* Intercultural Learning And How Particular Established Initiatives [In Germany] Organise And Support Such Learning Experiences For Young People

* The Involvement Of Marginalised And Excluded Young People And Any Strategies For Engagement And Involvement That Have Been Successfully Developed Within The Same Established Initiatives
 
 
 

REPORT RESEARCHED AND WRITTEN BY
 MARK TAYLOR
 STRASBOURG, JULY - SEPTEMBER 1996

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 

I am responsible for all interpretations and conclusions and, of course, for any omissions or errors.  My thanks and appreciation to all those have helped me in my research and, in particular:

Elliot Stern, Tavistock Institute, London
Sergio Andreis, International Christian/Cultural Youth Exchange (ICYE), Leuven
Ulrich Beckers, Aktionsgemeischaft Dienst für den Frieden (AGDF) and Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" beim IJAB, Bonn
Ann Cosgrove and Irena Guidikova, European Youth Centre (EYC), Strasbourg
Noreen Fitzpatrick and Farid El Ghrich, Youth Forum of the European Union (YFEU), Brussels
Joseph Freise and Gisela Kurth, Eirene, Neuwied
Ulrich Frey, Aktionsgemeischaft Dienst für den Frieden (AGDF), Bonn
Gérard Gabert and Michelle Kopf-Müller, Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk/Office franco-allemand pour la jeunesse (DFJW/Ofaj), Bad Honnef, Paris
Michael Jahn, Internationale Jugendgemeinschaftsdienste (IJGD) Landesverein Brandenburg, Potsdam
Birgit Jaspers, Service Civil International (SCI) Deutscher Zweig, Bonn
Hazel Low, European Induction Programme, Asnieres
Sarah Nicholas, Youth Exchange Centre (YEC), London
John Stringham, Diakonsiches Werk, Speyer
Hans-Georg Wicke, Eberhard Lueder and Maria Deisel, Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" beim IJAB, Bonn
Hank Williams and Martin Maw
My family for their love and support.
 
 

1 INTRODUCTION
 

1.1  LANGUAGE AND TERMINOLOGY

I refer to organisations and programmes by their German name and, where appropriate, the relevant acronym, followed by a translation into English, thus: Internationale Jugendgemeinschaftsdienste (IJGD) [International Youth Community Services]; or Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr (FSJ) [year of voluntary work and community service].  These are accepted translations (see Köhnen, 1992 and IJAB, 1994).  The majority of texts cited and interviews were in German and I have translated all quotes into English.  This is indicated by [tr]. For reasons of space there seemed little point in including quotes in the original German.  I have tried to explain all concepts which do not have a direct equivalent in English.
 

1.2  TERMS OF REFERENCE

Following discussions between Elliot Stern and myself in June 1996, the terms of reference for this study were agreed as the basis for work to begin (and subsequently agreed with the Commission):

 "In the frame of the ex-ante evaluation of European Voluntary Service the work should focus on two particular themes.  The first should be intercultural learning and how particular established initiatives organise and support such learning experiences for young people.  The second, the involvement of marginalised and excluded young people and any strategies for engagement and involvement that have been successfully developed within the same established initiatives.

 These two themes should be explored on the basis of case studies of well established initiatives in Germany and including the Franco-German Youth Office.  A total of four case studies are required.  These should emphasise voluntary service experience but it is understood that many of the issues to be explored will also occur in exchange projects, for example specific issues such as adequate preparation, proper support, integration into new cultural milieux and confronting stereotypes."
 

1.3  METHODOLOGY

Voluntary service in Europe is, in many ways, a kind of hidden activity.  There are few, if any, real books about it.  Even in the Federal Republic of Germany - the largest country of the European Union - a request to the Deutsches Jugend Institut (DJI) [German Youth Institute] for a computer search of written material on voluntary service resulted in "no eligible references" .  The same request provided "49 hits" referring to marginalised or disadvantaged young people; none of these references had any relation to voluntary service.

Most of the information in this field is to be found in so-called 'graue Texte' [grey texts] such as publications without ISBNs, internal reports and unpublished manuscripts and, of course, in the reflected experience of the people involved.

My research has been undertaken between June and September, a period of holidays for many and, for those involved in international youth work, a period of intense activity when most exchanges take place.  Attempting to contact key figures was correspondingly problematic.  The main methods used to obtain information were:

* extensive correspondence
* telephone interviews
* informal contacts at international seminars, training courses and meetings
* visits to Bonn (17 - 18 July) and Berlin (23 September)
* documentation searches in institutions such as the European Youth Centre (EYC) and my own archives.

In interpreting the information and drawing conclusions I have relied heavily on my own experience in international youth work.  Of most relevance has been my time spent at the Youth Exchange Centre running a German-British volunteer exchange programme and the last seven years when I have been active as a trainer and writer in the field of intercultural learning for youth workers, teachers and businesses.
 

1.4  CASE STUDIES: SELECTIVE PORTRAITS OF THE ORGANISATIONS CONCERNED

These seven "established initiatives" were chosen to reflect a diversity of aims, institutional background, experience and practice.  There are more case studies than originally planned, but it would still be presumptuous to claim that they reflect the whole range of voluntary service or international exchange initiatives in Germany.  They do represent a fairly broad spectrum from which it is possible to understand a little better what a future European Voluntary Service will need to take into account in the areas of intercultural learning and the involvement of marginalised or disadvantaged youth.  Comparisons with theory and practice in and between other countries will be essential to come to European or global conclusions.

1.4.1 Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk/Office franco-allemand pour la jeunesse (DFJW/Ofaj) [known in the UK as the Franco-German Youth Office], Bad Honnef and Paris

Established by an agreement signed by the respective foreign ministers on 5 July 1963, the DFJW was the brainchild of Charles de Gaulle, the French President and Konrad Adenauer, the Federal Chancellor.  They wanted to give special significance to the 26 January 1963 treaty of Franco-German Cooperation by calling on young people to contribute to the process of reconciliation and understanding.  Staffed by German and French nationals in Bad Honnef and Paris, the DFJW does not as a rule organise programmes itself, but with funding and programming assistance it supports its partners in the implementation of their own programmes.  These partners are active in most areas related to youth - school, work, university, culture, town twinnings, youth and sports associations.  Programmes supported include group exchanges, training, individual programmes, language courses, and the production of information and education materials.  The DFJW funds six or seven voluntary service preparation and evaluation seminars per year .  In 1993, its thirtieth anniversary gave the DFJW the chance to look back at an impressive, statistical history: 161,496 funded programmes involving 4,663,097  participants (DFJW/Ofaj, 1993, p.61ff).  Although faced with small cutbacks in funding, the DFJW continues to work with an annual budget from both governments of over 40 million Deutschmarks.
 

1.4.2 Aktionsgemeischaft Dienst für den Frieden (AGDF), [Action Committee Service for Peace], Bonn

The AGDF is an umbrella organisation with 31 members in Germany (AGDF, 1996, p.4) which are ecumenically-oriented peace and voluntary services.  Its activities include the planning, promotion and implementation of measures serving the cause of peace - especially through the participation of young people.  It pursues this aim by coordinating long and short-term voluntary service organisations whose aim is to promote peace and it works for the recognition and promotion of voluntary services in international youth work, reconciliation services, cooperation between churches and governments in the field of development policy as well as via international institutions.  In its turn, the AGDF is a member of several other umbrella organisations including the Association of Voluntary Service Organisations (AVSO, which used to be known as the Steering Group of Voluntary Service Organisations).  The manager of the AGDF is currently chairperson of AVSO and this is partly a recognition of the pioneering role of the AGDF and its member organisations in promoting long-term voluntary service at European level .
 

1.4.3 Service Civil International (SCI) - Deutscher Zweig [International Voluntary Service - German Branch], Bonn

SCI is the oldest existing voluntary and peace service organisation (founded in 1920) and maintains some 23 branches around the world.  The German branch was founded in 1946.  Its fundamental objective is the promotion of international youth work for the development of international understanding, cooperation and solidarity.  To achieve this aim it organises international workcamps at home and abroad on the basis of practical voluntary work as well as long-term voluntary service and courses to train and prepare participants and workers.  Projects are carried out in the fields of environmental protection, social work, reconciliation efforts, help for children and the support of citizen' action groups and the peace movement.  The German Branch takes active part in various working groups within SCI designed to coordinate and improve activities such as the Middle/Long-Term Volunteer Support Group and it has been a core member of SCI's Youth and Unemployment Working Group since it started in 1985 .

1.4.4 Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" beim IJAB  [German Office "Youth for Europe" within IJAB], Bonn

This is the German national agency for the European Union "Youth for Europe" programme and has been in existence since the programme began in 1988.  The staff members share offices (and much more besides) with the Internationaler Jugendaustausch- und Besucherdienst der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (IJAB) [International Youth Exchange and Visitors' Service of the FRG].  During its administration of Youth for Europe, the German office has devoted much energy into incorporating the new Bundesländer into the programme.  It has also been at the forefront of encouraging strong developments in the intercultural training of youth workers.  The German office has been designated as the national agency responsible for European Voluntary Service.

1.4.5 EIRENE, Internationaler Christlicher Friedensdient [EIRENE, International Christian Peace Service], Neuwied

EIRENE (the Greek word for peace) was set up in 1957 by the historical peace churches of the Mennonites and Brethren, the International Reconciliation Union and European Christians who advocate non-violence.  The aim of EIRENE is the promotion of peace and the intellectual dialogue between nations by means of constructive contributions to reducing unequal economic development and need, social injustice, political tension and cultural repressions.  Projects in Africa, Central and South America and Bangladesh are supported financially.  A total of 64 long-term volunteers (some serving their Zivildienst  [compulsory non-military national service]) were placed around the world in 1995, with new initiatives starting in Bosnia and Croatia (EIRENE, 1996, passim).  EIRENE is the coordinator of an evaluation study of several voluntary service organisations.   Unfortunately, at the time of writing, the report had not been finalised and was therefore unavailable for consultation.  It should be very interesting when finally published.

1.4.6 Internationale Jugendgemeinschaftsdienste (IJGD) [International Youth Community Services], Bonn, Potsdam, Halberstadt, Berlin and Hildesheim

IJGD are one of the oldest workcamp organisations in Germany, having organised their first international workcamp in 1948.  Their aim is to make young people aware of social relations, thus enabling them to make their own decisions in a democratic society, to act responsibly and to contribute to international understanding as the basis of world peace.  In some federal states the IJGD is the organiser of the Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr (FSJ) [year of voluntary work and community service] and the Freiwilliges Ökologisches Jahr [year of voluntary environmental work].  In the four years following 1991 - when their pilot project started - IJGD received 50 volunteers from abroad to take part in the FSJ (Eberhard, 1996, p.63).

1.4.7 Diakonisches Werk der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland [Service Agency of the Protestant Church in Germany], Diaconal Year Network, Speyer

The members of the Service Agency include the service agencies of the 24 regional churches in the EKD, nine free churches with their service agencies and about 100 specialist organisations working in the most diverse social fields.  It thus represents about 28,000 independent institutions with a total staff of about 330,000.  In the area of youth work, the Service Agency concentrates on bringing up children and young people in homes, rest cures and recuperation for children, kindergarten education and placing children with adoptive and foster parents.  Many placements are found for those serving their Zivildienst.  Through the Diaconal Year Network, the Service Agency offers a year of social welfare work - Diakonsiches Jahr - modelled on the Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr.  In 1995, 2700 young German people were placed in the Diakonisches Jahr and of these 43 were foreigners, some of them already living in Germany.  The Network has begun to recruit volunteers from socially disadvantaged backgrounds in the UK .
 

2  INTERCULTURAL LEARNING AND VOLUNTARY SERVICE

"Wer nie Schiffbruch erlitten hat,
kommt nicht in den Hafen."
Lao Tsé
[tr: Those who have never been shipwrecked,
will never reach the harbour]

(Personal note: my experience with intercultural-learning-and-all-things-related is full of 'shipwrecks' and 'harbours'.  I am not sure whether this paper will turn out to be the metaphorical equivalent of stepping aboard the Titanic or an interesting resting place to look around for a while.  We shall see.)

The new European Voluntary Service is defined first and foremost as an "educational project".  Intercultural learning forms part of this educational project .  Challenges lie in attempting to find out what this might mean in theory and in practice, and to discover a way to make it understandable.  Context-setting and target audience play important roles here and, as in this limited study, there is always the risk of omitting something felt to be crucial by one or other school of thought .  All of the case study organisations give some priority to Interkulturelles Lernen but the weight and interpretations given to the term are different and change over time.
 

2.1  INTERCULTURAL LEARNING AND INTERNATIONAL YOUTH ACTIVITIES - A POTTED GERMAN HISTORY

As far as I can ascertain, the so-called Breitenbachstudie  (Breitenbach, 1979) stands as the introduction in Germany of intercultural learning as an important concept for international youth activities .  The Breitenbach team observed international exchanges, workcamps, seminars, etc., drew conclusions and defined intercultural learning as:

 "[tr.] a form of social learning which, through the experience of cultural differences and in the form of cultural comparisons leads not only to a more exact analysis and relativisation of one's own cultural norms and social systems but also to a dismantling of cultural (national) prejudices - when metacommunication about cultural norms and differences takes place".  (Breitenbach, Volume 5, 1979, p.40)

A whole string of inter-connecting influences came together to help produce this compact definition, for example:
*  cultural anthropology
*  American research into cross-cultural communication aimed at assisting "sojourners", i.e., Americans living abroad for a pre-determined period of time (soldiers, business people, volunteers, exchangees)
* multicultural education
* the 1968 movement
* Ausländer Pädagogik [education for foreigners]
* development education
* critical theory

The increase in third country participation in DFJW-funded programmes and the establishment of the Youth for Europe programme have led to more discussion about the reasons for and against intercultural learning.  Just as cultures are not static, so the discourse surrounding intercultural learning in and around Germany has changed and developed since 1979 .  Held et al (1993), in pleading for what they call 'internationales Lernen' in youth exchanges, argue that too much emphasis is being placed on culture at the expense of political and economic factors which have greater influence on international relations.  They have a point.  Much of the complexity in discussing these concepts is that [tr.] "an intercultural pedagogy - in the sense of a strictly outlined and scientifically researched topic - does not exist" (Sternecker and Treuheit, 1994, p.31).  This leaves the whole field wide open both for exciting developments and for attack.

The essential question remains: in which ways is it possible to support individuals and groups in their interactions with individuals and groups from another culture?  With a hint of slight provocation it is possible to suggest that if we choose to call this support 'intercultural learning' then that is as good a term as any other .  What is missing are the aims and, implicitly, the values which are invested in these interactions .  The descriptions of the established initiatives considered in this report are full of references to peace, reconciliation, solidarity, understanding, cooperation, justice and the like, (see 1.4 above).  These are strong, value-laden notions and require a high degree of dialogue to ensure that everyone understands and works for their ramifications in practice.  Which leads us to voluntary service across borders.
 

2.2  INTERCULTURAL LEARNING IN VOLUNTARY SERVICE - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

New forms of work, globalisation and many other factors have pushed educational debates in Germany (and elsewhere) to challenge previously accepted notions of studying and learning - especially in the field of vocational training.  In a world where the knowledge of a student with a PhD in computer sciences is out-dated within three months of that student leaving university, one debate has centred around Schlüsselkompetenzen [key competencies], i.e., what skills do we need to cope with and even create new situations at work.  This has clear parallels in transnational voluntary service: the volunteers concerned live and work within new situations; people they meet act and react differently; things are organised differently; or they may look different and turn out to be the same.  Freise (July 1993) from EIRENE suggests a non-exhaustive set of intercultural competencies which future volunteers should discover within themselves: [tr. - my emphases]

 "INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE includes

 "Technical" skills such as

 Knowledge of the local language and that literal translations of expressions do not necessarily have the same meaning, both emotionally and technically

 Knowledge of codes of conduct, customs and traditions

 Personal skills:

 Reflection on one's role:
 What is my role as a foreigner, white person, European, German, as a guest who will leave again, as a stranger who attracts certain expectations, as a volunteer?

 Empathy:
  To feel one's way into foreign norms, rules and priorities, a different attitude to time, space and one's own body.

 Tolerance of ambiguity:
 Coping with the difference between your own values, feelings, and thinking/behavioural patterns and those of the host culture, coping with the feelings of loneliness and strangeness which result from it.

 Portraying your identity:
 Being able to show yourself as a stranger with your own background in such a way that it arouses interest, and enriches rather than destroys.

 Auto-reference system:
 Being aware that your own ideas and values are also culturally determined, and that while they are a part of you, they are not necessarily better (or worse) than those of your host culture."

This working paper is used in preparation seminars for volunteers before they leave Germany.  It is similar in form and content to a list of instrumentelle 'externe' Kompetenzen [instrumental 'external' competencies] and 'internen' kommunikative Kompetenzen ['internal' communicative competencies] established by Demorgon and Niklas (1996 pp. 113-115) and suggested for youth exchange leaders within the framework of the DFJW .  For anyone coming fresh to 'empathy' or 'tolerance of ambiguity' these terms must seem difficult to understand, so role plays, exercises and stories are used with participants to assist the process.  Merely reading about such things is not enough, this  has to be felt 'am eigenen Leib' [on your own body].  Running the calculated risk of over-generalisation, Freise uses the following paper (Freise n.d.) as the basis for discussion of the different ways of thinking that future volunteers may meet:
 

GERMAN PRINCIPLES CONCERNING STRUCTURE AND ORDER

1) Setting priorities

Especially in case of real or imagined lack of time (e.g. when talking to a boss or drawing up an agenda), "important" issues come first.

2) Content before person

For us, content is more important than persons in professional life.  Technical information has priority over a person's well-being or personal needs.  "Personal" remarks are usually to be found at the end of a presentation.

3) Concentration and focus

We tend to focus on the "essential", particularly in complex situations, and to forego the use of (schmückendes Beiwerk), anecdotes and sidelines.  When writing an essay we place the most important part in the middle (introduction, main part, end), which we want to reach as quickly as possible.

4) Polarisation

Our perception concentrates on those statements which we disagree with, on possibilities to contradict, on the anti-thesis.  We like controversy in debates, we appreciate smart replies and clear points of view.  "Silence means agreement" - agreement often doesn't even seem worth being expressed.  Polarisation and developing alternatives are used to explain difference and to make clear decisions possible.

5) Objectivity

We appreciate objective (and objective-logical) reasoning, the presentation of "pro and contra" on an equal footing.  The "competition of arguments" is supposed to be won by the best reasoning, independent of persons and status.  We do not much like people who are unable or unwilling to compete in this game.

6) Logic

Reasoning has to follow a certain logic - i.e. inductive or de-ductive.  One argument has to lead to the next and support it, it has to comprise essential information, and ought to lead, preferably, directly to a revelation or statement.  Sidelines which do not have a direct link with the topic we do not consider worth exploring.
 

OTHER RULES MAY BE VALID IN THE HOST COUNTRY

1) Setting priorities

Important things, especially if they are unpleasant or lead to tensions, are usually dealt with at the end of a conversation.

2) Person before content

In the professional world, too, personal relationships are more important than content.
 
 

3) Loving details

Details and individual aspects are essential. So is a good atmosphere which has to be created.
 
 

4) Synthesis

The aims of a discussion are to find consensus, to synthesise opinions and worries.  It is important to combine as many different aspects as possible.  Perception concentrates on those parts of a statement which are most likely to be integrated and on possibilities for agreement, for positive reinforcement.  Controversy is looked down upon.

5) Unity of person and content

A person's views are part of his personality and have to be respected.  Opposition means an attack on the personality.  Status, age, gender and a person's place in the hierarchy have to be taken into consideration.
 

6) Eloquence

The art of discussion is to reach the goal in roundabout and seemingly unconnected ways.
 

The tendency - across the board - is to move away from the mere learning of lists of behaviour , traditions, etc. which you may meet in another culture or country, and towards a more three-dimensional approach where volunteers go through a form of ongoing cognitive, pragmatic and emotional learning, which helps them to make better sense of the new situation they are experiencing .  In short, they have some tools to analyse and competently react to the complex din of different verbal and non-verbal signals they are receiving (and to look at those signals they are sending themselves).  Which brings us to the subject of language.
 

2.3  LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN VOLUNTARY SERVICE

As Demorgon and Niklas (1996 p.113) remind us, Goethe once wrote: [tr.] "Those who do not speak foreign languages, know nothing about their own", nor do they have a real chance to understand another culture which functions in a language other than their own.  Although great strides forward have been made in short-term international youth activities in surmounting language and other communication barriers (through the use of media , Erlebnis Pädagogik [experiential learning], theatre, doing things together ) there is no doubt that long-term volunteers with no more than a rudimentary grasp of the local language will have a very hard time.  The possibilities for isolation and exclusion in their free time are also evident .  Most placements in the social sector involve a large amount of contact with people and this demands a high level of communication skills, including sufficient command of the language.

Anecdotal evidence combined with results of interviews with project officers confirm the belief that the vast majority of volunteers both from and entering Germany already have the requisite language skills before they are accepted for placement.  (A small exception to this rule is for those wishing to volunteer in France: Aktion Sühnezeichen Friedensdienste (ASF) [Action Reconciliation/Services for Peace] volunteers with some French can take advantage of four-week language courses supported by the DFJW before going to their placements).  We will return to this barrier to participation in the third section of this study, but a short look at the backgrounds of participants is revealing.  The majority of volunteers from Germany have been in Gymnasium [grammar] schools and come from liberal, often religious families.  Slightly cynically they could be referred to as "Pfarrers Töchter und Söhne" [vicars' daughters and sons].  Most families support their children financially in addition to the 60DM pocket money they receive per week .

One instance of volunteers from abroad receiving language training in Germany is that of the Diakonisches Werk.  Their volunteers usually have German language qualifications from school or other institution such as the Goethe Institut - they receive a nine-day language and culture course which costs the Diakonisches Werk 1300 DM per participant .

2.4  SELECTION, PREPARATION, PLACEMENT AND EVALUATION

All the established volunteer sending or receiving initiatives I have come across run seminars lasting between a weekend and 28 days at the different stages of volunteering.  The following is a general summary of the sending process organised by a sample of AGDF members ; there are differences of detail between organisations.

 i [tr.] "The amount of applicants is more than double the placements available.  Prospective volunteers must complete a detailed application form in which great attention is paid to questions of motivation and reasoned preferences for particular countries.

 ii Those who pass the first hurdle are invited to a weekend selection seminar.  This is led by a specialist from the organisation together with ex-volunteers and comprises a series of group work exercises and individual interviews.  Both the organisation and the selected volunteers have a couple of weeks to decide on a final commitment.

 iii Before departure from Germany the volunteers attend preparation seminars lasting 2-4 weeks with up to 70 participants and an organising team of 15-20.  The programme is made up of inputs about the host country, briefing on the projects and technical details.  ASF includes a week at a concentration camp in Poland as part of its preparation programme.

 iv On arrival in the host country an orientation seminar is organised for the volunteers by German staff members.  In the second half of the seminar existing volunteers come to give participants more information about their placements and living arrangements.

 v Mid-way or accompanying seminars are planned and run centrally by the German personnel in each country.  Sometimes project partners are invited to participate.  Emphasis is placed on personal development processes and strengthening the network between volunteers.

 vi In each destination country there is one person responsible for 10-25 volunteers.  They are supported technically by the central office in Germany.  Each volunteer has a named supervisor in their project.

 vii Evaluation is carried out individually with the volunteer in the host country.  A ten-day evaluation seminar is organised in Germany for returning volunteers.  The content concentrates on exchange of experiences, personal effects and development, external transfer of experience  such as working for the goals of the organisation in Germany, speaking in schools, reporting to the support group at home".
 

2.5  SEMINAR LOCATION

The place where the seminars are held can have a marked effect on the intercultural learning opportunities.  One organisation which has explored this aspect is IJGD in their German-British long-term volunteering project.  According to their mid-term evaluation, the fact of bringing both sets of volunteers together in seminars which alternate in location between Britain and Germany produces very different dynamics than is usually the case.  It is too soon to tell with total certainty if this pilot project can stand as a new model for preparation, supervision and evaluation, but it is obviously worth watching .
 

2.6  INCORPORATING FOREIGN VOLUNTEERS INTO EXISTING DOMESTIC PROGRAMMES

A European Voluntary Service will create lots of new opportunities for volunteering but it is also likely that existing domestic programmes will be tempted to bring in volunteers from abroad.  The obvious danger lies in continuing such programmes exactly as before with just the addition of some foreigners.  Again, the IJGD has some experience, dating from 1991, in incorporating volunteers from states which are members of the Council of Europe into the Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr.  As Eberhard (1996) makes clear, the participation of such volunteers changes the character of the programme:

 [tr.] "At the beginning of the project we asked ourselves the question: what would be different when the participants in the FSJ were not only those already living in Germany but also those who came specially to Germany and then returned to their home countries...
 The participation of young people from other European countries - in their placements and in the seminars - assists in making living together in a multicultural Germany more natural and helps dismantle prejudice against foreigners.  Pedagogical programmes in which intercultural learning is promoted are particularly important, especially in times of increasing xenophobia...
 These volunteers often bring a breath of fresh air into their placements...
 In the seminars we have seen the introduction of new elements...Foreigners [already] living in Germany clearly feel more confident.  Whilst in previous seminar proceedings the presence of young Turkish people hardly played a role, they now bring in more strongly their experience of being a foreigner living in Germany."
 (Eberhard, 1996, pp.60, 63)

Further experimentation is needed to ascertain whether it better a) to spread volunteers from abroad thinly across the organised seminars or b) to bring them together with an equal number of domestic volunteers.
 

2.7  TRAINING FOR INTERCULTURAL LEARNING

The whole chain of people involved in the transnational volunteer process - from the volunteer to the person looking at application forms to the placement supervisor - is engaged in intercultural interaction.  All the established initiatives with which I have had contact wish to increase the quality of the intercultural learning elements of the volunteer process .   One of the major problems in fulfilling such a wish is the lack of trainers and the financial resources to train the seminar leaders and the placement supervisors.  Relying on previous volunteering experience, evaluating their own seminars and attending the odd weekend course is the most intercultural, domestic training that the majority of seminar leaders receive .  Those who are part of international networks may have the opportunity to attend short-term seminars and courses which can give added impetus to domestic programmes.
Priority would seem to rest in attempting to provide basic training in intercultural competencies (see 2.2, above) with the addition of culture-specific training where necessary and feasible.
 
 

 3  THE INVOLVEMENT OF MARGINALISED AND EXCLUDED YOUNG PEOPLE IN VOLUNTEER PROGRAMMES
 

 "Better - much, much better -
 to follow ole Davy Crockett's motto,
 amended for use by adults:
 Be sure you're not completely wrong, then go ahead".
 Richard Ford (1996) p.226

3.1  WHO?

Speaking about categories of people is always a risky business: who is doing the defining?  what purpose does it serve?  who is included (or excluded) and why?  how does the generalisation help to understand any specific person or situation?  Such questions are particularly acute in this case and underpin much of the thinking here.

In German it is possible to translate the category of people under discussion as 'marginalisierte und ausgegrenzte Jugendlichen', but the more usual descriptors include terms such as Randgruppen [groups on the margins], sozial Benachteiligte [socially disadvantaged], Risikogruppe [group at risk] or sogenannte "schwierige" Jugendlichen [so-called "difficult" young people].  This still does not tell us who or what is being referred to.  One commentator goes so far as to see the whole 18-25 generation as the Risikogruppe, being the experimental test bed of the social effects produced by the technological change in modern society .

At the beginning of this report I referred to a search through the Deutsches Jugend Institut database (see 1.3, above) using the key words 'disadvantaged young people'.  The kinds of descriptors used by this institute appear to be a useful starting point for finding out could be meant by these categories within a German context.  In no particular order we find:

 unemployed
 homeless
 street children
 prostitutes
 foreigners
 poor
 single parents
 East Germans
 disability
 girls, women
 young people in care
 travellers
 youth gangs
 right-wing extremists

It is quite a list and could be further extended as we shall see below.
 

3.2  THE "YOUTH FOR EUROPE" (YfE) PROGRAMME AND 'DISADVANTAGE'

Since its inception in 1988 the YfE programme has had the involvement of disadvantaged young people as one of its highest priorities.  A minimum of 30% of the budget for intra-community youth exchanges (Action A.I) has to be spent on this target group and similar proportions should be spent in the other actions.  The reasoning behind this priority is given in the current Vademecum (European Commission, 1996):

 "Involving young people in the building of a Europe which is closer to, and more supportive of, its citizens entails taking into consideration those young people who have the most difficulty in participating in Community programmes.  Enabling young people from disadvantaged urban or rural  environments, young people with disabilities, young people facing social exclusion or who are already living in situations of exclusion to take part in the Programme requires the adoption of positive measures in their favour".

Finding common ground between the different national realities of disadvantage has not been easy and has entailed a continuous process of dialogue between the national agencies .  How difficult this has been was highlighted at the YfE seminar organised to examine the access of disadvantaged young people to exchanges (YEC, 1991): each of the national presentations concentrated on different target groups and analyses.  Basic example: for the Danish national agency 'disadvantaged' was not a word they used, it was more appropriate to say that "some young people have 'less resources', which does not just refer to finances".  Recommendations from the seminar highlight the three key areas of information, developing networks and training and they focus on good practice in youth exchange, the provision of information to young people and the support of 'face-to-face enablers' (i.e. youth workers) in their efforts to motivate participation in exchanges.

For the third phase of YfE each national agency has the task of defining its own priorities in terms of disadvantage.  Within Germany a general statutory framework for Benachteiligte Förderung [support for the disadvantaged] exists to help young people who have difficulty entering the job market with access programmes, further training and the like.  The Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" is careful to distance itself from this narrow band and opts instead to define disadvantage in relation to opportunities to participate in youth exchanges , hence - for instance - the inclusion for the present of all young people in the new German Bundesländer (as a disadvantaged region), alongside the almost traditional targets such as the unemployed or isolated rural areas.  In the first phase of YfE the criteria were more than fulfilled with over 70% of the participants being new to exchanges (Deutsches Büro Jugend für Europa, 1992, p.11).  Economic disadvantage is a growing concern and, although Germany sends around 35 million tourists abroad each year, the numbers are increasing of young people whose only highlight in the year - if they are lucky - is their train ride from Bremen to visit aunty in Hamburg.  Without funders such as YfE prepared to grant up to 75% of project costs their chances of doing anything else is limited (Deutsches Büro Jugend für Europa, 1994, p.16).
 
 

3.3  TARGETING INFORMATION

Over two thousand individual requests  for further information - mainly from students or their parents - poured into the Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" as a result of articles this summer in the German press  about the European Voluntary Service pilot action.  One of them appeared in the Frankfurter Rundschau (26 July 1996) where Commissioner Cresson's spokesperson, Jean-Christophe Filori, is quoted as saying:

 [tr.] "We want to prevent that only schlaue Studenten [crafty/cunning students] make use of this programme.  It is directed especially at poorer and less well-educated girls and boys.  They are the ones we want to enable to leave their town district for once".

It does not take a genius to find a couple of hidden messages in these three sentences.  Nor to compare the aim with the immediate effect of the news about EVS being released.

Domestic efforts to include disadvantaged young people in the Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr have not been very encouraging so far.  Participation statistics available for the 2700 volunteers on the Diakonisches Jahr relate to educational background, not to economic status, but these tend to be strongly related in Germany as elsewhere:

 60% Gymnasium [Grammar school]
 30% Realschule [parallels the former secondary modern school]
 10% Hauptschule [Secondary school] (of these a very small amount, 9, had not finished school)

In describing the birth of EVS pilot actions in its annual report, EIRENE states that "this new service is aimed among others at socially disadvantaged young people, a challenge for the existing peace services" (EIRENE, 1996, p.4).  The challenge starts with actually getting in contact with those young people.  It is not a matter of professional pride which leads youth or social workers to say that it takes time and creativity for representatives of any kind of official body (including voluntary organisations) to establish relationships based on even a modicum of trust with marginalised or excluded young people.  They have been excluded (economically or socially) or they have chosen to exclude themselves from, er, society.  Maybe they have chosen their own forms of organisation and survival within a given situation - so what do they have to gain by being transported out of it for up to 12 months, following rules laid down by bureaucrats from Brussels?

The Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" has had some success in constructing a mailing list - from the grassroots through to the national umbrella organisations - of those interested in promoting and carrying out exchanges or youth initiatives.  'Info' the regular newsletter speaks a language designed to appeal to youth and social workers, who in their turn translate the ideas into ones which might appeal to young people (some of the youth workers are young people too).  In the absence of a Nike-size advertising budget the EVS could well profit from such multipliers in passing the message.  And, once the programme has been running for more than a year and, if the volunteers feel they have profited from it, word-of-mouth and peer group education  will do more to attract new volunteers than a million leaflets.

Another strategy comes from SCI's Youth and Unemployment Working Group (March 1996) which sees great possibilities in attracting unemployed young people to long-term volunteering once they have had the experience of a short-term group exchange or workcamp, preferably with the organisation where a possible placement exists.
 

3.4  MOTIVATION

There is little experience of disadvantaged young people engaged in long-term volunteering in Germany.  From the side of the organisations there is a detectable desire to open up their programmes to a wider public in pursuit of their aims (see 1.4 and 2.1, above).  IJGD plans to offer full-time language courses at the beginning of placements in order to work against exclusion due to lack of education (Eberhard, 1996).
 
 

3.5  THE DIACONAL YEAR NETWORK PILOT PROJECT - EXTRACTS FROM AN INTERVIEW WITH JOHN STRINGHAM

This summer the Diaconal Year Network started a pilot project with disadvantaged young people from the UK cooperating with the Prince's Trust.  John Stringham has been responsible for setting this up and he is quoted at length here because the ideas contained are tentatively thought-provoking.  Funding comes from the European Voluntary Service pilot project.  Of the five young people four are from Northern Ireland and one from Birmingham, all of them had finished school at 16 and all were long-term unemployed, although two had previous work experience.  The Network was motivated to do this:

 "Partly to do with personal interest of those working on the programme.  Other tentative reasons include:

 a) perhaps it will help with the volunteers' social integration.  There has been some anecdotal evidence based around the progress made by young people during the five seminars which are an integral part of FSJ.

 b) At present there is a dichotomy between the offers made in FSJ and the follow-up.  Although many volunteers do go on to join the caring professions very few choose to study the care of old people.  Again, there is some anecdotal evidence that ex-Hauptschule pupils as "concrete-active types" may be well-suited to this type of work.  But, we need to realise that amongst many of those involved in organising FSJ programmes, there is a strong fear of being instrumentalised towards the job market.

 c) From the side of the volunteers motivation to choose to do the FSJ is based around the hope of finding a job afterwards and, simply, to survive the year.  This is in marked contrast to the usual type of foreign volunteers who are looking to improve their German, get to know the country and help somebody.  Both of these assertions are, of course, crass generalisations.

What extra resources are needed to make the recruitment, placement and pastoral care of marginalised young people a success?  How do you structure the preparation, the in-service counselling and the follow-up?

 Before the young person chooses to become a long-term volunteer

 They need an orientation programme before choosing to become volunteers and this needs to last much longer than the usual week.

 In the Prince's Trust Action Programme lasting 12 weeks emphasis is placed on the following aspects:
 * an exposure to different fields of service as individuals
 * team work practice: group work, communication, responsibility.  In essence they are working towards gaining basic social skills.
 * a group project

 Three months after completing the Action Programme, 66% of the young people have found jobs or are in full-time training.  As a preparation for volunteering, participation in the Action Programme is not an absolute guarantee of success; but it does mean that the young people involved have had to cross a threshold, perhaps that of greater maturity.

 Reaching the decision

 Attempts were made to interest young people in long-term voluntary service after they had left the Action Programme.  None of the contacts succeeded.  The only young people to commit themselves were still within the Programme.  Personal contact with those interested was the only method which worked.  I interviewed each prospective volunteer in Northern Ireland and Birmingham.  It is perhaps indicative that the one person with whom a telephone interview was conducted did not go on to become a volunteer.

 A small sum is charged to the volunteers to demonstrate commitment.  Some people argue against this type of payment as being another excluding factor.  I would disagree firmly and, from my experience, I have found that if disadvantaged young people want to participate strongly enough then they can find the money.

 Language competence

 The current group of volunteers had no or little grasp of German.  They received a three-week intensive course on arrival in Germany.  This has proved to be insufficient and they will receive six hours per week instruction until Christmas.

 For the future it would seem necessary for similar volunteers to be provided with: a short warm up in the language before they leave their home towns; an intensive, four-week language course in the host country before they go to their placements, ensuring that their teachers have both skill and charisma; and the possibility for ongoing language training where needed.

 Geographical location

 The volunteers from the UK are placed within easy travelling distance of one another.  This allows for some solidarity between them and means that external supervision/counselling is not a logistical nightmare.

 Supervision/counselling

 Each volunteer has a contact person within their project.  One Diakonisches Werk employee devotes approximately 30% of her time to supervising and counselling the five volunteers and, sometimes, the staff at the placements.  This represents nearly three times more contact than average.

 Follow-up

 When the volunteers finish their placements they will return home in the knowledge that people from the Prince's Trust are expecting them.  In Belfast, for instance, they have a club which is a self-help group.  The project would not have started without the assurance of follow-up from the Prince's Trust".
 

Do you think there are any special intercultural dimensions to the work with such young people?

 "Difficult question.  You have all the usual difficulties and challenges associated with leaving one country and moving to another one.  But the essential difference is really one of sub-culture or class.  Personal contacts and relationships are very important, for instance, one of the volunteers who was having a particularly difficult time with his placement asked for John Stringham, not his "official" contact at Diakonisches Werk".

N.B.: It would be difficult to justify including so much of this interview about a project (which involves only five volunteers) if the views expressed did not find analogies in other projects; The Youth Forum of the European Union's experience with the volunteer element in the project against social exclusion backs up much of what has been said (YFEU, 1996), and the more generally applicable ideas find strong echoes within short-term exchanges supported under YfE and by the DFJW.
 

3.6  EXCLUSION, MARGINALISATION AND INTERCULTURAL LEARNING

Just, shortly, to return to the subject of intercultural learning.  As pointed out in the second section context-setting and target group play vital roles in determining intercultural approaches.  Freise's set of competencies (2.2, above) remain valid but, according to a DFJW study, special care should be taken when working on questions of identity, background and social situation.

Haudidier and Gabert (1995) met with a range of youth exchange organisers, specialised in working on such projects with unemployed youth.  They draw attention to the different values associated with unemployment in France and Germany:

 [tr.] "Even though one can observe a trivialisation of the status of the unemployed in both countries (despite the specific situation of the New Länder), in Germany individual feelings of guilt and inadequacy prevail, while the situation in France seems to be characterised by the mobilisation of individual resources.  Social contempt and feelings of guilt are less strongly developed in France than in Germany, where unemployment tends to lead to the internalisation of a feeling of Unanständigkeit [feeling dishonourable]. Programmes and measures for unemployed persons which are offered by the State and by various organisations, as well as the financial means available for them, are often based on different schools of thought.  Following the German concept of social work, which is convinced of the importance of belonging to a social group, the German approach to dealing with youth unemployment puts a strong emphasis on (re)integration into the labour market and a team of workers, on stabilising personality through integration in a peer group.  French policies tend to be oriented towards the individual person (C.F.I. - loan for individual training measures, projects, starting new businesses, etc.), and tries to encourage the creative skills of unemployed young people, taking into account their individual backgrounds.  p.3

They go on to look at the differences between unemployed foreigners living in both countries:

 "The political and cultural integration of young North Africans seems to be better developed than that of young Turks.  Economic integration of young Turks, on the other hand, seems to be much more advanced than that of (male) North Africans in France.  Young Turks do, however, face more socio-cultural and linguistic obstacles after the end of their apprenticeships.  During their stay in Germany young North Africans tend to (over)identify with their town or country of residence, even with regard to technical achievements in France (TGV...).  This kind of identification is practically non-existent among young Turks.  They, in turn, identify very strongly with the German model of professional training.  They have fully adopted this model of access to the labour market and to social success.  p.4

Generalisations abound, of course, but the study does illustrate how illogical it would be to pretend that all unemployed young people feel the same about their situations.  Finally the authors offer some advice about pedagogy with groups of professional or unemployed groups, taking as an example the first round of presentations at the beginning of a seminar:

 "Two possible mistakes could include
 - to restrict the presentation of young professionals to their personal situation, without paying specific attention to their professional status;
 - to ask unemployed young people how they cope with their situation and status.  One has to start with something they can identify with, taking into consideration their general lack of terms of reference.  The encounter often leads to a reinforcement for their identification with their region and culture of origin (which may be rather detailed).

 Professional young people, i.e. those who know and identify with gainful employment, can defend themselves with their profession or hide behind it if they feel attacked.  Young people without working experience are much more vulnerable".  p.7

Mind how you go would seem to be the message here.  And it draws us to the end of this report with a reminder of the skills needed to function effectively within this field of work where sensitivity to people, not numbers, is of overriding importance.

 Report researched and written by Mark Taylor, Strasbourg
 

4  SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
 

4.1  GENERAL

* Encourage the publication of relevant reports or compilations in real books - most of the information and experience remains hidden in 'graue Texte' publications without ISBNs and therefore inaccessible to newcomers [1.3]

* Comparisons with theory and practice in and between other countries will be essential to come to European or global conclusions. [1.4]

* Publish the Breitenbachstudie in more languages to enable others to learn and draw their own conclusions from it. [2.1]
 

4.2  INTERCULTURAL LEARNING AND EVS

* The essential question remains: in which ways is it possible to support individuals and groups in their interactions with individuals and groups from another culture?  With a hint of slight provocation it is possible to suggest that if we choose to call this support 'intercultural learning' then that is as good a term as any other.  What is missing are the aims and, implicitly, the values which are invested in these interactions. [2.2]

* Intercultural competencies are needed by all people involved in the volunteer process.  More cooperation should be encouraged between those active in formulating such ideas and practice.  [2.2]

* Mere learning of lists of behaviour, traditions, etc is not sufficient in terms of preparation for volunteers.  A three-dimensional learning approach is required. [2.2]

* Volunteers with little more than a rudimentary grasp of the local language need intensive training of four weeks minimum before they start their placements, with possibilities for follow-up study if need be.  [2.3]

* Preparation, orientation, mid-way and evaluation seminars with a group of volunteers should be built into each volunteer programme. [2.4]

* Experiments should be run in choosing locations for the seminars - switching countries for example.  [2.5]

* Existing domestic volunteer programmes should re-examine their structure and change them before accepting volunteers from abroad.  [2.6]
 

* Further experimentation is needed to ascertain whether it better a) to spread volunteers from abroad thinly across the organised seminars or b) to bring them together with an equal number of domestic volunteers.  [2.6]

* The whole chain of people involved in the transnational volunteer process - from the volunteer to the person looking at application forms to the placement supervisor - is engaged in intercultural interaction.  Priority would seem to rest in attempting to provide basic training in intercultural competencies with the addition of culture-specific training where necessary and feasible.
 
 

4.3  THE INVOLVEMENT OF MARGINALISED AND EXCLUDED YOUNG PEOPLE IN VOLUNTEER PROGRAMMES

* The report of the Youth for Europe seminar (Youth Exchange Centre, 1991) about the access of disadvantaged young people to international youth exchange should be distributed widely and adapted to the EVS.  [3.2]

* Time and creativity are needed by all those attempting to make contact with disadvantaged groups - printed material is worth little without personal contact.  [3.3]

* Networks built up through the Youth for Europe programme and others should be utilised when trying to contact marginalised or excluded groups.  [3.3]

* Building on youth exchange experience could be a way to attract volunteers.  [3.3]

* Some form of orientation and commitment-building is needed before the potential volunteer makes a final decision.  [3.5]

* Extra provision needs to be made for supervision and counselling, this will require further resources.  [3.5]

* Volunteers must be assured of a follow-up on their return home.  [3.5]

* Special care should be taken when working on questions of identity, background and social situation.  [3.6]
 

REFERENCES AND BACKGROUND MATERIAL
 

AFS Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sending (1995) AFS Materialsammlung für die Vorbereitung, AFS Interkulturelle Begegnungen, Hamburg

Aktionsgemeinschaft Dienst für den Frieden (AGDF) (1995) Documentation du Symposium "Service Volontaire: Innovation dans l'Avenir de l'Europe", AGDF, Bonn

Aktionsgemeinschaft Dienst für den Frieden (AGDF) (1996) Bericht über die Arbeit der Aktionsgemeinschaft Dienst für den Frieden im Jahr 1995, AGDF, Bonn

Be, Siang (May 1994) 'Überwindung'/'Abbau' von Vorurteilen/Stereotypen durch politische Bildung?, unpublished manuscript, Internationale Begegnungsstätte Jagdschloß Glienicke, Berlin

Bergeret, Jean-Marie; Meisch, Nico and Otten, Hendrik eds. (1995) Community Project for Developing Training Modules for Youth Workers, Service National de la Jeunesse, Luxembourg

Boehnisch, Lothar (1993) "Jugend und Armut - Jugendliche und junge Erwachsene als soziale Risikogruppe", Kind Jugend Gesellschaft 38/93

Brander, Pat; Cardenas, Carmen; Gomes, Rui; Taylor, Mark and de Vicente Abad, Juan (1995) all different all equal Education Pack: Ideas, Tools and Resources for Intercultural Education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg

Breitenbach, Dieter ed. (1979), Kommunikationsbarrieren in der internationalen Jugendarbeit, Five volumes, Saarbrücken and Fort Lauderdale

Büsser, Martin (1996) "Vom Punker bis zum Feierabend-Raver", E&W, 2/96

Council of Europe (1995) DOmino - A Manual to use Peer Group Education as a Means to Fight Racism, Xenophobia, Anti-Semitism and Intolerance, Strasbourg

Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" beim IJAB (1992) Evaluation - Bericht des Deutschen Büros zu Dokumentation un Interviews Juli 1998-Sept. 1992, Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa", Bonn

Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa" beim IJAB (1994) Aktion I.1 Direkte Förderung von Jugendaustauschmaßnahmen Januar bis Dezember 1993, Deutsches Büro "Jugend für Europa", Bonn

Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk/Office franco-allemand pour la jeunesse (DFJW/Ofaj) (1994) 75. Sitzung des Kuratoriums, Punkt 7 der Tagesordnung, Berichte der pädagogischen Mitarbeiter des DFJW, Bad Honnef and Paris
 

Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk/Office franco-allemand pour la jeunesse (DFJW/Ofaj) (1993) Tätigkeitsbericht 1992, Bad Honnef and Paris

Eberhard, Ulla (1996) "Das Freiwillige Soziale Jahr International" in Forum Jugendarbeit International, IJAB, Bonn

EIRENE (1996) Geschäftsbericht 1995, EIRENE, Neuwied

European Commission, Education Training Youth (1996) Youth for Europe - Vademecum Guide for Applicants, European Commission, Brussels

Equipo Claves/Cruz Roja Juventud (1992) En un mundo de diferencias... Un mundo diferente, Equipo Claves, Cruz Roja Juventud, Madrid

Fennes, Helmut (1994) "Teacher Training for Exchanges", Manuscript to be published by the Council of Europe, Strasbourg

Ford, Richard (1996) Independence Day, Harvill Press, London

Frankfurter Rundschau (26 July 1996)

Freise, Josef (July 1993) "Zur INTERKULTURELLEN KOMPETENZ gehören", working paper, EIRENE, Neuwied

Freise, Josef (n.d.) "Strukturierungs- und Ordnungsprinzipien", working paper, EIRENE, Neuwied

Frerichs, Maria (September 1996) "Fortbildung von JugendleiterInnen für den internationalen Austausch", unpublished manuscript, Internationale Begegnungsstätte Jagdschloß Glienicke, Berlin

Frey, Ulrich (1993) Symposium Report: Long-term Voluntary Service in a Changing Europe, European Youth Centre, Council of Europe, Strasbourg

Handrich, Thomas (1995) Leitfaden für den deutsch-polnischen Jugendaustausch, Internationale Begegnungsstätte Jagdschloß Glienicke, Berlin

Haudidier, Benoît and Gabert, Gérard (1995) Begegnungen für arbeitslose Jugendliche, Bilanz und Perspektiven, Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk, Bad Honnef and Paris

Held, J. et al (1993) Internationales Lernen im Jugendaustausch, ssip Bulletin no. 65, Saarbrücken

Hitt Husid (1994) Youth for Europe Thematic Seminar on Voluntary Service Activities, Hitt Husid, Reykjavik
 
 
 

Internationaler Jugendaustausch- und Besucherdienst der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, (IJAB), ed. (1994) Children and Youth Services - Organisations and Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany, IJAB, Bonn

Internationales Jugendgemeinschaftsdienste (IJGD) - Landesverein Brandenburg e.V. (September 1996) 'Zwischenbericht: Modellprojekt Binationales FSJ mit Großbritannien', Potsdam, unpublished manuscript

Köhnen, Helga (1992) Deutsch-Englisches Glossar der Jugendhilfe German-English Glossary of Youth Services, IJAB/Juventa Verlag, Weinheim and München

Krauß, Andreas and Schmittinger, Inge (1994) "Theorie und Praxis interkulturellen Lernens mit Medien", in Otten, Hendrik and Treuheit, Werner eds. Interkulturelles Lernen in Theorie und Praxis, IKAB, Leske + Budrich,  Opladen

Kruse, Käthe (March 1996) 'Supervision in interkulturellen Kontexten', Berliner Regionalgruppe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Supervision, Berlin, unpublished manuscript

Lorenz, Walter ed. (1993), "Developing Anti-Racist Strategies" - An experimental learning module within the Youth for Europe programme, European Centre for Community Education, Koblenz

Müller, Burkhard ed. (1996) Evaluationen internationaler Begegnungen, Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk, Bad Honnef and Paris

Müller, W., (1987), Von der "Völkerverständigung" zum "Interkulturellen Lernen", Starnberg

Nicklas, Hans (1996) "Scheitern und Gelingen" in Müller, Burkhard ed. Evaluationen internationaler Begegnungen, Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk, Bad Honnef and Paris

Steering Group of Voluntary Service Organisations (April 1996) Study Report of Support and Training Mechanisms for Longer Term Volunteering: Report to Directorate General XXII, Education, Training and Youth, Draft Report, SGVSO, Brussels

Sternecker, Petra and Treuheit, Werner, (1994) "Ansätze interkulturellen Lernens", in Otten, Hendrik and Treuheit, Werner eds. Interkulturelles Lernen in Theorie und Praxis, IKAB, Leske + Budrich, Opladen

Taylor, Mark (1994) "Methoden internationaler Jugendarbeit - Bausteine inhaltlicher Gestaltungen" in Otten, Hendrik and Treuheit, Werner eds.  Interkulturelles Lernen in Theorie und Praxis, IKAB, Leske + Budrich, Opladen

Taylor, Mark (1995) "Intercultural Learning and Training for European Youth Activities", in CYRCE, The Puzzle of Integration, European Yearbook on Youth Policy and Research, Volume One, Circle for Youth Research Co-operation in Europe, De Gruyter, Berlin and New York
 

Youth and Unemployment Working Group (YUWG) (1995) YUWG Seminar in Paris, March 1995, Service Civil International, Antwerp

Youth and Unemployment Working Group (March 1996) Report of a Study Programme in Belfast, November 1995, Service Civil International, Antwerp

Youth Exchange Centre (1991) Access of disadvantaged Young People to International Youth Exchange, Seminar Draft Report 24-30 June 1991, YEC, London

Youth Exchange Centre (1995) Record of the British/German Colloquium on Transnational Voluntary Service, YEC, London

Youth Forum of the European Union (1996) "Pilot Project on Youth Policy and the Fight Against Social Exclusion - the Volunteer Element", unpublished manuscript, Brussels
 
 
 

Mark Taylor, Strasbourg