The fragment is not a sentence, yet the writer mistakenly punctuates it as a complete sentence.
1. Although they are friends. (not a complete thought)
Although they are friends, they still occasionally argue. (now the thought is complete).
Or, remove although… They are friends. (again, a complete thought).
2. Since we live in an apartment. (yeah… what comes next? See how the thought is incomplete?)
Since we live in an apartment, I can’t practice my electric guitar after 8 PM. (now the thought is complete).
Or, remove since… We live in an apartment. (again, a complete thought).
II. The Run on is two or more sentences punctuated as a single sentence.
1. The bridge should be built that is the consensus of the town. (two sentences are joined. There are several ways to fix this).
The bridge should be built. That is the consensus of the town. (make two sentences).
That the bridge should be built is the consensus of the town. (use noun clause as subject of single sentence).
Or reverse it… The consensus of the town is that the bridge should be built. (now the noun clause is the predicate nominative).
2. Sometimes writers join two or more sentences with a comma. This is a special run on called a comma splice.
We studied all night, we still didn’t do well on the test. (there are many ways to fix this error).
We studied all night. We still didn’t do well on the test. (putting a period in place of the comma is one way, but usually the sentences are closely related—that’s why the writer mistakenly used a comma to join them).
We studied all night; we still didn’t do well on the test. (inserting a semicolon corrects the fault, but it still doesn’t sound right, does it?)
We studied all night, yet we still didn’t do well on the test. (insert a coordinating conjunction between the sentences adds that interpretation of one sentence to the next).
Although we studied all night, we still didn’t do well on the test. (inserting a subordinating conjunction makes the first sentence an adverb clause. Notice again how this adds an interpretation of the first clause—it subordinates it. That means it is not as important as the second clause).
Notice: By noticing errors like this, you can make your writing stronger.
III. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
1. The Misplaced Modifier is well-named because sometimes writers place modifying elements (adjectives, adverbs) next to things they don’t modify. Look at these examples.
The concert was ridiculously long; the soprano almost sang for an hour. (if the concert was indeed too long, the soprano obviously contributed. But in this sentence, the soprano never sings. She almost sings. This is a misplaced modifier. The writer meant that the soprano sang for almost an hour. Notice the difference.
I love smelling the wildflowers running through the field. (Well, those are some wildflowers. How fast do they run? The participial phrase modifies I, and should be placed near it: Running through the field, I love smelling the wildflowers. )
We looked at the pictures he had taken on the living room sofa. (unless the photographer’s portfolio was shot entirely from the sofa, this is an example of a misplaced modifier. The phrase should be moved closer to the word it modifies: On the living room sofa we looked at the pictures he had taken.)
The committee gave a cake to the people that almost didn’t fit in the room. (if this is what the writer meant, those people really didn’t need any more sweets. But, it is obvious that the CAKE almost didn’t fit in the room, so move the modifier closer to the word it modifies: The committee gave the people a cake that almost didn’t fit in the room.)
I couldn’t find my shoes which made me angry. (Those must be some shoes! But, the writer didn’t mean the shoes made him angry, he meant: I was angry because I couldn’t find my shoes.).
Notice: Misplaced modifiers are often comical. Avoid them.
2. Dangling modifiers are similar to misplaced modifiers, but instead of being placed too far from the words they modify, they don’t have the words they modify in the sentence.
Running through the forest, the wildflowers smell wonderful. (the introductory participial phrase is modifying wildflowers. And unless this takes place in the merry old land of Oz, the wildflowers were NOT running anywhere. But who was running through the forest? We don’t know. That’s a dangling modifier. To fix it, add the word to be modified: Running through the forest, I love smelling the wonderful wildflowers.
Having doused it with water, the fire was easily extinguished. (it is doubtful that the fire extinguished itself. Having doused it with water, He easily extinguished the fire. Notice that you need something for the participial phrase to modify.)
While sleeping, the covers fell to the floor. (poor covers… were they having bad dreams? Obviously someone was sleeping: While sleeping, I somehow tossed the covers to the floor.)
After studying all afternoon, I must mop the kitchen floor, which I despise. (that’s pretty harsh to despise a kitchen floor. The adjective clause is modifying the job of mopping the floor: After studying all afternoon, I must mop the kitchen floor, a job [that] I despise.)
Notice: Just like misplaced modifiers, dangling modifiers may be comical. Avoid them.
3. A special type of modifier called the two-way modifier is part dangling, part misplaced because the reader can’t decide what word the modifier modifies.
The teacher said after class all the work must be turned in. (Does this mean that the teacher made an announcement that said “ all work must be turned in after class,” or that the teacher made an announcement after class that said, “all work must be turned in.” Notice the difference. The first version gives a definite time when work needs to be in. The second doesn’t. Writer must determine what he means and restructure such sentences.
IV. Parallelism When listing elements in a series, you must be sure that each element is in the same form.
1. Students today are proud, diligent, and not afraid to work hard. (Two of the three elements are simple adjectives. Change the third to fit the parallel structure: students today are proud, diligent, hardworking.
2. I like swimming, running, and to fish. (two gerunds and an infinitive… either say… I like to swim, [to] run, and [to] fish. Or… I like swimming, running, and fishing. In the first example, you may choose to omit the to in to run and to fish. But, be consistent. Use the first to only, or to with each element. DON’T say … to swim, run, and to fish.
3. My report card shows a decrease in my QPA, but that my attendance had increased.
(The two elements need to be equal: My report card shows a decrease in my QPA and an increase in my attendance. Or, more concisely, My report card shows my QPA down and my attendance up.
4. Fishing in the mountains is better than to swim at the beach. (elements in comparison must be parallel: Fishing in the mountains is better than swimming at the beach.
V. Faulty Pronoun Reference occurs when the reader can’t detect the antecedent of a pronoun.
1. After Jane and Tammy talked, she made her choice. (who made the choice? Tammy or Jane?) After talking to Jane, Tammy made her choice.
2. While Fred and Johnny were fighting, he bruised his elbow. (whose elbow? Who was bruised? While fighting with Johnny, Fred bruised Johnny’s elbow.
3. In school, they often cause disturbances. (What is the antecedent for they? In school, the students, the teachers, the lawnmowers, the bees, the neighbors often cause disturbances. See the problem?)
Notice: All pronouns must have a logical antecedent. Ask yourself what a pronoun refers to in your sentences. Get into the habit.
4. The long papers we had to write, the research we had to do, the books we had to read, all this made the class difficult. (Not this but these is needed. The pronoun is referring to three things; therefore, a plural pronoun is needed.)
VI. Subject – Verb Agreement Subjects need to have the same number as the verb in a sentence. This makes the subject and verb agree.
A. The boy runs to school. (Boy is singular; Runs is singular. Remember: to add –s or –es to a noun makes the noun plural; to add an –s to a verb makes the verb singular.)
Notice: Here is a good way to remember this point. A subject and verb only have one “s” between them. The boy runs. The boys run. The bird sings. The birds sing.
B. Sometimes modifiers like prepositional phrases come between the subject and verb. Don’t let this fool you. The subject agrees with the verb. Cross out the modifiers to help you.
The girls from Spain is/are coming to visit. The girls from
Spain are coming to visit.
The boy who fell down the stairs is/are here. The boy who
fell down the stairs is here.
The boy, along with his parents, is/are here. The boy, along
with his parents, is here.
C. Compound subjects with and take a plural verb.
1. Fred and Bill are going camping.
2. The director and producer usually talk about upcoming shows.
1. Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast. (it’s a single breakfast dish).
2. Macaroni and cheese is my favorite dinner. (again).
3. My friend and life-long buddy is visiting this weekend. (it’s the same person).
D. Compound subjects with or – If both elements are singular, use a singular verb. If both elements are plural, use a plural verb. If one element is singular and one is plural, use the element closest to the verb to determine agreement.
1. Beef or chicken is the choice in my home. (both elements singular – verb sing.).
2. Spiders or snakes are equally frightening to Suzie. (both elements plural – verb pl.).
3. Meat or potatoes are a staple of the American diet. (one singular, one plural – go with element closest to the verb. Potatoes is plural – verb plural).
4. Potatoes or meat is a staple of the American diet. (opposite).
The same applies for compounds of or…
5. Either the geese or the ducks are making the noise. (both plural).
6. Neither the swan nor the ducks were in the pond today. (one of each, ducks is closer—plural verb)
7. Neither the ducks nor the swan was in the pond today. (one of each, swan is closer—singular verb)
E. Singular pronouns always take a singular verb. Remember them with this little ditty: “each, either, neither, -one, and –body.” -one, and –body refer to the words “every, any, some” as in everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody. That’s an easy way to remember them.
1. Each of the students is/are here. Each of the students is here. (just
like above, remove the modifiers in between the subject each and the verb is. Another tip: insert the word “one”
after each to help you. For
example, Each [one] of the students is here.)
2. Neither of the teams was/were able to score. Neither of
the teams was able to score.
(remember, these pronouns above are ALWAYS singular).
F. Plural Pronouns always take a plural verb. They are both, few, many, several, others.
1. Both of the clipboards of the
director was/were missing. Both of
the clipboards of the director were missing. (remove
modifiers in between to yield both were)
2. Several of the boys on the team is/are late. Several of the boys on the team are
late.
3. Many of the rooms in school is/are crowded. Many of the rooms in school are
crowded.
G. Singular or Plural Pronouns these pronouns are either singular or plural depending on the antecedent of the pronoun: some, most, all, none, any.
1. Some of the students is/are staying. Some of the students are staying. (Some refers to students which is plural, so the plural verb are is needed).
2. Some of the food is/are left. Some of the food is left. (Some refers to food which is singular, so the singular verb is is needed).
3. None of the men is/are happy with the decision. None of the men are happy with the decision. (none means “not any” of the men).
4. None of the men was/were willing to work overtime. None of the men was willing to work overtime. (none means “not one” of the men).
H. Some words are Plural in appearance yet singular
1. Diseases, for example, like mumps, measles are singular. The mumps is a common childhood disease.
2. School subjects are singular. Mathematics, economics, civics, statistics*, social studies…
Mathematics is my favorite class.
*exception. When statistics refers to numbers and not the class, statistics is plural. Example: The statistics are misleading. Statistics is a difficult class.
I. Words that are singular but treated as plural These items all have to do with a “pair” of something: pants, trousers, pliers, scissors. Just think of “a pair of” before these words, and you’ll be fine.
1. My [pair of] pants are stained.
2. The [pair of] pliers are never here when I need them. (notice, too, the plural pronoun reference them is needed).
J. Linking verb agrees with the SUBJECT NOT the predicate nominative
1. My favorite food is beans.
2. My favorite present was the new glasses.
Notice: There cannot be the subject of the sentence; therefore, don’t be fooled into choosing the wrong verb.
1. There is/are many exciting shows on TV. There are many exciting shows on TV. (Shows is the subject of the sentence; therefore, the correct verb is are).
2. There is/are no food left. There is no food left. (Food is the subject; therefore, the correct verb is is).
VII. Agreement of Pronoun with Antecedent Pronoun must agree in number and person with antecedent.
1. The boy needs to bring his glove to practice. (boy-his)
2. A student should always bring his book to class. (student-his [his does not distinguish gender in this case. It is preferable to using “its.”).
3. A person looking for work must have his resumé in order. (person-his)
4. Workers should leave their equipment at the job sight. (workers-their)
5. Each of the boys owns his own glove. (each-his… remember each is always a singular pronoun; therefore, it will take a singular pronoun).
6. If anybody wants his money, he needs to see the boss. (anybody is singular – sing. Pronouns)
7. Few of the people are coming for their checks. (Few is always plural, so it takes a plural pronoun their).
VIII. Troublesome Homonyms
Your/ You're
Your is a possessive pronoun, so it acts as an adjective: Your pen is missing.
When you use Your/ You're in a sentence, just replace it with "you are." If it makes sense, choose "you're." If it doesn't, choose "your."
Their is a possessive pronoun, so it acts as an adjective: Their money is missing.
When you use Their/ They're/There in a sentence, just replace it with "they are." If it makes sense, choose "they're." If it doesn't, replace it with "my." If that makes sense, choose "their." If neither of those makes sense, choose "there."
Examples:
They're late for dinner (they are late for dinner).
To is a preposition or marker of an infinite: Give that to me. I'd love to fly.
When you use To/ Two/Too in a sentence, just replace it with "the number 2" If it makes sense, choose "two." If it doesn't, replace it with "also." If that makes sense, choose "too." If neither of those makes sense, exaggerate your pronunciation of the word like tooooooo cold or toooooooo late. If that makes sense, pick "too." If none of these works, choose "to."
IX. Who or Whom?
The decision comes down to what case you are using. Who is nominative form;
whom is the objective form. A. In questions use this simple test: replace who or whom
with a name (like Fred). If it works, use who. If it doesn’t, use whom.
1. Who/Whom do you prefer? (Whom – Fred do you
prefer? Doesn’t make sense) 2. Who/Whom is going to win on Sunday? (Who – Fred is
going to win…) 3. Who/Whom must open the store today? (Who – Fred
must open…) 4. Who/Whom is the present for? (Whom – Fred is the
present for???) 5. Who/Whom does the bag belong to? (Whom – Fred does
the bag???) B. In subordinate clauses, use this test: if the word
following who or whom is a verb, use who; if the word following who or whom is
anything else, use whom. 1. Give me the man who/whom is not afraid to work. (who because the next word is a
verb – is). 2. She is a lady who/whom I wouldn’t want to confront. (whom because the
next word is not a verb). 3. She said she will sing to whoever/whomever will listen. (whoever because the next
word is a verb – will). Notice: In the last
example whoever is chosen even though the noun clause whoever
will listen acts as the object of the
preposition to. The pronoun is
governed by its function within the clause; therefore, whoever, being the subject of the clause, is in the
nominative case. 4. She will sing to whoever/whomever she chooses. (whomever
because the next word is not a verb – she). Notice: For those
who wish to know why this works, read on. For the rest who are happy that it
does work, skip this. If the word following who/whom is a verb, more than
likely the pronoun will function as the subject of the clause and will take the
nominative form who. If the word following the who/whom is anything else, the
pronoun will most likely be a direct object, indirect object, or an object of a
preposition within the clause. Since all of these functions take the objective
case, whom will be the correct choice. The only time this trick doesn’t
work is in the following places: 1.
Whoever he is, he will surely win. (Whoever functions as the predicate nominative in the clause
“he is whoever” and, therefore, takes the nominative form). 2.
Whom do you believe to be the best
candidate? (whom is the subject of the infinitive “to be” and is,
therefore, in the objective case -- remember, the subject of the infinitive is
in the objective case [for example, She taught him to dance.] Since those are rare, don’t worry about them. In the
first sentence, few if any would say “Whomever he is…” and
in the second sentence, most would say “Who is the best
candidate?” Links to other works
on writing. Paul
Brian's Common Errors in English Usage (indexed with many
interesting entries)
You're is a contraction of "you are." You're in trouble (i.e., You are in trouble).
Test
Their/ They're/There
They're is a contraction of "they are." They're in trouble (i.e., They are in trouble).
There is a weak pronoun (e.g., We left there at midnight), an adverb (e.g., There it is), and sometimes an interjection (e.g., There, we made it).
Test
To/ Two/Too
Their dinner is getting cold (my dinner is getting cold. Just replace it with another possessive)
There is no way out of here. (they are is? My is no way? Must be there).
Two is a number ONLY. (i.e., Bring me two eggs).
Too is an adverb meaning "also" (e.g., I like cheese, too.), and an intensifier (e.g., It is too cold).
Test
Strunk
and White's Elements of Style (the
Bible for writers) Words and phrases commonly misused.