking, cooked food” Sanskrit *pekWter? “cook” coctor “cook” Latin péptria “female baker” Greek paktár “cook” Sanskrit G: -pígà “cooking-stone” Proto-Bantu M: -piga “cooking pot” Proto-Bantu -pga “(cooking) stone” Proto-Bantu GCALLE 25: *&pan,- “to cook” Proto-ChukchiKamchatkan pHïn,gaj- id. Gilyak, Amur dialect (= Nivkh) Proto-AlgonquianRitwan (= Proto-Algic): puw- id. Wiyot pem- id. Yurok peya?r “to cook over an open fire” Yurok *apwa:ni “to roast” Proto-Algonquian *apwa:na “bread” Proto-Algonquian Salishan: p'ix-m “fry; brand (cattle)” Shuswap NS 157: *p'äk'V “hot, heat” Proto-Nostratic *PVgwV id. Sino-Caucasian bha:kw “expose to the sun” Old Chinese *bo?k “fire” Proto-Yeniseian IR 44: p'ac^' “hot” Squamish (root *p'ak'/*p'ik') **p'äk'U “hot” Proto-Nostratic IR 56: p'ixW “roast” Shuswap **p'iGwV “fire” Proto-Nostratic G: -pígà “cooking-stone” Proto-Bantu } paka-paka “burnt, scorched” Rarotonga paka- “dried in sun” Maori pa'a “to burn, scorch” Maori *p-l-k- “dirt, foul” palala “mire, mud” Sanskrit papa “evil, wicked, sinful” Sanskrit { SIG Cf. the ancient belief that vermin was created spontaneously in filth. Alternative form *p-r-g2- Pre-IndoEuropan-Semitic extended *p-r-G-T- > Proto-Semitic paryo:s^ Hebrew metathesis of g2 and T *p-r-T-G- > Proto-Semitic pars^u'u:, purs^u'u: Assyrian purtaynå Syrian *p-l-k2- (r > l after labial) > Proto-IndoEuropean pulex “flea” Latin *flauh-s (kW > wh) “flea” Gothic with the determinative -s- *plusa:- Proto-Indoropean lu “flea” Armenian : *P.-r-G- Proto-Semitic extended *P.-r-G-T- Proto-Semitic burgu:þuN Arabic with the determinative -s- *bhlusa:- Proto-IndoEuropean blusà Lithuanian blu:Xa: Old Church Slavonian metathesis of -l- and -s-, ly > ll púlla Greek EIEC *pelo/eH2- “chaff” palea “chaff” Latin pelai “chaff” Lithuanian peli “chaff” Latvian pelá “chaff” Russian (dial.) *pelou- “chaff” pelwo “chaff” Old Prussian pelu:s “chaff” Lithuanian pelus / pel(a)vas “chaff” Latvian plevy “straw” Old Church Slavonian polóva “chaff” Russian (dial.) palá:va:s (pl.) “chaff” Sanskrit pulvis “dust” Latin NO fúll “foul” Old Norse faul “foul; lazy” German ful (arch.) “ugly, evil” Danish pus “puss” Latin HSED 1966: *pay- “flea” py “flea” Egyptian (medical papyri) *pay- “flying termite” East Chadic peyyo “flying termite” Mokilko cf. redupl. *pi-pi- “flea” West Chadic pi:bi “flea” Pero HSED 1978: *pil- “insect” *pilu- “mosquito” Central Chadic fulay “mosquito” Mbara afili “mosquito” Musgoy *pil- “flea” Agaw peliya “flea” Kwara fäle “flea” Kemant *pil- “flea” Omotic pillo “flea” Kaffa cf. *pa?al “flying termite” Rift pa?al-iko “flying termite” Kwadza } pil “to make dirty, defiled, obscure” Sumerian bolo- “dirty” Merlav pipili- “dirty” Raga palo- “dirty” Aniwa, Futuna parau- “dirty” Pwele prau- “dirty” Lelepa peram- “dirty” Eton pala- “muddy, black mud for dyeing” Samoa pala-pala- “mud, blood” Hawai'i pala-hea- “dirty, defiled” Hawai'i balah- “dirt, foulness” Sunda pe- “bad, imprudent, rotten” Marquesas, Tahiti, Samoa be- “evil” Fiji pua- “bad” Yevali piowa- “bad” Visina, Mapremo, Nikaura puanga- “bad” Lamenu pwopwarua- “bad” Nul pulupul- “bad” Mate pino “to sprinkle” Sanskrit, also pi “to drink” pani “water” pi- “to sprinkle, throw water” Hawai'i, Samoa pi-pi- “sprinkle” Tahiti pei- “water” Hukua, Valpei, Nokuku, Tasmate, Vunapu, Piamatsina, Motu pe- “water” Hiw, Toga, Lehalurup, Mosina, Bek pino- “cloud” Mapremo pie- “wet” Lorediakarkar, Shark Bay II fani- “river” Tiri-mea pona- “swamp, swampy lake” Are'are (he) puna- “spring, well” Hawai`i bona- “stream bed” Kwaio vonu - “full of water” Keapara dada “brother” Gar'wali, Bag'ati, Sirmauri, W. Pahari, C. Pahari, “older brother” Bengali. dada- Kherwari, Santali, Kurku kaka Juang kaku Savara taka “older brother” Formosa kaka “older brother” Philippines, Indonesia, Maga tuaka- “older brother” Polynesia *s-w-g- “sick” EIEC *seug- “be sick, take care of sick?” Proto-IndoEuropean sju:k-r “sick” Old Norse se:oc “sick” Old English sioh “sick” Old High German suht “sickness” Old High German siuk-s “sick” Gothic saúht-s “sickness” Gothic hiwcanim “sicken” Armenian *sokto- “sickness, ?dryness” socht “silence; stupor” Old Irish sakta:izzi “takes care of, performs sick maintenance” Hittite indicating a mentally patological state CAIEH 26 siuk-s “sick” Gothic saugus “cautious” Lithuanian *sakit “sick, hurt” Proto-Austronesian sa:kit “sick” Tagalog ma-haki “sick” Tonga } asag “demon that causes sickness” Sumerian asu-wang- “demon, spirit, a man capable of changing form” Philippines suang- “demon, devil” Tai “genii” Siamese saang- “god, demon” Thai usong- “spirit” Telefol sakit- “sickness” Philippines sakit- “demon that causes illness” Tonsea Tombulo, Tondano sigga “weak” Sumerian sigam- “consumptive” Tagalog sika- “suffering from dysentery” Ilocano sikal- “suffering from pains in abdomen” Ilocano sigab- “having a long illness” Bontok sakit- “illness, disease” Philippines *p-l- “full, several” { IESSG *m-l- extended *m-l-A- Pre-IndoEuropean 1st normal form *málaA1- > *méla- Proto-IndoEuropean mála Greek extended with -t- multus “much” Latin 2nd normal form *maláA1- > *mbláA1 > *blaA1:- > *ple:- > Proto-IndoEuropean ple:nus “full” Latin pra:n.a- “full” Sanskrit *ple:yos, comparative > pra:yas Sanskrit fra:-yah- Avestan lia Irish cf multus Latin plus, comparative Latin *m-l-A- Semitic mali'a, intr. “was full” Arabic mala'a trans. “filled up” Arabic mal'a “be full, fill” &thiopian ma:le:' “be full, fill” Hebrew malu:, inf. “be full, fill” Assyrian m&lå: “filled” Syrian ma:le:' “full” Hebrew m&le' “full” Syrian mil'uN “quantity, with which something is filled” Arabic mil'u “water flood” Assyrian CAIEH 32: *ple:- (possibly *pl-no-) “full” Proto-IndoEuropean ple:re:-s “full” Greek ple:-nu-s “full” Latin TP flere “more (countable)” Danish *penuq “full” Proto-Austronesian penoh “full” Mal. fonu “full” Tonga *n-s- “island” CAIEH 28: ne:so-s “island” Greek *nusa “island” Proto-Austronesian nusò “island” Javanese nusi “island” Mer. enute name of Florida island Sa'a TP: cf. Greek ne:sis “sewing” from “wavy snake-like motion in the vertical plane” and certain creation myths explaning island chains as result of action of mythical sea serpent. TP: These two roots indicate that the term "Polynesia" is older than we thought. Sort of. Hm. *pu- “clean” VMPSIE: pu:- “to clean” Sanskrit pu:rus “pure” Latin pu:ta “cleaned” Sanskrit pu:ti “cleaning” Sanskrit pûtih “white” Malay putih “white” Javanese futsi, futchi “white” Madagascar maputi “white” Tagalog ma-pute “white” Buginese UEL 23, 24, 25: *pewH- “clean, purify” Proto-IndoEuropean + nominalising *-eno- *pewH-eno- Proto-IndoEuopean pávana (n.) “sieve” Sanskrit (n., m.) “cleaning (by threshing)” Sanskrit pavana id. Pali pona: (m.) “perforated iron ladle for skimming or straining” Hindi loaned into *pe(w)s^enV Proto-Permian puz^, púz^ “sieve” Votyak puz^ni_ “sift” Votyak poz^ “sieve” Zyryan po,z^ “sieve” Zyryan (SE-dial.) puz^ “sieve” Zyryan (East Permian) poz^n-al- “sift” Zyryan o-grade + causative suffix *-eye/o- *owH-eye/o- Proto-IndoEuropean *fauja Proto-Germanic fewen (fouwen) “sift (cereal), clean” Old High German vöuwen id. Middle High German fe.ibm, veben “sift” German dial. (Tyrol.) fäen “sift finely (cereal), winnow” German dial. (Styrian) payávati “cleans, purifies” Sanskrit loaned into *pows^e- Early Proto-Finnic + causative suffix *-ta- *pows^ta > *pos^ta Proto-Finnic pohta (inf. pohtoa) “winnow” Finnish > pohti- “consider” Finnish puohtua (inf.) “winnow” Carelian pohtta (inf.) id. Vepsian pohta: (inf.) id. Votic ma-inf. pohetama, puhetama id. Estonian dial. *pu-ne-H-, *pu-n-H- (v.) Proto-IndoEuropean *pu-ne-H-ti > punáti “he cleans, winnows” Sanskrit *pu-n-H-mes > puni:máh. “we clean, winnow” Sanskrit *pu-n-H-enti > punánti “they clean, winnow” Sanskrit puna:ti “cleans, sifts” Pa:li pun.aï “cleans, winnows” Pra:krit loaned into *pons^e- BalticFinnic-Mordvin + Mordvin causative suffix -vt(o)- (Ersa) ponz^avto- “winnow (cereal)” Mordvin (Ersa) + Mordvin causative suffix -ft(&^)- (Moks^a) pon´dz^aft&^- “winnow (cereal)” Mordvin (Moks^a) zero-grade + participal *-to- *puH-to-s Proto-IndoEuropean pu:tá-h. “cleaned, purified” Sanskrit loaned into *pus^tas Proto-Finnic common Baltic Finnic, eg. puhdas, puhtaan (gen.) “clean, pure” Finnish puhas, puhta (gen.) id. Estonian HSED 2008: *puk- “winnow” *fVk- “winnow, peel (corn)” Berber fukk-&t- id. Ahaggar *puk- “winnow” West Chadic puk id. Tangale CELR IX 135: *b.ug- “white” Central Chadic b3k. “light” (adj.) Egyptian *d-l-k- “see” VMPSIE dars´- “see” Sanskrit dan.s´- “see” Prakrit *d-rk'- “see” Proto-IndoEuropean dérkomai “I see” Greek dhelok “see” Javanese dhen.ok “see” Javanese tolêh, tulih “see” Javanese tintan. “see” Malay *air “to go” VMPSIE: arâmi “I go” Sanskrit airus “messenger” Gothic aire “to go” Maori alu “to go” Tongan *t-r-n- “go down” VMPSIE: ava-taran.a Sanskrit tóren.i “descend” Maori *tar- “go across” VMPSIE: tarâmi “I go across” Sanskrit tòre “road” Maori *t-l- “thorn” VMPSIE: tr.n.a “thorn” Sanskrit thaurnu-s “thorn” Gothic tádu “thorn” Maori talla “thorn” Tongan PM: kala- “rough, sharp” Hawai'i tara- “spur, thorn” Tahiti tala-tala- “prickly, rough” tari- “cock's spur” Tahiti talim- “blade, sharpness” Philippines talasan- “to sharpen” Tagalog talas- “sharpness” Tagalo *d-w- “die” VISW: *T.-w- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic divans ptc “mortal” Gothic un-divanei “immortality” Gothic deyja, pf. do: “die” Old Norse do:ian id. Old Saxon touwen id. Old High German dauþs “dead” Gothic dauðr id. Old Norse de:ad id. Old English do:d id. Old Saxon to:t id. German dauþus “death” Gothic to:d id. Old High German = *t.-w- Semitic + H.- “perish” Semitic t.a:H.a pf “he (it) perished” > “came to nought” Arabic t.awwaH.a II 'at.a:H.a caus “he caused (-hu him or it) to perish” Arabic t.a:'iHuN “perishing” Arabic : *t-w- Semitic ta:ha “perished” (mostly used figuratively) Arabic tawiya id. Arabic CAAA 5: rai “die; dead” Ainu *traay ~ *tay “to die” Proto-Thai SAPGOW 20: *dVwV “to die” Proto-Nostratic *ti_k/ *ti_(r) “to die” Proto-Ge IR 7: túxW.-uxW. “die, dead” Moses *tíxW- “kill” Salishan **dVwV “be sick, die” Proto-Nostratic the stem may be more complex: *dweiH- Proto-IndoEuropean *dwj/*dw? Proto-AfroAsiatic TP: Apparently some mismatch, which suggests loanword *p-d- “flat (land); foot” IENH 18; *b[a|&]d- “to split, cleave, separate, divide” Proto-Nostratic *b[h][e|o]d[h]- “to prick, pierce, dig” Proto-IndoEuropean *b[a|&]d- “to split, cleave, separate” Proto-AfroAsiatic *pat.- “to break (intr.), break out, smash, split” Proto-Dravidian bad-du “to separate, divide, part” Sumerian pað& “opening or entrance” Proto-Eskimo IENH 38: *p[h][a|&]t[h]- “to open; be open, wide, spacious” Proto-Nostratic *p[h][e|o]t[h]- “to open, be open” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h][a|&]t[h]- “to open; be open, wide, spacious” Proto-AfroAsiatic IENH 44: *p[h][a|&]t'- “to hasten, move quickly; foot” Proto-Nostratic > *p[h][e|o]t'- “foot” Proto-IndoEuropean *p[h][a|&]t'- “to hasten, move quickly; foot” Proto-AfroAsiatic *padak “foot, end” Proto-Altaic IENH 65: *p[h][a|&]c'- “to part, separate from, split or break open, split of break apart” Proto-Nostratic Kartvelian pac^- “to open” Mingrelian *p[h][a|&]c'- “to split apart, separate, cleave” Proto-AfroAsiatic *päc^ä- “to part, separate from. break open or apart” Proto-Uralic ISG: *p-t-H- Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *p-ta- Proto-IndoEuropean (ana-)petánummi “opens, spreads out” Greek pétalos Greek patulus “wide open; wide-spreading” Latin : *p-da- Proto-IndoEuropean pando “spread out” Latin : *ptá:- Proto-IndoEuropean *ptná:-mi id. pitne:mi Greek = p-t-H “open” Semitic petu: inf id. Assyrian fataHa perf. “opened” Arabic pa:þaH id. Hebrew p&þaH id. Syrian fatHa id. Ethiopian p-t-H “to open” Egyptian ABD: pt. “foot, paw of an animal”, pl. “knees, two-legged, four-legged” Egyptian pt. “footman, servant” Egyptian pt.u “foot soldiers, infantry” Egyptian AHDIE: lengthened o-grade *po:d- “foot” Proto-IndoEuropean *fo:t- id. Proto-Germanic fo:t id. Old English suffixed form *ped-ero- Proto-IndoEuropean *fetero: Proto-Germanic fetor, feter “leg iron, fetter” Old English suffixed form *ped-el- Proto-Germanic vizzelach “fetlock” Old High German fitlock, fetlock id. Middle English basic form *ped- Proto-IndoEuropean pe:s (stem ped-) “foot” Latin form *ped-yo- Proto-IndoEuropean expedi:re “free from a snare” Latin impedi:re “put in fetters, hobble, shackle” Latin suffixed form *ped-ika:- Proto-IndoEuropean pedica “fetter, snare” Latin o-grade form *pod- Proto-IndoEuropean pous (stem pod-) “foot” Greek pod “under” Russian sufixerd form *ped-ya- Proto-IndoEuropean peza “foot” Greek suffixed form *ped-o- Proto-IndoEuropean pedon “ground, soil” Greek padam “footstep, foot” Sanskrit pa:t > “foot” Sanskrit paisa: id. Hindi pa:i: “leg, foot” Middle Persian lengthened-grade form *pe:do- Proto-IndoEuropean pe:don “rudder, steering oar” Greek pe:dan “to leap” Greek suffixed form ped-i:- Proto-IndoEuropean pedilon “sandal” Greek *ped- “to stumble, fall” Proto-IndoEuropean *fete:n Proto-Germanic fetian, feccean “to bring back, fetch” Old English *ped- Latin suffixed (comparative) form *ped-yos > pe:jor “worse” (< “stumbling”) Latin suffixed (superlative) form *ped-samo > pessimus “worst” Latin suffixed form *ped-ko- > pecca:re “to stumble, sin” Latin TP: I think the semantic connection with “stumble” is wrong. It should be “low” or “under”, cf. the prepositon . EWBS: pede: abl. “(at the) foot” Latin pé “foot, foundation, base” Galician, Portuguese pé de “beside” Galician ao pé da lettra “literally” Portuguese be- pref. “(going) inside or below” Basque pe “underside, ground floor, the ground” Basque -be, -bi, -pe, -pia suff. “under” Basque -pean, -pian (inessive of pe) “under” (after indef. nouns or poss. gen.) Basque pera adlative “going under, towards” Basque petik “from below, hidden, going below and through” Basque peka adv. “below, uner the ground, hidden” Basque peko “lower, subordinate, lower in rank” Basque G: -pàdí “foot of animal” Proto-Bantu -bánd- “to flatten” Proto-Bantu -bátam- “to become flat” Proto-Bantu M: -bidá “pit, grave” Proto-Bantu -pad “foot” Proto-Bantu -band- “flatten” Proto-Bantu -bat-am- “be flat” Proto-Bantu CAD 04.370 “foot” botis “foot” Molbog bati'?is id. Kagayanen pat id. Batak Toba batis id. Balinese Biti? id. Uma va?i id. Manggarai pala-va?i id. Ngada Ba?i id. Sika wata id. Nengone va?e id. Tongan vae id. Samoan vae id. Mele-Fila ?a:vae id. Tahitian va?e id. Rapanui CAD 04.370 “flat” pantay, pa:tag “flat” Tagalog pantay id. Molbog pantay id. Kagayanen pantay + a-, patag + a- id. (of flat land) Ba:ngingi Sama pat.apat. id. (of a surface) Ponapean CAD 01.230 “plain, field” kapata:gan “plain, field” Tagalog pa:tag id. Aklanon ka-patag-an “a flat place” Kagayanen ka-pantay-an “plain, field” Ba:ngingi Sama ka-patag-an “plain” Ba:ngingi Sama padan, “grassy land for grazing”, “grass covered square in centre of township for mettings, festivals etc” Malay padan, “plain, field” Aceh panton “level place near mountains” Aceh papada “plain, field” Uma kabatau id. Kilvila pezara “flat level ground” Ba:ngingi Sama VMPSIE: pad- “walk” Sanskrit pâdas “foot” Sanskrit pádas “sole of foot” Lithuanian podos^va “sole of foot” Russian fôtus “foot” Gothic pé “foot” Madagascar vae “foot” Tongan paa “foot” Tagalog avae “foot” Tahiti wawae “leg” Hawaii wáe wáe “foot” Maori ACH: *pajay “rice plant” Proto-Austronesian SPNFL: *pag`ey “rice plant” Proto-Austronesian SAMP: *paj&i “rice plant” Proto-Austronesian PPNR: *págey “rice plant” Proto-Austronesian HKNH: *ped- “Boden, Niederung” Proto-IndoEuropean pedíon “plain” Greek *peþ- Proto-Germanic Pithe place name Nordwestblock fit “low-lying land by water” Old Norse ed “place” Old Irish FT: fit, fitj, fittja “low-lying land by water” Sw. dialects Fittja Stockholm suburb in Fitium do. 1331 APG 13: *peþil-, *peðil- “low moorland” pedel id. Middle Dutch pedel-land id. Middle Dutch peel “peat” Dutch de Peel (< Pedel) low moorland in southern Netherlands plus various English and North German place and water names DSDE: *pi-d- Proto-IndoEuropean *fitjo: Proto-Germanic fith “low meadow” Old Danish fit id. Norwegian dialect fed “low stretch of land at the sea” Danish pìsa “morass” Latvian pi:sos “low, wet meadow” Greek pi:dax “spring, source” Greek DSDE: *pedya: Proto-IndoEuropean *fetjo:- Proto-Germanic fed “bundle of yarn” Danish fid “hemline of knitted material” Middle Danish fit f. id. Norwegian dial. fit m. “edge of a hide” Norwegian dial. fit f. “edge of a cape, hide of webbed feet, foot(sole)” Old Norse fiti “bundle of flax or hemp” Old Swedish *fetjo:n Proto-Germanic fittja “bundle of thread or yarn” Swedish dial. fizza id. Old High German Fitze id. German fitt “section (of poem)” Old English *pedja Proto-IndoEuropean péza “foot, what is utmost or downmost; edge, hem of dress; fishnet” Greek pádya- “foot-” Sanskrit EBSG: *bot- Old European *fot- Paleo-Italic = ? *bod- Old European Fotensium adj. gen.pl. Latin inscr., 4th cent. Füssen in Bavaria Bothmer in Germany Bothfeld id. Bothel id. Böttingham id. Bode id. Bodensee in Bavaria Bodenwöhr id. Pottenstein id. Botingtune > Boddington in England Boteham, Buteham > Bodenham id. Bodeham > Bodenham id. Bodiam id. Bodicote id. Bodmin id. Bodney id. Fodindone, Fedintone > 1086 Fodindon > 1227 Foddington Somerset, England Fytun > 1242 Fyton > 1274 Feetham North Riding of Yorkshire, England Fotstuna > 1158 Foteston > 1242, 1274 Foston Leicestershire, England Foztun > a. 1086 Fotstun > 1212 Foston Lincolnshire, England Fodstone > a. 1086 Foston on the Wolds East Riding of Yorkshire Fotestun > a 1231 Foston North Riding of Yorkshire Batavis > 5th cent., copy 10th/11th cent. Bazzauua > 754, copy 9th cent. Pazauuua > 764-788, copy 9th cent. Batavia > Betuwe in Holland DVEF: botana “canal” Basque (Gipuzkoan, Andoain, Zizurkil) potin “puddle” Basque (Bizkaian, Arratia) bots^e “precipice, chasm” Basque (Low Navarrese, [Satatzu] Salazarese, Roncalese, Uztarroz) bots^u “precipice, abyss” Basque (Zuberoan) UKI: Bodincus river Po Ligurian fodio: “dig” Latin fossa “ditch” Latin with ablaut bedo- “canal, ditch” Gallic Bedesis river name Venetic Flussbett “river bed” German etc LIG: Bodincus river Po Celtic(?), Old European(?) Padus river Po Liguro-Sicanian FIUMI: patu “river, canal” Akkadian BBPN: Pitbladdo, Pitsligo Pittendreich, Pitlochry Pittenweem settlement names in Pictland PL: "The word was earlier ; it meant a parcel of land or farmland ...; and it is a PCeltic word, related to peth “thing” Welsh pez “piece” Breton *petia > Gaulish pièce “piece” French and more distantly to cuid “portion” Gaelic The Gaulish word, borrowed into Vulgar Latin in France, occurs in legal documents in the phrase petia terrae “a parcel of land” exactly in the sense of our ." Collinder: Finnish pätkä stump, oblong piece; pätki- cut into pieces, cut into stumps | Saami bæs'ke a kind of pass across a mountain; hill, mountain on a land-tongue in a lake; bæskedâ-, S Jämtland bieckede- cut hair or wood off; Kola biecke- id. | Mordvin pec^ke- cut; slaughter | Mari pec^ke- trim off, cut off, chop off || Yurak pida- cut, shave (e.g. beard, hair; hair on a reindeer, for identification), piida- trim (e.g., shorten the hair on a reindeer hide, using a knife) | Enets H firi`a-, B fidi`a- to mark, brand, trim, shape; firi`, fidi` spot, stain, identifying mark. HSED 809: *fit “land” *pitt- “area, region” Semitic pittu- id. Akkadian *fit- “earth” Central Chadic futi, fate, feti id. Musgum RPA: *gW(î|â)d- “land” Proto-Afrasian *gûd- “land, country” Cushitic *gW(i|u)d- “place” Chadic *gad- “earth” Omotic SBCHP: gwadn > Middle Welsh gwadn, gwaddn (m/f) “sole of the foot, shoe, foundation” Welsh truit “foot” Old Cornish goden truit (gloss) “planta” Old Cornish guodon /gwodn/ (gloss)“plantariium .i. planta” Old Breton *woda:tV- > Proto-British gwadawt > Middle Welsh gwaddod (m) “sediment, deposit, dregs” Welsh guthot > Old Cornish godhes id. Middle Cornish gutdot id. Old Breton The etymology is not clear. [TP: loanword] EWBS: ibi, hibi, ibiri “brook, ford” Basque bide “road” Basque -de suffix which forms nouns indicating state or loacality Basque ibi + bide > ibide “ford” Basque TP: I think ibi + de > ibide > bide is more likely, Therefore, “a place where there is a ford” > “road”, cf. pont- “bridge” Latin putI “road” Russian DBF: -pide combining form of 'bide' Basque bida- id. Basque bidaia “journey” Zuberoa Basque biaia id. Lapurti Basque piaia id. Lapurti, Low Navarra Basque bidaso “river” Basque [ TP: *ped- > some donor language] itze "sea" Basque [ TP: + *-su > some donor language] itsaso "sea" Basque [cf. ibai "river" Basque ibaiso "river" Basque ] ibi, hibi “brook, ford” Basque ibide “ford” Basque ubi, ubide "ford" Basque HB: Bidasoa river on the French-Spanish border Biduze another river in the Basque country [Did 'bide' come from **pide or perhaps **pite?] APG: *Pedese > Pedeze > Päse name of town north of Peine Pedze, Pedese, Peedse > Peise id. in Drente, The Netherlands *Petese > Petse, Petesse > Pätsen local pronounciation Petzen name of town near Bückeburg Petze id. south of Hildesheim perhaps Pötzen id. near Hameln Pedasa name of town Asia Minor Pedasos id. Asia Minor Pidossus name of island Asia Minor Pa:du:sa name of channel from the Po to Ravenna BBPN: Bédakon ancient name of Seebruck (Upper 2nd century, Bavaria, at the place where the 11th century copy Altz river leaves Lake Chiemsee), in antiquity a road station Bedaio id. 3rd century, 7/8th century copy Bitburg city in the western part of the Eifel mountains, Rhineland-Palatia Bedense castrum a. 715 Bideburh 893 Bidburgh 1030 Beda Celto-Latin, 3rd century a Celtic road settlement expanded by the Romans, at the military road Metz-Trier-Cologne, in the 3rd century a Roman fort Betzdorf city on the Sieg river, Rhineland- Palatia, originally at a ford through a brook at the medieval trunk-road from Siegen via Hachenburg to the Rhine Betstorff a. 1382 Peiting, Upper Bavaria a glance at the map shows that Peiting is important because of its geographical position at the intersection of several roads, with a crossing over the Lech river from where one road continues to Kempten (Cambodunum) Pittengouua c. 1063 Bitingouue 1096-1145 Bidingen village in Bavarian Swabia, situated on the intersection of two roads one of which is the only one to cross an adjacent hill-range Bidigin a. 1145-80 Bidign, Bidingen, Pidingen 13th century Bedford, Bedfordshire approximately ten roads meet here; it is far and wide the only place where one can cross the Great Ouse Bedanford a. 880, 818 Bydanford c. 1000 Bedeford Domesday book, 1086 Bideford, Devonshire on an important intersection, is the first place up the Torridge where roads can cross the river Bedeford, Bediforda Domesday book Bediford a. 1202 Budiford 1232 Bedhampton, Hampshire near Bedhampton the Roman road from Winchester to Chichester meets the coastal road from Southampton to Chichester Betametona Domesday book Bethametona a. 1167 Bedhampton 1249 DSDE: *bhedh- “dig in(to) the ground” Proto-IndoEuropean *bhodyo- “dug-out hollow in the ground used for sleeping” Proto-IndoEuropean *baðja- Proto-Germanic patja “bolster, cover” Finnish beðr “bolster” Old Norse badi “bed” Gothic bed(di) id. Old Saxon betti id. Old High German bedd id. Old English Bett “bed” German beðr “bolster” Old Norse bedo- “canal, grave” Gaulish bedd “grave” Welsh fodere “cut, dig” Latin fossa “grave, ditch” Latin bedù, bèsti “cut, bore, dig” Lithuanian bodo,, bosti “cut” Old Church Slavonian pat-, pa:t- “plough” Tokharian A beda- “cut” Hittite [And don't forget: “river bed”] [with Grassmann?] beit “grazing, pasture” Old Norse bed “pasture” Danish, Middle Danish beit “fodder” < “something to bite” Norwegian i bet “on pasture” Swedish bed “grazing of the rest” > “work time between two rests for a team of horses” Danish dial. beitan “bite” Proto-Germanic *baitjan caus. Proto-Germanic beita “let bite; hunt with hawk or hound; let graze” Old Norse beizen “let bite” Old High German, German bætan “rein, hunt” Old English [At fords, river banks are typically low, which means they are places with abundant vegetation] *po:d- “foot” Proto-IndoRuropean *fo:t- id. Proto-Germanic *pauta- “paw” Proto-Germanic po:te id. Middle Low German from Celtic[?], whence also pauta id. Provencal poue id. French *b-l- “axe” CAD 09.251 “adze”: buliyon, Aceh baliu&n, Minangkabau b&liun, Indonesian baliun, Sundanese paleppen Konjo (Coastal) bali-bali Wolio *H.-g^- “sharp” CAD 09.250 “axe”: ogi Manam ki Yabem gi Nemi gî Cèmuhî gi A'jië gie Xârâcùù gie Nengone CAD 09.251 “adze”: gi Nemi gî-tíme-nû Cèmuhî gi te: Rotuman gine:re Xârâcùù CAD 20.222 “battle axe”: gî Cèmuhî gi A'jië gie Xârâcùù giererue Nengone VISW, IEG: *H.-g^- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *ak^- “sharp” Proto-IndoEuropean aceo “am sour” Latin acus “needle” Latin acuo “I sharpen” Latin acie:s “sharpness” Latin egg “edge” Old Norse eggia id. Old Saxon ecg id. Old English ekka id. Old High German aké:, akís (-ídos) “point” Greek akmé: “point, edge” Greek ákaina “point, barb” Greek áko:n “javelin” Greek ákro-s “sharp” Greek ostrU id. Old Bulgarian as^trù-s id. Lithuanian as^ru “tear” Sanskrit asru id. Avestan as^arà id. Lithuanian with d-preformative: dákru “tear” Greek dacruma > lacruma id. Latin de:r id. Old Irish ta:r id. Old Norse zahar id. Old High German Zähre id. German tagr id. Gothic full reduplication: ako:ke: “point” Greek o-grade: *ok^- Proto-IndoEuropean ás^ri- “(cutting) edge” Sanskrit okri-s “mountain top” Greek extended grade: *a:k^- Proto-IndoEuropean a:cer “sharp” Latin + -s: *H.ag^ás- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *k^-s- “cut” Proto-IndoEuropean s^ása-ti “cuts” Sanskrit s^astrá- n. “knife” Sanskrit késtron “pointed iron” Greek késtros “broad-pointed arrow” Greek keío: “I split” Greek keázo: “I split through” Greek + laryngeal -Á *H.ag^áÁ- transitive Pre-IndoEuropean *k^e:- Proto-IndoEuropean s^í-s^a:-ti “sharpens, whets” Sanskrit ha:ren “sharpen” Middle Low German (ha:re:n > ) “be sharp” Middle Low German o:-grade *k^o:- co:t- nom. co:s “whetstone” Latin kõ:nos “cone” Greek reduced *k^a- catus “acute-minded” Latin s^itá- “sharp” Sanskrit *H.-d- Semitic single reduplication: *H.-d-d- H.adda “was (became) edged, sharp, pointed” (transferred) “became excited by sharpness of temper or angriness” Arabic hiph. “sharpen” Hebrew hoph. “be sharpened” Hebrew *Hað, Hadda: fem. “sharp (of sword)” Hebrew H.adduN “edge, extremity of the edge, point (of a sword etc), part (of sword etc) with which one cuts” Arabic 'aH.addu elat. “more, most sharp” Arabic H.adi:duN “sharp, pointed” Arabic H.adi:duN noun Arabic H.adi:d “iron” Ethiopian + -A H.ada'atuN “the head of an arrow, of an axe, a double-headed axe” Arabic coll. H.ada'uN DSDE: *agW(e)si:, *aksi: Proto-IndoEuropean *akWezi:, *akusi: Proto-Germanic aqisi “axe” Gothic acus id. Old Saxon achus, achis id. Old High German Axt id. German æx id. Old English øx id. Old Norse ascia “carpenter's axe” Latin axi:ne “axe” Greek hugge “hew, cut” Danish hogg(w)a id. Old Danish hoggæ, huggæ id. Obs. Danish hogge, hugge id. Norwegian hugga id. Swedish ho,ggwa id. Old Norse *haggwan id. Proto-NorthGermanic hauwan id. Old Saxon houwan id. Old High German hauen id. German *ka:u-, *k&u- “cut, strike” Proto-IndoEuropean cu:dere “beat, pound, thresh; forge, stamp, hammer” Latin caudex, co:dex “trunk of tree; piece/hunk of wood; (bound) book” Latin káuju, káuti “beat, forge” Lithuanian *kWed- “drill, whet, sharpen, propel” Proto-IndoEuropean hwata “propel” Old Norse *kWod-to partcp. > “sharp” Proto-IndoEuropean *hwassa- id. Proto-Germanic hvas id. Danish hwas id. Old Danish hvass, kvass id. Norwegian vass id. Swedish hvass id. Old Norse *hvass id. Gothic hvassaba “sharply” Gothic hwassa “sharp” Old Saxon (h)was id. Old High German hwæss id. Old English *kWodo- “sharp” Proto-IndoEuropean *hwata- id. Proto-Germanic hvatr “brave, quick, sharp, skilled” Old Norse waz “sharp” Old High German whæt id. Old English hvætte “whet” Danish dial. hvætiæ id. Old Danish kvetja id. Norwegian dial. hvætia id. Old Swedish hvättja id. Middle Swedish hvetja id. Old Norse ga-hvatjan id. Gothic wezzan id. Old High German wetzen id. German hwettan id. Old English ablaut *hwo:t- Proto-Germanic hváta “pierce” Old Norse hwo:ta “threat” Gothic hót n.pl. id. Old Norse hot id. Norwegian dial., Swedish hóta “threaten” Old Norse hota id. Swedish hwo:tjan “threaten (with hand)” Gothic hæta id. Old Norse høde id. Danish dial., Old Danish hytte id. Norwegian høta id. Norwegian dial. höta id. Swedish EBAE: *akWizi- > “axe” Proto-Vasconic *aikWizi- > *aikWzi- > *aikzi- > *aizki- > aizkora, haiskora id. Basque ECIUS 13: *h2ak^ya:- Proto-IndoEuropean loaned into *kac^a- > kasa “sharp point, edge” Finnish kaz^a, ka,dz^a “end, point, outskirts” Karelian kadza id. Southern Estonian geahc^i id. Saami *agjo: Proto-Germanic loaned into *akja > agja “end, brim, edge” Karelian ekka “point, edge” Old High German Ecke “corner” German PCALLE 27: ?axt- “cut, slit” Proto-ChukchiKamchatkan yït-/hït- “dissect, slit” Gilyak, Amur dialect (= Nivkh) Salishan: xWit'- “cut up, cut out” Shuswap xWL\' “whittle” Kalispel NS 32: *Hok'i “sharp edge” Proto-Nostratic *-xk'V “sharp, sharpen” Sino-Caucasian i:- “sharpen” Ket, Yeniseian *?V_-k'V “sharp(en)” North Caucasian and if there had been a t-preformative, then: PMA taksh- “to slice wood, cut” Sanskrit IENH 91 : *t[h][a|ë]k[h]- “to form, to fashion, to make, to create” Proto-Nostratic *t[h][e|o]k[h][s]- “to form, to fashion, to make, to create” Proto-IndoEuropean *teke- “to do, to make” Proto-FinnoUgrian EIEC *teks- “fabricate” *teks(t)or/n “one who fabricates (cloth, wood), etc” textor “weaver” Latin tekto:n (< *tekso:n) “carpenter, artisan” Greek taks^an- “carpenter” Sanskrit ?*tekso/eH2-, *teksleH2 “axe, adze” *tekseH2- dehsa “axe, hatchet” Old High German dehse “spindle” Middle High German tas^a “axe” Avestan *tokslo- ta:l “axe” Old Irish *teksleH2- þexla “adze” Old Norse dehsala “adze, hatchet” Old High German tesla “axe” Russian Church Slavonian *teks-leH2 te:la “cloth” Latin tës “sawn planks” Russian tes “timber” Czech *teks-neH2- tékne “handicraft, art” Greek NS 21: *dikV “earth, clay” Proto-Nostratic *dVQV “clay” Sino-Caucasian */t/iak Sino-Tibetan *t&q- Proto-Yeniseian VMPSIE: taks^- “cut wood” Sanskrit taks^an “carpenter” Sanskrit taks^an.î “carpenter's axe” Sanskrit tig-num “tree trunk, log, stick, post, beam; piece of timber; building materials” Latin tas^yti “cut wood” Lithuanian tóki “axe” Maori togi “axe” Tongan CAD 09.250 Axe: takke “axe” Batak Toba taka id. Ngada taka id. Sika taka id. Roti te toki id. Kiribati toki id. Tongan to?i id. Samoan CAD 09.251 Adze: tu?u “adze” Tsou taka id. Ngada taka id. Sika toki ta:ta: id. Tongan to?i id. Samoan toki id. Mele-Fila to?i arch. id. Tahitian ?ohio teki “large adze for wood, timbers” Rapanui kau-teki “small hand adze for carving” Rapanui CAD 20.222 “battle axe”: taka Ngada toki Tongan to?i Samoan } katsa- “incision” Malagasy tasi “razor”, tasi-a “to shave” Fiji kahi- “to cut wood, hew” Hawai'i taha- “cleaver” Timor tagpas- “to cut, as branches of tree, hew” Philippines tahaw- “a place cleared of trees” Philippines tata- “a mark made by sharp object” Philippines *a-y-s- “copper” DEO: eer “copper” Old Danish e:r id. Old Swedish eir id. Old Norse aiz “ore, metal” Gothic æ:r, a:r id. Old English ore English *ayiz- Proto-Germanic *ayes- (nom. *ayos-, gen *ayeses) Proto-IndoEuropean aes, gen. aeris “metal, copper, bronze” Latin áyas- “metal, iron” Sanskrit *ais-temos “metal-cutter” > aestimare Latin CAD 09.670: ase “iron” Da'a ahe? id. Uma ase id. Wolio ?a:uri id. Tahitian ?auri: id. Rapanui Not that I'm very happy about this comparison *s-l-k- “silver” DEO: silfr “silver” Old Norse silubr id. Gothic siluBar id. Old Saxon sil(a)bar id. Old High German seolfor, siolfor id. Old English siluBra- id. Proto-Germanic sida:bras id. Lithuanian sIrebro id. Old Church Slavonic s.arpu id. Assyrian CAD 09.650: solofi? “silver” Sarangani Blaan suwasa “mixture of gold and copper” Madurese slak& “silver” Sasak salaka id. Da'a salaka? id. Uma salaka id. Bugis salaka id. Konjo (Coastal) salaka id. Wolio *k-r-(n-) “turtles, frogs, crabs; horn” CTF: notes the widespread occurrence of similar words for crabs, turtles and frogs in Africa (the words occur outside Africa, too), and proposes that those words spread in Africa with the advent of a crab, turtle and frog hunting as a subsistence strategy. But note: they all occur in Austric too, and the animals they denote are all mythological animals. khú rú “tortoise” Sandawe , Sandawe k'õ ló “tortoise” Hadza , Hadza k'u: tá- “turtle” Hadza , Hadza kú nán “petite tortue” Laal , Laal !gu ru “tortoise-shell” Auen , Northern , Khoisan khigo e “tortoise” Naro , Khoe , Khoisan cu ru “tortoise” Mohissa , Khoe , Khoisan k' u kish “turtle” Kwama , Komuz , Nilo-Saharan n ku ra “small tortoise” Songhay , Songhay , Nilo-Saharan kó ro wú “tortoise” Kanuri , Saharan , Nilo-Saharan ká(bú)rù dà “tortoise” Aiki , Maba , Nilo-Saharan fa k ruu n “tortoise” Maba , Maba , Nilo-Saharan bo- ko l “tortoise” Didinga , Surmic , Nilo-Saharan le- ku r “tortoise” Dinka , ES , Nilo-Saharan ká ndá “small turtle” Bongo , CS , Nilo-Saharan o kù “tortoise” Ma'di , CS , Nilo-Saharan -kó ò ng “tortoise” Krongo , Kadugli , Nilo-Saharan (k)& r& “tortoise” Masakin , Kordofanian, Niger-Congo kú lú “tortoise” Yaure , Mande , Niger-Congo k ru we “tortoise” Pre , Niger-Congo -kwú lu “tortoise” *PWN , Atlantic- Congo , Niger-Congo ku l sebwa “tortoise” Lyele , Kwa , Niger-Congo é- kpù ru “tortoise” Igbo , WBC , Niger-Congo a- ku l “tortoise” Doka , Plateau , Niger-Congo -ku lu “tortoise” *CB , Bantu , Niger-Congo ko c'a “tortoise, turtle” Burji , Cushitic , Afro-Asiatic kon- ko lo “tortoise” Dullay , Cushitic , Afro-Asiatic se ku ur “tortoise” Beja , Beja , Afro-Asiatic kùng ku ruu “tortoise” Hausa , W. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic kú r “tortoise” Mwaghavul, W. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic kwà kú rù m “tortoise” Huba , C. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic gu re i “tortoise sp.” Lame , Masa , Afro-Asiatic kùn gù rù “turtle” Toram , E. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic tafe k ru rt “tortoise” Kabyle , Berber , Afro-Asiatic ko lla “tortoise, turtle” Sora , Munda , Austro-Asiatic ku ru lai “tortoise” Tamil , Dravidian goma: “crab” Hadza , Hadza k&-bàr “crab” Mbay , C. Sudanic , Nilo-Saharan -ka(l)- “crab” PWS , Mande-Congo, Niger-Congo kaku “crab” Mende , Mande , Niger-Congo kamu “crab” Pre , Unclassfd. , Niger-Congo a-kara “crab” Temne , Atlantic , Niger-Congo à-kàngà “crab” Nembe , Ijoid , Niger-Congo gará-ga “crab” More , Gur , Niger-Congo à-gálà “crab” Ewe , Kwa , Niger-Congo kara “crab” Nupe , WBC , Niger-Congo kaab “crab” Mambila , Mambiloid , Niger-Congo kaagwa “crab” Hausa , W. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic tsakalz^am “crab” Mafa , C. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic kúrzma “crab” Beni-Snus, Berber , Afro-Asiatic kani “crab” Japanese , Japonic ke “crab” Korean , Altaic *k& (n)taam “crab” Proto-Mon-Khmer , Austro-Asiatic *katam “crab” Proto-North-Bahnaric , Austro-Asiatic *kaRang “crab” Proto-Austronesian , Austronesian *karika “crab” Proto-Nuclear Micronesian , Austronesian kátta-da “crab” Akka Biada , Andamanese tekandue “crab” Onge , Andamanese *d-ka:y “crab” Proto-Tibeto-Burman , Sino-Tibetan kup(p)i “crab” Proto-Dravidian , Dravidian karkinos “crab” Greek , Indo-European karramorro “crab” Basque , Basque bililiyako “frog” Hadza , Hadza #?orong' “frog” Sandawe , Sandawe kwee “bullfrog” Hiecware , Central , Khoisan #qòbé “frog” ||Ani , Khoe , Khoisan k'waáta “frog” Ik , Kuliak , Nilo-Saharan nkorokoro “frog” Gao , Songhai , Nilo-Saharan kókó “frog” Kanuri , Saharan , Nilo-Saharan gorong “frog” Fur , Fur , Nilo-Saharan ámbo-kolà “frog” Masalit , Maba , Nilo-Saharan bòr-kwoid “frog” Tama , Tama , Nilo-Saharan lo-kido-dók “frog” Didinga , Surmic , Nilo-Saharan kwúdó' “frog” Temein , E. Sudanic , Nilo-Saharan káró “frog” Bagirmi , C. Sudanic , Nilo-Saharan kùrkùt& “frog” Mbay , C. Sudanic , Nilo-Saharan kw-uró “frog” Koalib , Kordofanian, Niger-Congo gwudo “frog” Heiban , Kordofanian, Niger-Congo kwia “frog” Bobo , Mande , Niger-Congo kode “frog” Balanta , Atlantic , Niger-Congo àkpálo “frog” Izon , Ijoid , Niger-Congo klo “frog” Baule , Kwa , Niger-Congo kere “frog” Yoruba , Benue-Congo, Niger-Congo ikwot “frog” Ibibio , Niger-Congo -kédè “frog sp.” Common Bantu , Bantu , Niger-Congo do-qaree “frog” Koyra , N. Omotic , Afro-Asiatic koppe “frog” Koyra , N. Omotic , Afro-Asiatic kware' “frog. toad” Bilin , Agaw , Afro-Asiatic koopi “toad” Burji , E. Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic koraankorach “frog” Arbore , E. Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic kwado “frog, toad” Hausa , W. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic kudaf “frog” Mafa , C. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic kál-tám “frog” Migama , E. Chadic , Afro-Asiatic q-r-r “frog, toad” New Kgd. , Egyptian , Afro-Asiatic inqurarit “frog, toad” Amharic , Semitic , Afro-Asiatic qurra “frog” Arabic , Semitic , Afro-Asiatic amqerqur “frog, toad” Kabyle , Berber , Afro-Asiatic qrng “frog” Proto-Miao-Yao , Miao-Yao *kai “toad” Miao , Miao-Yao #kop “frog” proto-Thai , Daic kap “small frog” Cham , Austro-Asiatic #qub “frog” Paiwan , Formosan , Austronesian #kappe “frog” Proto-Dravidian , Dravidian CELR I 49: *kir- “frog” Central Chadic *kiR- “frog” East Chadic k.rr- “frog” Egyptian IEW: 1. *k'er-, *k'er&-, *k´ra:-, *kerei-, *k'ereu- “upper part of the body : head, horn (and horned animals); pinnacle” 2. *k'er- “grow, make grow, nourish” serm “seed” Armenian serim “am born, grow” Armenian *korwos > koros “adolescent” Greek Cere:s godess of cultivated earth Latin cre:-sc- “grow” Latin pro-ce:rus “tall and slender” cerus manus “creator bonus” Old Latin s^eriù, s^érti “feed” Lithuanian s^ermens s^ermenys “funeral meal” Lithuanian sermen “funeral meal” Old Prussian hirso “millet” Old High German 3. *k'er- “thread (for weaving); plait, tie”, only Arm. and Greek sarik' Pl. “spider” Armenian kairóo “bind the weaving together” Greek keiria “strap of bedstead” Greek “Grabtücher” (NT) Greek 4. *k'er-, *k'er&-: k're:- “injure”, intr. “become decrepit, rot” s^rnáti “breaks, crushes” Sanskrit keraizo “lay waste, plunder” Greek ker, kerós “death, destruction; godess of death” Greek carie:s “rot” Latin carius “moth” Latin *k'r- > ther “butcher” Albanian *k'er-a- tsirrís “stab” Albanian do-cer “he fell” Old Irish crín “withered” Old Irish ka:ryap “injury” Tokharian A karep “injury” Tokharian B IEW: (*k'ered-:) *k'erd- *k'e:rd- *k'rd- *k'red- “heart” hrd “heart” Sanskrit sirt “heart” Armenian kardía: “heart” Greek cord- “heart” Latin críde “heart, center” Old Irish craidd “center” Welsh haírto “heart” Gothic ka-ra-az “heart” Hittite NS 72: *k'ErdV “heart, breast” Proto-Nostratic *ki:rV “breast, belly” North Caucasian NS 86: *kErV “horn” Proto-Nostratic *k- rather than *k'- because of *kr- Proto-Kartvelian *qwVrHV “horn” Sino-Caucasian *Krua: (-k, -n,) Sino-Tibetan *x.o? Proto-Yeniseian *qwä:(r)HV North Caucasian WORDS: cardo, cardinis “hinge, pole, axis; chief point, circumstance; crisis; tenon/mortise; area; limit” Latin IENH 246: *k[h][a|&]r- “to cut” Proto-Nostratic > *k[h](e|o)r- “to cut off, to cut down” Proto-IndoEuropean *k[a|&]r- “to cut” Proto-AfroAsiatic *ker-ti- “to cut into, carve, notch” Proto-Altaic EIEC: *(s)ker- “cut apart, cut off” scaraid “separates, divides” Old Irish skera “to cut” Old Norse scieran (< IE shear) “to cut, shear” Old English sceran “to cut, shear” Old High German skiriù “to separate, divide” Lithuanian s^kirt “separate, divide” Latvian kroju “cut” Russian shqerr “tear apart” Albanian keíro: “cut” Greek k'erem “scrape off, scratch off” Albanian karsmi “cut off, castrate” Hittite krnáti “wounds, kills” Sanskrit *(s)kert- kertu “hew” Lithuanian cértu “hew” Latvian k'ert'em “skin” Armenian kartai- “cut off” Hittite k&r&ntaiti “cuts” Avestan krntáti “cuts” Sanskrit skor “notch, tally; twenty” Old Norse sceard “cut, notch” Old English CTF: #kual- “hard” Proto-Mande-Congo PM: khara “solid, sharp” Sanskrit, also karkara “hard, firm” KRP: kula a system of magic and (magical) gifts and obligations circulating anti-clockwise in the Trobriand Islands (mwali circulating clockwise) PM: kona “corner” Sanskrit kona- “corner” Polynesia kona- “barb in tail of ray, thorn, antennae of insect” Lau gitna- “center” Philippines koti “tip, extremity, top” Sanskrit koki- “extremity, tiptop, uppermost” Hawai'i to-i- “tip, extremity, top” Maori kake- “to climb” Samoa, Tonga tugatog- “height, top, hill, altitude” Tagalog tuk-tok- “mountain top, summit, peak” Tagalog tokai- “a spear or puncture” Anutan tika- “a short spear or dart” Anutan tuki- “to drive a nail, puncture, etc” Anutan HSED 1550 *k.ar- “horn” *k.arn- “horn” Semitic qarnu “horn” Akkadian qrn “horn” Ugaritic qeren “horn” Hebrew qarno: “horn” Aramaic (Syrian) qarn- “horn” Arabic qarn “horn” Geez qo:n “horn” Mehri qun “horn” S^h.eri qan “horn” Soqotri Derivative in *-n-. k.r.ty “horns” (dual) Egyptian (New Kingdom) *[k]ar- “horn” Omotic karoo “horn” Kaffa karo “horn” Mocha ED: Prototype: *KIRU Nilo-Saharan *KiR- gwur-tu “horn” Afitti gi:la “horn” Kunama AfroAsiatic Cushitic *qr “horn” garri “horn” Somali qaro id. Mocha Ancient Egyptian qr.tj “horns” Semitic *qarn qarn “horn” Arabic qeren id. Hebrew IndoEuropean cornu: id. Latin cervos “stag, deer” Latin horn “horn” Scandinavian hjort “hart” Scandinavian kárnon “horn” Galatian carn id. Welsh koróva “cow” Russian sérna “chamois” Russian s´rnga- “horn” Sanskrit kar(a)war “horns” Hittite Uralic kiire “crown (of the head)” Finnish, Estonian Kartvelian *kr-a “horn” Zan Basque hortz “tooth” (Trombetti: from *khar-) Caucasian Northern Caucasian (Starostin & Nikolayev) *l\:l\:VrV “horn” Ainu kirau “horns, antlers” Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman *kruw, kr&w “horn” Miao-Yao (Benedict) *klo(n,), kyo(n,) “horn” Daic *klook “horn” (from *KIRU-ka?) Amerind (Shevoroshkin) *k'iRV “horn” k'ili id. Sintun cirx id. Rumsien kir “tooth” Jicaque kere “bone” Jicaque -ixkin “horn” Blackfoot CAAA 8: kirau “horn” Ainu *klo(n,) ~ *kyo(n,) “horn” Proto-MiaoYao HHIE surveys various IE forms meaning “head” and “horn” (e.g. Greek káre and kéras) meeting on his way such forms as: káre “head” Greek kéras “horn (object)” Greek s^rnga- “horn” Sanskrit sa:ra “head” Avestan Horniss “wasp” German plus an irritating form "kar" epikar “downwards?, head over heels?” Greek kit-kar “(to/at) the head” Hittite An endingless "locative" form? This means all the forms meaning “head” would be somehow delocatival in the same way as HHIE suggests delocatival derivation (with a locatival suffix -er) for cere-brum “brain, skull” Latin karara “head” Greek HKD has (11, note 28) *tr “there” PIE -tar Luvian tar-hi Vedic thar (< *thor ) Gothic there (< *the:r) English *kwr “where” PIE -kuar Palaic kar-hi Vedic hwar (< *kwor ) Gothic where (< *kwe:r) English so it is tempting to set up: *kr “here” PIE kar Greek kar Hittite here English which makes "kar" mean “a point”? “a "here"”? Imagine 3D geometry as we know it. Add physics and mechanics, or rather "naive" versions of them. An axiom of "naive" mechanics is: "Nothing moves, unless caused to move by something else". "Causing something to move" is asymmetrical (and we won't allow circular causation). Therefore some things (at points? a "here"?) cause to move without themselves being moved. These things are animate, subjects; all other things are inanimate, objects. This I think is close to the image of the world, these people had: the concepts of geometry, naive physics and mechanics, plus animateness. There is famous anecdote about the artificial intelligence program TailSpin which was constructed to make stories. One story it came up with runs somehing like this: "Peter climbed up into a tree. Peter climbed out onto a branch. Peter fell from the branch into the water. Gravity drowned". Now why did Gravity drown? The rules TailSpin used to produce stories included: If you move something from A to B, you move yourself from A to B. If you have no support, Gravity will move you down If you are in the water, and you can't swim, and you have no friends to save you, you will drown. What happened was this: Gravity moved Peter down into the water. Therefore Gravity moved it(her?)self into the water. Gravity can't swim and has no friends. So Gravity drowns. The shock (and humorous) effect comes from Gravity surfacing as an animate subject, almost like a genie or goddess of Gravity (Gravitas?) although all TailSpin had to work on were assumptions that we use everyday. Today's physics is also squeezed into the procrustean bed of the sentence structure of our accusative languages: animate somebody or inamate something acts onto inanimate something. At the same time Gravity is an abstract thing: the noun has no referent in the outside world. The invention of abstract words forces us to assume the existence of an abstract world. This is where gravity belongs. Or is it the goddess Gravitas who lives in the beyond? An old discarded theory (but I have forgotten why it was discarded) said: the invention of abstract nouns came about because PIE had very few conjunctions relating sentence to sentence. You could say: "The stone was heavy. It crushed my foot." If you wanted to make sure the other understood the causal relationship, you couldn't say "Because the stone was heavy, it crushed my foot". But after you invented the (feminine) abstracta, you could say: "The heaviness (gravity!) of the stone crushed my foot" And since heaviness is now a noun you can make strange sentences with it: "Heaviness is bad (for feet)" "Heaviness will crush feet" or, if some kind of heaviness bothers you, you can build a temple to Gravitas and plead with her and try to get a special deal, different from the one she has with everyone else. Or if you are very scientific, you could say: "Gravity will pull objects to the ground" believing that you are not a believer in animate spirits which live inside things causing them to do stuff (while actually being one). Back to *kr-: This is what I think *kr- is: an animate something that can do things of its own volition, unpredictable (unlike inanimate things). Preformatives d-preformative IEG: t-preformative Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic originally forming reflexives > d-preformative Proto-IndoEuropean eg. dákru “tear” Greek dípsa “thirst” Greek dlUgU “long” Old Church Slavonic : *ak^- “sharp, sour” Proto-IndoEuropean yabisa “became arid” Arabic longus “long” Latin s-preformative IEG, VISW, SIG: s-preformative Pre-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic originally corresponding in its usage to the Assyrian, Syrian, Minaeic and Egyptian s-preformative Parallel intransitive and transitive or primary and causative verbs have a tendency to be merged (as i.a. clearly seen in the Germanic dialects, some more, some less); as the original sense of the s- was forgotten and the new common IE-Semitic causative of the form (s)moldéye-ti appeared instead of the old s-causative, analogisations occurred, in which the types m-ld- and sm-ld- established themselves in different dialects, eg. originally intransive m-ld- Proto-IndoEuropean melde-ti “melts” (intr.) méldo: “melt” Greek *miltan “melt” Gothic ga-malteins “melted” Gothic meltan “melt” Anglo-Saxon originally transitive sm-ld- Proto-IndoEuropean smelde-ti “melts” (tr.) smelzan “melt” Old High German primary *p-l- “fall” Proto-IndoEuropean with n-preformative n-p-l- “fall” Semitic causative sphal- “cause to fall” Proto-IndoEuropean spallo: id. Greek in the verbs as in the corresponding nouns. TP: I would derive it from the Austronesian instrumental-mood prefix Si-. Borrowed verb pairs Ø-verb/Si-verb (> s-verb) would contrast semantically either as verb/causative verb or not at all. Morphology, inflection CAIEH 76 Verb-forming nasal infix before second consonant of root tuboh “body” Melanesian tumboh “grow” Melanesian yukta-h “joined” Sanskrit yuñj-mah “we join” Sanskrit The n-infix of the present may become the basis of another noun which may replace the original one. tumboh “growth” Melanesian jùngas “yoke” Lithuanian or an n-infix-less verb may be formed from the original noun. tuboq “grow” Tagalog tubu “grow” Toba tuwoh “grow” Javanese and if both happens, you may have a doublet root, with or without semantic distinction. tubuq Proto-Austronesian tumbuq Proto-Austronesian CAIEH 77 Suffix (verb)-en meaning “something which gets (verb)ed” -ka:qin “eat” Tagalog ka:n-in “boiled rice” Tagalog makan “eat” Mal. makan-an “food” Mal. ka-i “eat” Futuna kan-o “meat” Futuna bit- “bite” Gothic bit-an-s “bitten” Gothic nes- “carry” Old Church Slavonic nes-en-û “carried” Old Church Slavonic CAIEH 78 Austronesian durative reduplication. nagpu:tol “did cut” Tagalog nagpu:pu:tol “is, was cutting” Tagalog perhaps mööt “sit” Trukese mömmööt “be sitting” Trukese títhe:mi “I put” Greek IENH quotes E. Benveniste's "Origins of the Formulation of Nouns in IndoEuropean" (1935) as the origin of the ideas that lead IENH to these observations on the root structure of Proto-IndoEuropean: 1 There were no initial vowels in the earliest form of Pre-IndoEuropean. Therefore, every root began with a consonant. 2 Originally, there were no initial consonant clusters either. Consequently, every root began with one and only one consonant. 3 Two basic syllable types existed (A) *CV and (B) *CVC where C = any non-syllabic and V = any vowel. Permissible root forms coincided exactly with these two syllable types. 4 A verbal stem could either be identical with a root or it could consist of a root plus a single derivational suffix added as a suffix to the root: *CVC-VC-. Any consonant could serve as a suffix. 5 Nominal stems, on the other hand, could be extended by additional suffixes. Similarly for Afro-Asiatic 1 There were no initial vowels in the earliest form of Proto-AfroAsiatic. Therefore every root began with a consonant. 2 Originally, there were no initial consonant clusters, either. Consequently, every root began with one and only one consonant. 3 Two basic syllable types existed (A) *CV and (B) *CVC where C = any non-syllable and V = any vowel. Permissible root forms coincided with these two syllable types. 4 A verb stem could either be identical with a root or it could consist of a root plus a single derivational morpheme added as a suffix to the root: *CVC-VC-. Any consonant could serve as a suffix. 5 Primary (that is, non-derivational) noun stems displayed similar patterning, though, unlike verbs stems, they were originally characterized by stable vocalism. PA quotes Dempwolff for the folowing limitations on the Proto-Austronesian word-bases: 1 CVC 2 CVCVC, of which some are CVNPVC, where N is a nasal and P is a stop, homorganic with each other ie -mp-, -mb-, -nt-, -nd-, -n(g)g-, -n(g)k-. CVNPVC and CVPVC may be or not be semantically equivalent, in which first case they are written CV(N)PVC. 3 CVCCVC, where CVC = CVC, ie two identical syllables. abbr. CVC2 4 CVCVCVC, trisyllabic roots, of which some are CVNPVCVC, CVCVNPVC, CV-CVC2 5 CVCVCVCVC, very few Affixes: Prefixes: Many have the form cv-, therefore the result becomes one of the above, eg. cv- + CVC > cvCVC, cv- + CVCVC > cvCVCVC Infixes: All infixes have the form -vc-, and are inserted after the first C. eg. -vc- + CVC > CvcVC, -vc- + CVCVC > CvcVCVC Suffixes: Many are in the form -vc, eg. -vc + CVC > CVCvc, -vc + CVCVC > CVCVCvc This looks very similar to the structure of Proto- IndoEuropean + nasal infix as explained above by Dyen. VISW claims the following of the forms of Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic 1 Pronominal single consonant stems C- 2 Two-consonant stems C-C- 3 Reduplication of two-consonant stems C-CC-C ((C-C)2 ?), eg. gw-l “roll, turn” > gw-lgw-l, Hebrew gilga:l “wheel, circle” and as simplification "simple reduplication", a consonant is dropped. IndoEuropean drops the second consonant kw-kw-l- , kweklo-s “wheel” Afro-Asiatic drops the third consonant gw-l-l “roll”, Amharic gw-l-l 4 Addition as suffix of the consonant in anlaut eg. gw-r “swallow” > gw-r-gw, Old High German querca “throat”. Called "half reduplication", elsewhere "broken reduplication". 5 Two-consonant roots might be extended by a one-consonant suffix, a "determinative". In some cases the meaning of the determintive can be seen from its later history in Indo-European, eg. -d and -n from -t and -n in Indo-European, where the form participles. Since most of the determinatives are no longer productive in Indo-European, they must be pre- Indo-European. In Afro-Asiatic the determinative is tightly bound to the root, since native Sprachgefühl demands three- consonant roots 6 Two-consonant roots may become three-consonant by a one- consonant infix. A nasal infix, which is rare in AfroAsiatic eg. Ethiopian kanfar “lip” from *k-p-, has become very much used in Indo-European. Further, in Afro-Asiatic two-consonant roots may also be extended by a one-consonant prefix. These prefixes may also be found as infixes with no or small semantic change. plus 8 more paragraphs. As can be seen, the limitations of VISW correspond pretty well with those of IENH and PA. In general, I think it sad to see how Møller in generally is written off as a "philologist" or "semiticist" who undertook an "abortive attempt" to find a common origin for Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic, by people who obviously haven't read his work. As for the e - o ablaut gradation IVSQA maintains that this should reinterpreted as a & - a gradation. So did RVCFRN. Numerals As for the Indo-European numerals: one ? two has a cognate in AfroAsiatic and Austronesian three has a cognate in AfroAsiatic and Austronesian four has a cognate in Austronesian five has a cognate in AfroAsiatic and a related cognate in the Austronesian word for "hand" six has a cognate in AfroAsiatic seven has a cognate in AfroAsiatic eight is reconstructible from within Proto-IndoEuropean nine has been related to the Proto-IndoEuropean root for "new" i.e. the next after eight which speaks volumes of the antediluvian cultural level of Indo-European speakers (or perhaps not, cf the use of Chinese numerals in Japanese or Danish numerals in Greenland Eskimo). CAIEH: (Conclusion by the author, I. Dyen) I must confess that I am impressed with the extent to which I have been successful in gathering matchings between the reconstructions of the two families. Granting that thus far I have not wavered in my stedfast belief in the likelihood that an Austronesian-IndoEuropean relationship can not be demonstrated, should I waver now? TP: You may indeed waver. At least I think you should (or should have, the article is from 1970). It should be noted that the article was written not to prove such a relationship, but, rather, given the impossibility thereof since no connections between the corresponding cultures before appr. AD 1000 is (was) known, to test the validity of the comparative method (by providing a counter-example, in Popper's sense). } -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= ------------------------------------------------------------------ -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Phonetic Correspondence “ng” The consonant cluster “ng” has been noted, by Chaterjee and others, in word like "Ganga", which is related to words meaning simply “river”, in many Austro-Asiatic languages. Other words like sanga “having limbs”, Sanskrit seem to indicate that intervocalic "ng" may be connected with words associated with appendages, limbs, extensions, offshoots and the like. The Austronesian words darnga, tarnga, kalinga, etc. all meaning “ear”, certainly seem to be related to Sanskrit karna “ear”, the latter having lost the “ng” consonant cluster. This has also occurred in Austronesian languages were we find kalna, kalina, talina, etc. Other possible examples of this trait are: { TP: This *-ng- “appendage” infix wouldn't happen to that horrible serpent *-n-g- again? Or am I getting paranoid? At least I would claim "anguli" “finger” and "anga" “limb” for it. And how about Indo-European *dnghuH2- “tongue”? IEW: ang-, esp. to designate joints of limbs cf. lithus “joint” Gothic *lei- “bend” Gothic ángam “joint” Sanskrit angúli-h, angúri-h “finger, toe”, Sanskrit (from which anguli:yam “finger ring” Sanskrit) anguisthi-h “big toe, thumb” = angus^ta “toe” Avestan ankinn, anginn “corner” Armenian añjali-h “both hands rounded held together” Armenian } linga “phallus” langala- “plow” vanga- “tree” punga “heap, mound” sunga “sheath of a bud” anguli “finger” matanga “elephant (from trunk)” anga “limb” langula “tail” vangsa- “bamboo and other cane” Initial retroflex consonants There can be little doubt that the common occurrence of retroflex consonants in the various languages of India are due to common influence upon each other. Many of the retroflex consonants in Indic and the Austric languages of India are almost certainly of Dravidian origin as they are abundantly attested to in those languages but not found outside India. On the other hand, the initial retroflex consonants of Indic, cannot be found, or at least are very rare in the Dravidian languages. Initial retroflex consonants are quite common in Austric languages, both Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian. Initial retroflex consonants do not occur in IE languages in Iran or Afghanistan or further to the north and west. Retroflex consonants themselves can be found as far east as Formosa, Papua, Micronesia and the Santa Cruz Islands. { TP: Re: the retroflex consonants in Swedish and Norwegian which are sometimes cited as an example of "spontaneous" "retroflexisation" (without super- or substrate influence); the "thick" or cacuminal l occurs in the dialects of those areas where bronze age rock carvings are found with motifs that might be interpreted as connected with South East Asia (tree of life, birds, ceremonial axes, boats). The retroflex r (which causes the immediately following consonants (n, d, l, s) to become retroflex too) is limited to Sweden and Norway, in Sweden historically to north of Scania into which area it is now spreading, according to (indignant or jubilant) letters to the editor in the local papers. } Lexically contrastive dental and retroflex plosives According to Henderson (Topography of S.E. Asian Languages, in Indo-Pacific Linguistic Studies, Part II, 1965, The Netherlands), the Dravidian languages do not possess this as a native characteristic while the Munda and Indic languages do. Further East, Lepcha, Chin, South Vietnamese, Khmer, and Javanese are among the languages that possess this trait. Lexically contrastive aspiration of voiced plosives This trait is present in the North Indian languages but absent in the Dravidian. It is also found in all the Munda languages except Sora, and in Rhade of Vietnam. Lexically contrastive aspiration of voiced plosives and prenasalised plosives can be found widely spread over the Austro-Asiatic area, and morphological use of aspiration extends out into Oceania. Pronoun theory for Indic and Austric languages We will suggest that all pronouns from both groups are derived from the roots "atamai" and "tena" or "tana". See these entries under the listings of pronouns on the previous page for their meanings. Whether these roots were derived from earlier shorter roots, we will not discuss, but only suggest that all the modern Austric roots and all the Indic roots from the Prakits hence are derived from them. For example, the first person singular: |atam|mai > aham (t > k > h) Here the final syllable is closed with a final consonant, but in most of the vernaculars and Prakits the 1st singular ends with an open vowel: |ata|mai > ahau, aho, ako, aku, etc. a|ta|mai > hau, hao, hu, ho, kaw, go, ga, etc. at|a|mai > au, a On the other hand, the 1st person plural usually uses|m| in the final syllable or as the final consonant: a|tam|ai > ham, hamai, hami, hame, kami, kam, etc. at|amai| > amai, ami, am, etc. Some modern vernaculars use the last syllable for the 1st person singular: ata|mai| > mai (Hindi, etc.) The 2nd person singular usually shares the characteristic of the 1st person singular in having an open vowel ending: a|ta|mai > tu, ta, ku, kau, kaw, etc. However, there are exceptions here also: a|tam|ai > tumi, tvam, tom, tam, etc. The 2nd person plural also shares the trait of the 1st person plural in using |m| from ata|m|ai: a|tam|ai > tum, tame, tam, timi, tamiai, kamu, etc. Thus, with the first two persons we propose the following: Singular Plural 1st person |ata|mai a|tam|ai 2nd person a|ta|mai a|tam|ai The third person and demonstratives, on the other hand, generally can be derived from tena/tana, with the proposition: t > k > h > s So, for the demostratives, we get: |te|na > te, ta, tya, tia, sa, sya, siya, etc. t|ena| > ena, ini, ana, on(koran), un(kar), etc. In the Munda, Melanesian and Austronesian languages of Papua, t|en|a and t|ena| take on importance as 1st person and sometimes second person pronouns such as 1st person pronouns en, in, ing, etc., in the Munda languages; and an, ana, etc., in Melanesia. "Ba-, va-, pa- or like root for kinship terms " Here are kinship terms used in both Austric and Indic languages (see preceding link to this page for complete listing of kinship terms) father mother |va|ppa |be|be |ba|ba |be|bbe |ba|pa |ba|bi |ba|bi |pa|e |pa|pa |be|ben brother sister |ba|ya |ba|gini |ba|ha |ba|hini |ba|i |ba|i |ba|u |ba|u child wife |ba|lah |va|hu |ba|chcha |ba|hu |ba|ta |ba|hi |be|ta |va|hini |po|ta |ba|u |pu|tta |ba|i { VISW *Á- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *e- “I” reduced in the ending 1st pers. sing o: < oA *bhéro: Proto-IndoEuropean phéro: Greek + g : gh (< k : K, Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic) egó: Greek ego Latin ek Old Norse ik Gothic ih Old High German azem Avestan adam Old Persian aham Sanskrit + m me acc. (< 'emé) “me” Proto-IndoEuropean etc *A- in the prefix of 1st sing. imperf. 'a- Arabic 'a- Assyrian 'e- Ethiopian 'e- Syriac -a- Bilin -a- Quara eg. wa:s-á -ku: “I hear” vs. wa:s-jó-ku: “you hear” + n 'ana Arabic 'ana Ethiopian 'ana: Biblical Aramaic 'enå: Syriac 'eni: Hebrew an Bilin áni Galla + k ana:ku Assyrian 'nk Phoenician (anec, Plautus) 'nk(y) Aramaic Sangirli 'a:no:khi Hebrew l-n-k Egyptian anok Coptic aniga Somali nek Berber *t- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *t- 2nd person pronoun Proto-IndoEuropean toi “thee” Greek te: “thee” Sanskrit (= *tinä > sinä “thou” Finnish te “you” Finnish ) -t in the suffixes of 2nd pers. sing., dual and plur. (= t sing. Finnish ) + w tu “thou” Proto-IndoEuropean *t- prefix and suffix of 2nd person m. f. sing. (dual) and plur. Proto-AfroAsiatic ('an)t- in 'anta “thou” m. Arabic atta “thou” m. Assyrian 'atta: “thou” m. Hebrew 'anti “thou” f. Arabic atti “thou” f. Assyrian 'att “thou” f. Hebrew 'antum “ye” m. Arabic áti “thou” Galla inti: “thou” Bilin inti:n “ye” Bilin t2-w- “thou” m. Egyptian (= Indo-European tu) t2-n- “thou” f. Egyptian t2-n- “ye” Egyptian *t- , with the alternate form *d- , Proto-Indouropean-AfroAsiatic or with spirant *th-, with the alternate form *dh-, Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic ( tä- “this” Finnish ) *t- demonstrative pronoun Proto-IndoEuropean to- “that one” Greek ta- “that one” Sanskrit tha- “that one” Germanic t- Proto-AfroAsiatic ta:, ti: f. “this one” Arabic ta:ni “these two” Arabic ta “this one” Berber tana: “this one” Somali tana: “this one” Galla t-n- “this one” Egyptian th- Proto-AfroAsiatic thumma “then” Arabic thamma “there” Arabic s^a:m “there” Hebrew dh- Proto-AfroAsiatic dha: m. “this one” Arabic zæ: m. “this one” Hebrew ze m. “this one” Ethiopian di: m. “this one” Aramaic dhi: f. “this one” Arabic zo: f. “this one” Hebrew za: f. “this one” Ethiopian da: f. “this one” Biblical Aramaic *Á-m- Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic *en “we” Proto-IndoEuropean + s uns acc. (< ns) “us” Gothic + s-m- asma “us” Sanskrit amme “us” Aeolic Greek + H (Á-n-H Proto-IndoEuropean-AfroAsiatic) *ene: *ni: *A-n- Proto-AfroAsitic 'enu: “we” Hebrew simple redupl. *Á-n-n- anon “we” Coptic anna, annága “we” Somali *n- prefix of 1st pers pl. impf. na- Arabic ne- Syriac ne- Ethiopian ni- Assyrian ni- Hebrew -n- , enclitic -nu: Hebrew -na: Aramaic -na: Arabic -na Ethiopian -n Egyptian -n Coptic -na Somali } { H-Ablaut, N-ablaut ILN find much unexpected variation (b/p/p?/m/w; ... s/s./s?/z/d./ etc) in consonants in Semitic roots. Further, he finds an impossible number of correspondence sets when trying to reconstruct Afro-Asiatic roots (and taking IE roots into account). He therefore proposes two (pseudo) phonemes, H and N, which when affixed next to a consonant 'ablauts' (unfortunate choice of terminology) that consonant according to the following rules: plain H-ablaut N-ablaut b, p p? (IE bh) mb, m d, t t? (IE dh) nd, n g, k k? (IE gh) ng, n, l r n h £ s s?, s. ð d?, d. ILN proposes a special relationship between IE and AfroAsiatic within Nostratic (as did Møller). Otherwise there is general agreement that AfroAsiatic stands apart from all the other languages within Nostratic. Bomhard notes that IE seems to be related most to Uralic and the other Siberian languages with respect to morphology and inflection, but most to AfroAsiatic (and Kartvelian) with respect to vocabulary. This situation might have come about as a result of heavy borrowing by IE from especially Semitic. If this is so, then the correspondences of Hodge and the proposed cognates of Møller must be found within those loanwords. } Vowel Quantity Vowel length is determined by speech rhythm and by quantity of entire syllable. This trait is found in the Austric family, but also in the Sino-Tibetan languages of India. Phrases There exist an interesting similarity between the Vedic concept of the sun as the “eye of Varuna”, and the Hindu one of the orb as Lokachakshu, or “eye of the world”, and also as one of the eyes of Siva; and the very common Austronesian term “eye of the day”. In Thailand, we see the pharase as sa ven “eye of the day”, Li, da-ben “sun”, Jer., tau wan, Dioi, Sek. In Indonesia, and Malaysia there is mata wari and mata hari respectively for “sun = eye of the day”. In Malagasy there is maso andro “sun = eye of the day”. In Amboyna and Ceram, we have a slight variation with riamata “shining eye = sun”. The words mata-alo of Celebes and mata-alon of Baju probably have the same meaning. In Makatea, we have mata-ra, “eye of the day = sun”, from a word for “day”, that is the same as the word for sun in other New Hebrides languages. Moving into Oceania, there is mata ni siga of Fiji and San Cristoval ahve the same meaning of “shining eye”, for the sun. In Espirito Santo and Duke of York we have simply maso “eye = sun”, and make “eye = sun”, respectively. In Api, mat ni ele “sun”, is quite the same as the mata-alo and mata-alon mentioned above. At Leper's Island, matan aho, related the newly-risen sun to the eye. In the New Hebrides, the Western Eromangan has nipmi-nen “eye of the day”. Probably connected to this are the Sanskrit dina “day”, and dina-kara “sun”. In Malay, there is the phrase dina hari “day break”, while in Motu, Mekeo, Kuni and Doura we have dina “day”. In Arosi, Sau, Saa, Kwaio and Ulawa there is dani, dangi, danigi, dinga, etc., all meaning “day”. In Motu and Proto-Central Papuan dina means “sun”, while in Indonesia tinag means “torch”. We can find many other examples of common terms and phrases. For exmaple, in India it is common to denote beautiful eyes by the term mina-kshi “fish-eye”. The eyes of the fish are also considered beautiful among Austronesians, and thus we have examples like kole maka onaona “sweet-eyed kole (a fish) = beautiful person”, due to the fact that the eye of the kole was considered beautiful. { TP: Conclusion It is obvious (to me, at least) from Stephen Oppenheimer's book "Eden in the East", that there was some kind of contact from Sundaland (the land around the present Indonesia that disappeared following the rise in water level at the end of the last ice age) to India, Mesopotamia and Europe (specifically Scandinavia). According to a recent (May, 2000) article in Genetics some pig races in Europe (i.e. Yorkshire and Swedish Countryside) contains Asiatic gene material. Note the appearance of "hog" in the above list of Austric-IndoEuropean cognates. You may have noticed some enormous clusters in the cognate material. *H-d-m “master, lord” | “build, something built” | “domesticate” (driving out chaos) *H-r-(g-) “king” | “reach, stretch” | “build with wood, pile up, mount onto” *H-n-(g-) “snake” > “constriction, suffocation, murder”, “fear” | “snake” > “bend, wave”, “sew” *m-n- “(noble) man” | “sexual desire, magical power” | “spiritual body” | “something protruding, stick, churning” *t-n- “physical extension, physical body (as opposed to spiritual, magical body)” Words for swimming, travelling, boats. The opposites heavy/light, appearing as if originating as predicates of cargo on some floating transportation. As for the four first clusters, here is what I think "they" thought about it. They knew about the Kundalini serpent, deep in the mind. They saw the terrible conflagration in the depths of the oceans at the Flood (whichever) (volcanic activity?, meteoric impact?) as that same serpent rising and causing havoc in the physical world. The *H-r-g- is not a surveyor, as Dumezil would have it. He is the captain of a ship, also responsible for its construction (in wood), and knowing about geometry because he sets the course by the stars. With respect to the clusters stemming from *H-r-g- and *H-n-g-, they may express the two opposite concepts of the straight vs. the crooked. The chaotic vs. the orderly. Or there may be a three-way opposition *H-d-m-, *H-r-g-, *H-n-g-; creation, orderder, destruction. The following is taken from memory, and I might be wrong: One of the pioneers in the mathematical field of topology was the German mathematician and linguist Grassmann. I believe that what basis vectors do to a topological space in German is "aus-dehnen", a cognate of *t-n- "extend, stretch". Coincidence (or bad memory on my part)? In comparative linguistics, he is known for "Grassmann's law" in Sanskrit, so he must have had done some reading in that language. } { quotes in brackets taken (and sometimes translated) by Torsten Pedersen from: SIG Herman Møller Semitisch und Indogermanisch, Erster Teil, Konsonanten Kopenhagen 1906 VISW Herman Møller Vergleichendes Indogermanisch-semitisches Wörterbuch Göttingen 1911 IESSG Herman Møller Indoeuropæisk-semitisk sammenlignende Glossarium København 1909 RVCFRN Albert Cuny Recherches sur le vocalisme, le consonantisme et la formation des racines en “Nostratique” Paris 1943 SIPE S. Levin Semitic and Indo-European: The Principal Etymologies John Benjamins 1995 ABD A. Meriette Abydos: description des fouilles Vol. I Paris 1869 Vol. II Paris 1880 IELS E. Benveniste Indo-European Language and Society London 1973 RDS N. Krymova & A. Emsina Russko-datskiy slovar' Moscow 1968 DRV E. Daum W. Schenk Die russischen Verben Leipzig 1971 IEIE G. 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Wolters Djakarta, Groningen 1955 IVSQA E. G. Pulleyblank The IE Vowel System and Qualitative Ablaut Word 21:86-101 ACL W.S.Y. Wang The Ancestry of the Chinese Language Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series No 8 SFPST Hwang-Cherng Gong The System of Finals in Proto-Sino-Tibetan in ACL CGRA P.J. Li Is Chinese Genetically Related to Austronesian in ACL ROC L. Sagart The Roots of Old Chinese John Benjamins, 1999 VMPSIE F. Bopp Über die Verwandtschaft der malayisch-polynesischen Sprachen mit den indisch-europäischen,in: Kleine Schriften zur vergleichenden Sprachwissenschaft Zentralantiquariat der deutschen demokratischen Republik Djakarta, Groningen 1955 AG L.V. Hayes Austric Glossary MHSA M. Harvey "Subgroups in Austronesian", pp. 47-99 in Amran Halim, Lois Carrington, S.A. Wurm [eds], Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linghuistics, vol. 2, Pacific Linguistics Series C-75. Canberra:ANU 1982 CAD D.T. Tryon Comparative Austronesian Dictionary An Introduction to Austronesian Studies Mouton de Gruyter Berlin, New York 1995 PAT P.K. Benedict Proto-Austro-Tai PDL Perseus Digital Lexicons (online) TP moi FV M. Docter H. Wiegand Fruits and Vegetables http://www.student.hro.nl/0543892/Etymol.htm CEA M. Nyman Celtic Etymologies: Avalon http://www.linguistlist.org/issues/3/3-103.html TA P.C. Tacitus Annals TP moi HTV T. Vennemann Homepage http://www.germanistik.uni-muenchen.de/theoretische_linguistik/vennemann.html EVES T. Vennemann Europa Vasconica - Europa Semitica Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin - New York 2003 EBSG T. Vennemann Zur Erklärung bayerischer Siedlungs- und Gewässernamen in EVES NFD Nederlands Familienamen Databank http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/nfd/ Wastijn http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/nfd/detail_naam.php?naam=Wastijn in NFD vandeWoestijne http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/nfd/detail_naam.php?naam=Woestijne,%20van%20de in NFD FT ? http://pendeltg.sv.wikimiki.org/sv/Fittja DVEF R.M. de Azkue Diccionario vasco-español-francés Reprint edition Euskaltzaindia, Bilbao, 1984 in EBSG UKI J. Pokorny Zur Urgeschichte der Kelten und Illyrer Max Niemeyer, Halle, 1938 in EBSG EBAE T. Vennemann Etymologische Bezeichnungen im alten Europa in EVES BBPN T. Vennemann Pre-Indo-European Toponyms in Central and Western Europe: Bid-/Bed- and Pit- names in EVES EP T. Vennemann Etymology and Phonotactics: Latin vs. Basque 'big' and similar problems in EVES LPE A. Bammesberger & T. Vennemann Languages in Prehistoric Europe EWBS M. Löpelmann Etymologisches Wörterbuch der baskischen Sprache: Dialekte von Labourd, Nieder-Navarra und La Soule Vol I: Einleitung. A-K; Vol II: L-Z Walter de Gruyter, 1968 DBF P. Lhande Dictionnaire Basque-Franc,ais et Franc,ais-Basque (Dialectes Labourdin, Bas-Navarrais et Souletin) Gabriel Beauchsne Paris 1926 FKUINR J. Koivulehto Frühe Kontakte zwischen Uralisch und Indogermanisch im nordwestindogermanischen Raum in LPE PP F.T.Wainwright(ed.) The Problem of the Picts Melven Press, Perth PL K.H. Jackson The Pictish Language in PP, apud BBPN RPA C. Ehret Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, tone, consonants and vocabulary University of California Press, Berkeley 1995 HB L. Trask The History of Basque Routledge, New York 1997 W Wikipedia Cybalist Various authors' postings in www.egroups.com/messages/cybalist the list cybalist. Austronesian The list www.egroups.com/messages/austronesian Nostratica-L The list www.egroups.com/messages/Nostratica-L NPMPPD R.A. Blust "Notes on Proto-Malayo-Polynesian phratry dualism ".BKI 136 : 215-247 quoted in the list Austronesian message 48 WM454 W. Mahdi The list Austronesian message 454 PGc Piotr Ga,siorowski in Cybalist RWc Richard Wordingham in Cybalist MVc Mark Verhaegen in Cybalist MCVc Miguel Carrasquer Vidal in Cybalist AKc Abdullah Konushevci in Cybalist RWa Richard Wordingham in austronesian LBa Loreto Bagio in austronesian PKMa Paul Kekai Manansala in austronesian PMA P.K. Manansala Austrics in India http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Temple/9845/austric.htm PMS P.K. Manansala Sumerian http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Temple/9845/sumerian.htm PMN P.K. Manansala Austronesian Navigation and Migration http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/temple/9845/austro.htm } *H1ekt “net” de-ku-tu-wo-ko = dektu-worgo- “net-makers” Mycenian Greek díktuon “hunting/fishing net” Greek (-i- from dikein “throw”) e:kt- “net” Hittite aggati- “catch-net” Luvian áksu- “net” Sanskrit The Greek forms represent neuter nouns with (prefixed?) *d- as in the word for “tear” *H2ékru (gen.H2ekréus) “tear” as^arà “tear” Lithuanian asara “tear” Latvian *s-H2ékru, with H2..k > H2..H2 is^ahru- “tear” Hittite asru:- “tear” Aveastan ás^ru- “tear” Sanskrit akär “tear” TokharianA akru:na (pl.) “tears” TokharianB related *dH2ékru “tear” de:r “tear” Old Irish deigr - deigryn “tear” Welsh dacruma “tear” Old Latin ta:r “tear” Old Norse te:ar - teagor “tear” Old English tæhher “tear” Northumbrian English tear English zahar “tear” Old High German tagr “tear” Gothic dákru dákruon dákru:ma “tear” Greek d- either prefix or from false division of *tod H2ékru “this tear” etc *dnghuH2- “tongue” tengae “tongue” Old Irish tafawt “tongue” Old Welsh dingua “tongue” Old Latin lingua “tongue” Latin fangwam “tongue” Oscan tunga “tongue” Old Norse tunge “tongue” Old English tongue English zunga “tongue” Old High German tungo “tongue” Gothic insuwis “tongue” Old Prussian liez^ùvis “tongue” Lithuanian jezykû “tongue” Old Church Slavonian jazýk “tongue” Russian lezu “tongue” Armenian hizu:- “tongue” Avestan jihvá: “tongue” Sanskrit käntu “tongue” TokharianA kantwo “tongue” TokarianB Metathesis in Tokharian l- influenced by "lick" loss of d- before -n- probably regular in Balto-Slavic TP : ?