*Table of Contents
1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence.
He smiled.
The work is almost finished.
2. Use a period for abbreviations
Dr., Mr., etc., e.g.
Note: consult dictionary for exceptions.
1. Use a comma to separate items in a series.
Example: We bought eggs, butter, flour, and cheese.
Notice the comma after each element including the one before and. Some guides say this last comma is optional. Don’t believe them. Commas are used to clarify thought. Sacrificing clarity is never an option.
Take this example: My favorite breakfast foods are cereal, toast, and ham and eggs.
Notice the last element ham and eggs. Though written as two elements, they represent a single breakfast item; therefore, no comma is needed. If you follow the “optional rule” mentioned above, you could end up with a mess.
My favorite breakfast foods are cereal, toast and ham and eggs.
Examples:
He was born September 3, 1990.
My party is scheduled for Saturday, June 8, 2005.
The test is on May 7.
3. Addresses – once you get more than one element of an address, commas are needed.
Examples:
I live at 306 East Main Street, Titusville, PA 16354. (notice no comma between state and zip code)
He lives in Buffalo, New York.
4. Words in direct address are set off with commas.
Examples:
Dr. Smith, would you please come in here.
What do you have to say for yourself, Fred?
Ladies and gentlemen, I ‘d like to begin the meeting.
If you’re talking to someone, set him off with a comma.
5. Interjections
Examples:
Well, I wouldn’t say that.
Yes, we should study for the test.
Oh, that doesn’t sound fun.
Note: An interjection may be punctuated with an exclamation point (!). Use them sparingly. Ouch! That hurts.
6. Compound sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction use a comma.
Examples:
We bought the bags of gravel at the hardware store, and we carried them home.
I would like to help you, but I have to leave now.
They missed the 7:30 bus, so they will never make it to work on time.
The dog ran through the field and chased the rabbit.
Notice in the last sentence no comma was needed. That’s because and is not a coordinating conjunction in that sentence. Here’s a simple test to avoid this problem. Whenever you find a sentence with a conjunction in it, cover the conjunction. If the elements to the right and left are complete sentences, you need a comma before the conjunction.
Examples:
Fred likes pizza, and he eats it often. Cover the and. Notice Fred likes pizza is a complete sentence. So is he eats it often. Therefore, a comma is needed.
He likes to make pizza from scratch and share it with his friends. Cover the and. Notice He likes to make pizza from scratch is a complete sentence, but share it with his friends is not. Therefore, no comma is needed. (this is an example of a compound verb – he makes and he shares).
7. Elements in apposition (appositives, participles, adjective clauses)
If you are able to remove the element without affecting the meaning of the sentence, you need to use commas. If removing the element affects the meaning of the sentence, no commas needed.
Appositive Examples:
Mr. Smith, a local resident, won the lottery on Tuesday.
Our family physician, Dr. Smith, went on a cruise last summer.
Notice both appositives could be removed without affecting the meaning of the sentence; therefore, commas are needed.
We are studying the novelist Thomas Hardy.
Harlan wondered if the cubist painter Picasso had mental problems.
Notice the elements can’t be removed without affecting the meaning; therefore, no commas are needed.
Participle Examples:
The students, wondering if they had studied enough, came in for extra help.
With commas, this means that all the students are wondering if they studied enough.
The students wondering if they had studied enough came in for extra help.
Without commas, this means that only the students who are wondering if they studied enough came in for extra help. Notice the difference.
The children, running high fevers, were admitted into the hospital.
With commas, this means that all the children are running high fevers.
The children running high fevers were admitted into the hospital.
Without commas, this means that only the children who are running high fevers go to the hospital. Again, notice the difference.
Adjective Clause Examples:
Dr. Smith, who lives in the city, is my family physician.
You can remove the element without changing meaning; therefore, commas are needed.
The student who wins the contest gets to skip the final.
You need this element to identify which student gets to skip the final; therefore, commas are not needed.
The vase that we bought in Egypt is beautiful.
Again, this element is necessary. NOTE: adjective clauses beginning with that are always necessary; therefore, no commas will be needed.
We stayed for three days, which made all the difference.
This element is not necessary; therefore, a comma is needed. NOTE: adjective clauses beginning with which are always unnecessary; therefore, commas will be needed.
Remember: If the element is necessary, no commas are needed. If the element is not necessary, use commas. The grammatical terms for these elements are restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive elements are necessary; therefore, no commas are needed. Non-restrictive elements are not necessary; therefore, commas are needed.
8. Introductory modifiers are set off with a comma.
Participle Examples:
Rolling down the hill, the boy laughed.
Exhausted, the men collapsed.
Laughing out loud, the children enjoyed the play.
Notice all the introductory participles modify the word that follows the comma.
Notice #2: Don’t mistake a gerund phrase as a participial phase.
Rolling down the hill is fun. Here, the gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence.
Infinitive Examples:
To win the game, you need to score twenty points.
To get to the reception, follow the line of cars.
To receive your prize, be sure to put your name on the list.
Notice: Sometimes infinitives function as the subject and won’t need a comma.
To win the game is our plan.
To get to the reception will be difficult.
To receive your prize is why we’re going back.
Adverb Clause Examples:
After he ran ten miles, Harlan was exhausted.
Since she worked overtime all week, Sandra could afford to go on vacation.
If you are not careful, you could be injured.
Notice: if you reverse the order, you don’t need commas.
Harlan was exhausted after he ran ten miles.
Commas are needed in the introductory position only.
Prepositional Phrase Examples:
Rule: If you have more than one prepositional phrase in a row at the beginning of the sentence, set the group off with a comma. Otherwise, only use commas to clarify meaning.
Down the hill at the end of the dock, you’ll find my fishing pole.
After lunch we will have a brief meeting. (only one – no comma needed)
In the living room behind the green chair, I left my reading glasses.
Sometimes a comma is needed with only one prepositional phrase for clarity.
After eating, Harlan rushed to practice.
9. Parenthetic Elements
Things that are parenthetic can be enclosed in parentheses (that’s where the name comes from). They are unnecessary elements; therefore, they are set off with commas.
The problem, however, is how to get to the game.
Of course, it doesn’t matter who drives.
Fred, for example, could drive.
Harlan, on the other hand, has a bigger car.
Frankly, I’d rather go with Sandra.
Unfortunately, she’d rather I not go with her.
By this evening we’ll be laughing about this problem, I hope.
Notice in the last sentence that I hope is unnecessary. But if you change the sentence… I hope that we’ll be laughing about this tonight. Notice that I hope cannot be removed. It has become a necessary part of the sentence; therefore, no comma is needed.
10. Quotations
Harlan said, “I always have to drive.”
“Not true,” Fred replied. (short response – use a comma)
11. Multiple Adjectives
Rule: If you can stick the word and between two adjectives, use a comma. If not, omit the comma (also omit the comma if the conjunction is there).
The moon was pale, green. (The moon was pale and green – comma needed)
The bright red car flew past us. (no comma needed)
The dark, winding trail frightened the horses. (the dark and winding – comma needed)
The tall, gangly man easily jumped the fence. (tall and gangly – comma needed)
The five new members of the team just arrived. (no comma needed)
12. The-the Construction
The more you try to escape, the more ensnared you become.
The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
The longer you practice, the easier it becomes.
The harder you work on your project, the more you will learn from it.
1. Use a semicolon to join two closely related sentences (forming a compound sentence)
We work at the post office; we understand paperwork.
Notice the second sentence does not start with a capital. Also, the second sentence is closely related to the first.
People who clean the streets have a tough job; they can’t be thanked enough.
2. Use a semicolon when two sentences are joined by conjunctive adverbs.
Conjunctive adverbs: therefore, however, thus, nevertheless, et al.
We studied all weekend; therefore, we didn’t need to stay up late during the week.
Notice the construction: semicolon -- conjunctive adverb – comma.
I worked overtime all week; however, I still didn’t earn enough for the trip.
I don’t like to dip into my savings; nevertheless, I need to take this vacation.
Notice just like coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs join two complete sentences. If not, they are merely adverbs and should be punctuated like parenthetic elements.
We will, however, complete the journey. (however does not join complete sentences; therefore, no semicolon is needed.
3. Use a semicolon to separate a series of grouped items.
The Red Cross shipment contained blankets, bandages, and medicine; beans, rice, and water; and magazines, newspapers, and books.
Note: semicolon is used for clarity by separating the grouped items.
1. Use a colon to introduce a list.
Note: What precedes the colon must be a complete sentence.
Bring the following items to camp: sleeping bag, pocketknife, canteen, and bug spray.
Notice the part before the colon is a complete sentence.
You should always take: paper, pencil, and eraser. WRONG (not a complete sentence before the colon)
Correct: You should always take paper, pencil, and eraser.
Correct: You should always take the following items to school: paper, pencil, and eraser.
2. Use a colon between hour and minute, Bible chapter and verse
10:30
Matthew 7:4
*Consult various style guides for ever-changing uses of colons (and other marks of punctuation) in bibliographies.
3. Use a colon to join complete sentences when the second is an explanation of the first.
We only have one option left: we have to fly out of Cairo tonight.
The mayor’s vision has finally been realized: the city is bankrupt.
Notice how the second sentence answers the question developed from the first sentence.
We only have one option left: (what option is that?) we have to fly out of Cairo tonight.
The mayor’s vision has finally been realized: (what vision is that?) the city is bankrupt.
Note: this relationship has to exist to use the colon.
4. Use a colon to introduce a long quote in a formal paper.
Macbeth reacted to his wife’s death:
She should have died hereafter. There would have been…
1. Use quotation marks to show direct quotation (i.e., what is said).
Harlan asked, “why do I have to go first?”
“Whatever the cost,” Fred said, “we need to win this game.”
2. Use quotation marks for titles of shorter items (songs, poems, articles, essays, episodes)
“America the Beautiful”
“The Highwayman”
“The River Divides Us; The River Unites Us”
“Self-Reliance”
“Trouble With Tribbles”
1. Use a hyphen to join compound adjectives.
That’s a well-worn phrase.
He has that I-know-something-you-don’t-know look. (and other such coined compounds)
Consult the dictionary as many common compound adjectives fuse after time.
2. Use hyphens in numbers, fractions, and some prefixes
Thirty-one, fifty-five, four-fifths, five-eighths
Anti-defamation league, pro-life, s-curves
The dash is not the same as a hyphen. On the keyboard a hyphen is a single space (-). A dash is two (--). Or sometimes a long mark (–).
1. Use a dash as you would a comma for parenthetical elements (the dash is a stronger mark of punctuation. It highlights the parenthetical element).
Although he studied a lot – over seven hours per night – he still didn’t pass the test.
2. Use a dash to emphasize words
Bring the money to the man in charge – Harlan Smith.
Heathcliff had but one passion – Catherine.
1. Use the apostrophe to show an omission of letter(s) or number(s)
can’t (cannot)
shouldn’t (should not)
it’s (it is)
class of ’04 (class of 2004)
2. Use the apostrophe to show possession
In nouns
Add ‘s to a singular noun to show possession (no matter the final consonant)*
Fred’s, Charles’s, dog’s,
*as suggested in William Stunk, Jr. and E.B. White’s Elements of Style
For plural nouns make the word plural first. If it ends in –s, simply add an apostrophe. If it ends in any other consonant, add –‘s
Dog … dogs’
Child… children’s
Baby… babies’
Ox… oxen’s
In indefinite pronouns
Again, add ‘s
Anybody’s
No one’s
Someone else’s
Anybody else’s
Joint possession (all members possess one thing)
William Stunk, Jr. and E.B. White’s Elements of Style
Fred and Harlan’s boat
Note: If Fred and Harlan each own a separate boat, you punctuate it like this:
Fred’s and Harlan’s boats… To avoid the awkward form, alter the sentence:
Fred’s boat and Harlan’s boat…
3. Use an apostrophe to show plural of numbers and letters
You spelled bell with three l’s.
I have three 4’s in my phone number.
NOTE: It’s is the contraction for it is.
Its is the possessive form of the pronoun it.