Rome
Rome was first settled by the Latins in 1000 BCE. It was overtaken by the Etruscans, who assigned the first Roman king in 616 BCE. With their superior farming techniques, manufacturing, trade and building, Rome flourished. In 509 BCE, they rebelled and established their own republic which lasted until 27 BCE. Much of their achievement should be credited to Etruscan influence. The Etruscans provided them with their architecture, metallurgy, gladiators, religion and sewers.
At first, Rome was just an isolated city-state, struggling merely to survive. When the Etruscans’ control collapsed, Rome was sacked by the Gauls in 390 BCE. At that point they changed philosophies to X-Force: get them before they can get us! They would take over the area between enemies to avoid conflict. They became ruthless, befriending one enemy to defeat another. They offered friendship, authority over local matters and an alliance in return for Roman citizenship.
They hadn’t really meant to, but by 270 BCE Rome had conquered all of Italy’s peninsula. It became the major power of the western world as it sought to defend itself against the Carthaginians after the First Punic War; it overtook the north coast of Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, southern Gaul, Macedonia and Asia Minor.
They built super roads that linked population centres and allowed legions to move more quickly. They facilitated communication and trade. These roads were so well built that some are still used today. They built great aqueducts too.
As Rome conquered more land, imported wheat was cheaper than local wheat, so the Roman famers were put out of business. They sold their land to people who amassed land into latifundia and worked conquered people on the farms.
The Roman empire expanded and required more labour. The whole civilization became slave-based. There was so much unemployment that the government had to provide entertainment for the masses to prevent rebellion. Slaves were used for everything.
Spartacus
Spartacus was a gladiator. One day, he escaped with seventy other gladiators, and started a three-year war. They stole clubs and daggers from travellers and plundered the countryside, while making their way to Mt. Vesuvius to hide out. The Romans attacked and lost. Refugee slaves and other discontented people joined them. They amassed 70,000 people. They tried to flee north to the Alps and Gaul. They beat several Roman armies in successioin and killed every prisoner.
Licinius Crassus took command of the army to crush the revolt. He wanted glory. He took ten legions and isolated and weakened Spartacus’ army. Pompey and Lucullus took their armies and boxed them in. Crassus wanted the whole battle to himself though, so they fought a big bloody battle and Crassus finally won.
Apparently, Spartacus kept fighting until the very end, even after he’d been speared in the thigh. 6000 captured slaves were crucified for this little episode.
J.C. stirs things up
Rome reached a period of political stability. They were as democratic as Athens. There was a lower class (plebians), who still had negotiating power, being the soldiers and all. There was an upper class: the patricians. The Senate could only advise, but they were the moral authority and often spoke on behalf of the upper class. There was constant strife between the patrician party and the popular party.
So Julius Caesar takes the side of the popular party, despite that he’s an aristocrat. He got on this aristocrat named Sulla’s bad side and had to flee. He returned after Sulla’s death, but wasn’t popular enough to be elected to anything, or rich enough to bribe anyone. He was, however, a charming and convincing speaker, and could ride and fight well, never mind his epilepsy.
Over time he gained the support of Crassus and Pompey. He spent ten years making connections, winning offices and conducting successful military campaigns in Further Spain. By 61 BCE, Crassus and Pompey were in the palm of his hand. He was also majorly in debt after wining and dining the universe. His sponsors realized that he was in serious financial trouble, so they got him the job of quelling Spanish rebellions. He did so well and got so much loot that he paid everyone back! He conquered all the way to the ocean!
He was charming and ruthless. Here’s a story: on the way to Rhodes, he was captured by pirates. He treated them like servants, bossed them around, and said that he’d crucify them. Somehow, they admired and obeyed him! The ransom arrived six weeks later. He got home, hired galleys, surprised the pirates in their lair and crucified them.
So it seemed that three people were competing to rule Rome: Crassus, Pompey and Caesar. Crassus had the monies and he was popular. He didn’t have an army, but he could easily buy one out. Pompey was a great military commander. Caesar had... nothing.
The obvious plan for Caesar would be to encourage the enmity between Crassus and Pompey until they destroyed each other, but he looked ahead; if one were to beat the other, that one would surely destroy Caesar next. Instead, he got everyone to make peace and join him in the First Triumvirate. He was such a diplomat that they actually agreed.
As the First Triumvirate, they tossed ou the assemblies, the public officials and the banks, making themselves all-powerful. Caesar became consul and governor of the two Gauls. He pacified the Gauls by killing 1/3 of them (1,000,000 people). He got so much loot that he got richer than Crassus, and became more successful than Pompey. His legions were loyal to the death, because he kept doing all this crazy shit risking his own life so his troops would regain spirit. In his last battle at Munda, he charged, all by himself, within 3 m. of the enemy lines with arrows raining down on him.
Caesar’s policy was, play safe against a weaker enemy — why waste lives? But when the odds are against you, always attack — that’s when they least expect it.
So Crassus dies in 53 BCE while fighting Parthians in the East. Pompey takes charge of the Old Guard and starts making trouble for Caesar, who was in Gaul. The Senate ordered Caesar to leave his troops in Gaul and come back to Rome as an unarmed, private citizen. Caesar was like, “fuck you!” and crossed the river with a legion. Pompey runs away to southern Italy, then Greece. Everyone begins to see that the conflict is not between the Republic and a general, but between two rivals for suprem power.
So Caesar empties the treasury, takes Spain, takes off after Pompey and destroys his army at Pharsalus. Pompey and his family flee to Egypt but are murdered. Caesar goes to Egypt and they give him Pompey’s embalmed head, but Caesar refuses it and weeps — then turns around and declares war on all of Pompey’s descendants. Meanwhile in Egypt, he falls in love with Cleopatra. He conquers everything, ever, and returns to Rome as absolute ruler at the age of 57.
But now, how will he controll all the conquered lands? He thought the answer was to make himself a king. It was probably just Cleopatra’s influence, though. He got a gilded throne, got his image stamped on coins, got public sacrifices on his birthday, got a temple for himself, but refused a crown. Freak. There were rumours he wanted to move the capital to Alexandria and have a joint monarchy with Cleopatra.
So now... he had nothing much to do. He put his friends on the Senate. He reformed some stuff to give himself more power. He changed the calendar. Well, that sure wasn’t worth all those lost lives.
In 47 BCE Cleopatra came to Rome with her usual flourish, bringing her son, Caesarion. The populace was charmed; the politicians were horrified. Surely now Caesar and Cleopatra will want to dominate together. Caesar truly believed he was the only one who could unify Rome. Brutus and Cassius wanted to restore power to the Senate, they conspired to kill Caesar wth some other guys. They agreed that they’d all stab him at the same time so they’d all be equally guilty. Caesar walked into the Senate meeting alone and unarmed and was brutalized. Some say Brutus was Caesar’s son so that’s really tragic.
Mark Antony, Caesar’s cavalry commander, persuaded the Romans to condemn the assassins. He chased them with his army.
Meanwhile, Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son and legal heir, claimed his insurance and raised and army. The Senate refused to make him consul so he just marched on the city and took the damn position. He made a Second Triumvirate of himself, Antony, and some guy Lepidus. Antony and Octavian working together defeated Brutus and Cassius’ armies, and Brutus and Cassius themselves committed suicide.
Octavian started conquering lands to the west; Antony started conquering lands to the east. Antony needed money and legions, so he turned to Egypt’s wealth. He fell in love with Cleopatra too. His priorities changed to helping Cleopatra, not himself or Rome. He followed her back to Alexandria, and his legions were left without a leader. So they lost, continually. He put forth all his effort into restoring Egypt’s greatness. He gave Roman territory to the children he had with Cleopatra.
Meanwhile, Octavian restored stability and order to his parts of Rome. He had a well-disciplined army. He told everyone about Antony and Cleopatra and spread rumours that Antony wanted to move the capital to Alexandria, so the Senate got upset and removed Antony from his command.
Octavian’s navy finally clashed with Antony’s and Cleopatra’s at Actium in 31 BCE. Cleopatra suddenly withdrew and left Antony’s navy to die. Antony ran after her, abandoning his fleet. He hid out in Alexandria with Cleopatra for a year. Octavian finally reached Alexandria, but Antony challenged him to a duel! Before the duel, someone told Antony that Cleopatra had killed herself, so he stabbed himself. Then he found out he’d been duped and asked to die in Cleopatra’s presence.
Cleopatra met with Octavian and tried to mack him too, but he resisted, so she killed herself with an asp smuggled in a basket of figs.
So now Octavian is emperor of Rome! He gave up his authority to the Senate in 27 BCE, full-knowing they’d only give it back to him, so now it’s all legal too. He was the first Roman emperor. This finally ended the conflict between the popular party and the patrician party.
The Roman Revolution: From republic to empire.
Pax Romana
Octavian’s rule became known as the Pax Romana because it was a time of peace. He himself became known as Caesar Augustus. He had this vast empire, with one government, one currency, one set of laws!
He called himself princeps (“first citizen”).
There was a special Praetorian Guard protecting the heart of the empire.
Augustus presided at Senate meetings, appointed all major public offices, and organized the people who ran the day-to-day stuff. There were governors of provinces chosen based on ability. Officials were monitored, but the communities were relatively free. Augustus created a bureaucracy and maintained it beautifully. His system stayed with few changes for 200 years.
Rome was a really nice city too. The Pantheon was built under Augustus’ rule. Things were pretty. There were festivals. There were disgusting gladiatorial games.
The End.
1 Athens was defeated by Sparta because of its hubris.
Go home.