                           CHAPTER 5
                          DISSENSIONS
                                 
  1. ROMAN TYPE AGAIN
       
       2. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EDUCATION
       
       3. THE ARMITAGE DIARIES
       
       4. GROWING DISSATISFACTION WITH THE BRAILLE CODE
       
       5. "REVISED BRAILLE" 1905
       
       6. CODES IN USE IN AMERICA FROM 1871
       
       7. MODIFIED, LATER KNOWN AS AMERICAN, BRAILLE
          Labour of Writing
          Calculation of Space Saved
          The New Code
       
       8. PRINTING
       
       9. MORE COMPARISONS
       
       10.     AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF WORKERS FOR THE BLIND
       
       11.     COMMISSION ON TYPE FOR THE BLIND
         1.   ROMAN TYPE AGAIN
  
  Worcester College for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen was founded in 1866 and about the
   same time a society was formed to provide embossed books in the Roman type (Armitage,
   1886, p.212).  Armitage regarded this as a retrograde step so would have disapproved of
   the decision of the London School Board (1876) to use Roman type in their schools for
   the blind.  Hay's contention that the blind should be treated in all ways as much like the
   sighted as possible still lingered on, and few fully realised that Roman letters present
   difficulties for tactile recognition.
   
   Two years later Blair, the first headmaster of the College, read a paper before the National Association for the
   Promotion of Social Science entitled "Education of the Blind" (published 1876) in which he described all known
    living' examples of embossed codes.  He praised the braille code but his own preference was for upper and
   lower case Roman letters, perhaps not realising that, depending on the script used, approximately half the lower
   case letters are different shapes from the capitals.  For tactile reading this increase in the number of symbols to
   be recognised is an extra burden.  He considered (1877) that it was simple for the blind to read if the letters were
   printed large enough, and then described which parts of the letters were easiest to identify, in particular, those
   which extended above and below the line.  In fact, it is the internal parts of letters which cause most confusion. 
   For example, in capital letters the cross bar in A and H, the complicated designs of B, E, K, and R, and the
   number of upright (or sloping lines ascending to type used) of M, N, V, and W are all difficult to detect.
   
   Blair considered that speed was not important because "Blind men have generally very few books to read and
   more time at their disposal" (1876, pp.9-10).  He could not forecast the vast amount of reading required by future
   pupils who took up professions such as law and the church.
   
   2.  OPPORTUNITIES FOR EDUCATION
   
  The Elementary Education Act of 1870, while not superseding the work of the voluntary
   school, authorised local authorities to create board schools, and education became
   mandatory.  Blind children were not specifically mentioned, many not receiving education
   under the clause which exempted children from attending school if there was "some
   reasonable cause", (Hurt, 1988, p.103).
   
   Armitage realised that there was a category of young people who had potential and for whom suitable educational
   opportunities were not provided.  Education and work prospects are intertwined given the right training, and the
   braille code provided the means of learning.  The school at Paris was at this time providing musical training
   leading to work as piano tuners and organists.  Armitage described how this came about in the 1883, June/July
   number of the first volume of "Progress", the first magazine specially provided for braille readers which was
   edited and largely written by himself (see also Armitage, 1886, pp.64-66; Illingworth, 1910, pp.51-52).  The
   training resulted in many of the students becoming self-supporting and Armitage wished to introduce similar
   prospects for blind students in Britain.
   
   In 1870, by a fortunate coincidence (Hurst, 1890, p.4), Francis Campbell, director of music at Perkins School
   for the Blind, called on Armitage and they soon discovered their similar ambitions.  Together they were prime
   movers in the establishment of the Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the Blind in 1872, with
   Campbell as principal.  The venture was successful and the college was "soon turning out well-qualified
   musicians and teachers and still larger numbers of piano tuners with the majority of them able to support
   themselves" (Langdon, 1972, p.2).  Armitage's aims of education made possible by the means of the braille code,
   in this case including the braille music code, and followed by employment, were coming true.
   
   3.  THE ARMITAGE DIARIES
   
  Armitage wrote several diaries during the 1870s and 1880s.  He wrote about his social life,
   contents of sermons, descriptions of scenery, how interesting pieces of machinery worked,
   etc., but wherever he went in Britain he seems to have made a special effort to visit
   institutions for the blind, smaller organisations and even blind individuals.  A typical entry
   was, "No reading to speak of but they promised to introduce braille and higher music to
   the more intelligent" (Armitage (1870), Diary Entry, Glasnevin, 1878, braille p.56).  He also
   made several European tours more specifically to enquire into methods of education and
   conditions of work when education was completed.  He wrote because he was interested,
   but the diaries also demonstrate his campaign for a more active and rewarding life for
   blind people, and, as shown above, he used these opportunities to advertise the need for
   the use of the braille code.
   
   Later, when Armitage and Campbell were among those chosen to give evidence before the Royal Commission
   on the Blind, the Deaf and the Dumb, etc. (Report 1889), his entries become more specific. Unfortunately, some
   of the diaries are missing, but judging from the large amount of detail included concerning the deaf in mainland
   Europe, it may be inferred that similar minutiae were collected concerning blind people.  In 1884 he made an
   extended tour of institutions in eastern America.  He described the buildings and the conditions of work and
   never failed to enquire into the educational methods, encouraging the use of braille wherever possible.  (A
   shortened account of conditions in American institutions occurs in Armitage, 1886, pp.183-211).  Armitage died
   in 1890.  Francis Campbell received a knighthood for his services to the blind, and had Armitage lived longer
   it is more than likely that he too would have received this accolade in recognition of his long and enterprising
   work on behalf of blind people.
   
        4. GROWING DISSATISFACTION WITH THE BRAILLE CODE
  
  "Hora Jucunda", a monthly magazine published at the Edinburgh Asylum, first
  appeared in 1893 with Illingworth, the headmaster, as editor.  It was one of five
  such braille productions appearing at the time and there were two magazines in
  Moon type (Illingworth, 1910, p.56).  It seemed that there was a growing
  dissatisfaction amongst some braille readers concerning the code so Illingworth
  asked for correspondence on the matter.  A letter by A.C. which appeared in the
  first number included the following: "The thanks of the blind are due to the British
  and Foreign Blind Association for introducing the Braille type into this country; but
  in the matter of contractions that body has not always acted with that clearness
  and precision which one could have wished.  The arbitrary rules which they drew
  up have often been violated by them in the printing of their books.  Now this
  leads to confusion."
  
  Several more extracts from letters were quoted (ibid., pp.57-61) culminating with another from A.C.:
  "What we want is uniformity in printing; if we could get the London people to adhere to their own
  rules, and co-operate with us in working out some minor improvements, we will have achieved a
  great deal."
  
  The BFBA cannot be blamed for all the confusion, for unauthorised changes and mistakes were
  sometimes introduced in "Santa Lucia" (ibid., p.75) and other journals for the blind.  Most
  differences involved the use of contractions across syllables and unwise omission of letters in words,
  for example "I distinctly remember reading in the Bible about the man that  fred' the Lord" (ibid.,
  p.60) giving connotation of  Frederick' instead of  feared'.
  
  As an outcome of the correspondence and because of the non-cooperation of the BFBA, "Our
  English Braille Union" was formed with branches throughout the country (ibid., p.62-63).  Part of
  their remit was to discuss the present braille code, which was to be printed in successive numbers
  of "Hora Jucunda", with a view to possible improvements.  Eventually, BFBA produced a system
  of "Recommendations", but in spite of the great amount of work that had been engendered, the
  contents were considered to be unsuitable.  This dismay was voiced by Illingworth when he read a
  paper entitled "Uniform Braille System" at a Conference on Matters relating to the Blind held in
  London in 1902.
  
  The "Recommendations" were couched in legal language, and the extract included in Illingworth's
  paper (ibid., p.79) certainly proves this point.  Furthermore, there were "no less than 820 words or
  thereby (sic), in the majority of which not the smallest guide is given to the correct spelling of the
  original word".  He also objected to many of the contractions included "because by their omission
  of vowels, etc., and neglect of the rules of syllabication, they cannot convey to the reader the sense
  of delight" which literature should bring.  He made further more detailed objections and then made
  a plea for the inclusion of the capital letter.
  
  The conference recommended the setting up of a committee to make a further study of the braille
  code.  The first meeting of the (British) Uniform Braille Committee took place on 6th January, 1902
  (minutes, UBC), and the aim was defined at the next meeting (7th February, 1902) viz. "to consider
  the point systems now in use for the blind, with a view to recommending a uniform system of
  sufficient simplicity to be generally acceptable".
  
  The committee first considered whether it would be advisable to adopt American braille, which
  differed from British braille in that the letters which appeared most frequently were allotted the signs
  with the least number of dots in the cell.  [A more detailed description of this system will be given
  later in this chapter.]  As this version of the code was not universal in America, and blind users in
  Britain might not be ready to accept such a change, it was decided that work should be confined to
  the betterment of the present British version.  The BFBA were asked to co-operate and this joint
  British Braille Committee eventually produced their report at the first Triennial Conference for the
  Blind held in Edinburgh in 1905.
  
  5.   "REVISED BRAILLE" 1905
   
  The long awaited report of the British Braille Committee, which was presented at the first
   Triennial International Conference on the Blind in 1905, showed that the contractions
   omitted from "old braille" were minimal: SELF and FAITHFUL were left out and DECLARED and
   RECEIVED were replaced by DECLARING (dclg) and RECEIVING (rcvg).  Six meanings which
   had previously been represented by simple upper wordsigns were given different
   configurations.  These simple wordsigns could then represent new words of greater
   frequency.
   
   The total number of new signs added in 1905 were more than double those appearing in the "Dictionary of
   Braille Contractions" (BFBA, 1895), most of the additions being composite wordsigns and shortforms.  The
   following table gives this information in a compact form (see Appendix).
   
   Table 1.  Table to show the number of signs contained in the British literacy braille code in 1895 and 1905 respectively.
   
   
       
  
  1895
  
  
  1905
  
  
  Simple upper wordsigns
  27
  34
  
  
  Upper groupsigns
  12
  13
  
  
  Lower contractions
  14
  19
  
  
  Composite wordsigns
  9
  36
  
  
  Composite groupsigns
  11
  14
  
  
  Shortforms
  24
  73
  
  
  
  Totals
  
  
  97
  
  189
  
  
   
   The 1895 dictionary also included 20 words from which the EA sign should be omitted.  This rule
   became obsolete when a contraction for EA was included.  Details of these changes may
   be seen in Appendix 1.  Some of these contractions do not occur frequently enough to
   seem worth their inclusion; this aspect will be discussed more fully in the next chapter.
   
   6.    CODES IN USE IN AMERICA FROM 1971
   
   In contrast with the comparatively settled state of braille reached in Britain by 1905, America had
   a long and sometimes bitter struggle ahead, often referred to as "the battle of the dots". 
   It lasted from 1871 when Wait introduced the New York point system as an alternative to
   Howe, later known as Boston, line type, until 1932 when Grade 2 was finally accepted. 
   Comparative unity then became possible among English speaking peoples of the world
   (Irwin, 1955, p.3).
   
   The Missouri institution was the first to accept the original braille system some time between 1859
   and 1861 (Kerney, 1952, p.115).  The position of the letter W had been changed so that
   it appeared between V and X on the seven line table which Braille had used to demonstrate
   his system; this involved a symbol change for W, X, Y, and Z.  The contractions listed in
   Smith (1878, p.43) are fewer than those used in Britain at that time (BFBA, "Key to Braille
   reading and writing", undated).  When the New York point system was introduced in 1871
   the Missouri Institution followed the fashion for a short while, but this code was found to
   be unsatisfactory so the newly purchased writing apparatus was "sold to the ragman"
   (Kerney, 1952, p.116) and braille was used there once again.
   
   The several code changes over the years were not adopted immediately by the institutions, for old
   stock of materials had to be used until new type material could be produced in sufficient
   numbers.  Braille music was found to be superior to Wait's music code (Smith, 1878, p.51)
   so this resulted in the anomaly of some institutions using braille for music and New York
   point in the classroom (Sibley, 1892, p.75).  At the Illinois institution where New York point
   was the official type, students began to use braille for their own use, but the slates were
   confiscated when this fact became known to the superintendent (ibid., pp.74-75).
   
   7.    MODIFIED, LATER KNOWN AS AMERICAN, BRAILLE
   
   Howe's son-in-law, Michael Anagnos, succeeded him in 1876.  Recognising the need for a
   punctiform code to replace the use of Boston line type, he encouraged Joel W. Smith, a
   blind piano tuner at the school, to seek an improvement on the present systems. 
   Accordingly, Smith undertook "a careful examination to ascertain how exactly and
   completely the conflicting reports which have been published set forth the value of their
   respective systems" (Smith, 1878, p.40).  This was in preparation for the convention of the
   AAIB to be held in Columbus, Ohio, in 1878.
   
   Labour of Writing
   From a representative selection of authors he counted a total of 50,038 letters together with the
   punctuation involved.  In both codes the frequency of occurrence for each letter of the
   alphabet and punctuation sign were multiplied by the number of dots occurring in each
   symbol  The resulting totals showed gains in the labour of writing the New York point over
   braille of 16% for uncontracted and 1% for contracted codes (ibid., Tables 1 and 2,
   pp.42-43).
   
   The individual punctuation figures seem high for New York point.  When extracted they give a gain
   of 41.3% over braille punctuation, a result which is not surprising.  Wait had not included
   punctuation in his first draft.  He could not use the braille symbols because, having a code
   of only two dots high the symbols were already used.  Smith allowed five points width for
   each punctuation mark in his calculations of space used by New York point (ibid., p.45,
   Table 3).
   
   Calculation of Space Saved
   Armitage (BFBA, 1874, p.2) had used only the same ten contractions that occurred in the
   New York point code when making his comparison of space, whereas Smith
   considered that "each system should be compared as they are ordinarily
   published or written" (ibid., p.47).  No details seem available of the complete list
   of contractions used at that time, and Smith confessed (ibid., p.48) that he had
   omitted some which he thought of least value.  Had they been included it is likely
   that they would have had a minimal effect on the results.  By using the numbers
   of dots already counted and by representing spaces between letters and words
   and also between lines, Smith was able to compare the area covered by each
   code.  The results showed gains for New York point for uncontracted and
   contracted versions of 18% and 4% respectively (ibid., pp.45-46).  These results
   are very different from the claims made by Wait of 50% and "about 75%" in 1868
   and 1871 respectively (ibid., p.40).
   
   Having proved the superiority of New York point in both the labour of writing and the saving of
   space, Smith then considered the following factors:
   1.    music is a universal language and Braille's music code was used exclusively in Europe and
   also in some institutions in America, where it was regarded as an improvement on Wait's
   version;
   2.    it would therefore be an advantage for the literary code also to be in braille;
   3.    from the encouraging results of Wait's use of the smallest number of dots for the words
   of greatest frequency, the braille code could be modified accordingly.
   
   The New Code
   When re-arranging the letters and contractions according to this principle he was able
   to keep twelve of the letters in their original shapes, thus making it easier for
   learners to transfer from the old to the new version.  No change was made to
   braille punctuation or numbers.  Smith then compared his results between the
   three systems.
   
   The following table was compiled from information contained in Smith's (1878) paper (1878)
   entitled "Comparison of the braille and New York systems of point writing, and proposed
   modifications of the braille system".
   
   Table 2.  Table to show percentage gains, in the labour of writing New York point over "old braille",
   modified braille over "old braille", and modified braille over New York point.
   
       
  
  Uncontracted
  
  
  Contracted
  
  
  
  New York point and
  "old braille"
  
  Modified braille and
  "old braille"
  
  Modified braille and
  New York point
  
  16.5%
  
  
  25.6%
  
  
  10.9%
  
  1.5%
  
  
  23.2%
  
  
  22.0%
  
  
  
  
   Encouraged by these findings Smith presented his case for the adoption of modified braille at the
   AAIB conference held in 1878.  He was given short shrift by Wait and his followers.  Most
   institutions were already using the New York point code and the grant from the government
   for publishing embossed material was used exclusively by the American Printing House for
   this purpose.  Other codes had to be paid for so Wait's code already had an unfair
   advantage.
   
   Undeterred, Smith presented another paper a month later at the Congress for the Improvement
   of the Lot of the Blind and the Deaf Mutes in Paris.  From samples of French and German
   literature he had used a similar method to compare the frequencies in the French and
   German languages.  He claimed that there was enough similarity in letter frequencies for
   a universal modified code to be possible.  This seems unduly optimistic so it is not
   surprising that the vote went in favour of a general adoption of unmodified braille.  New
   York point continued for the time being to be the code used most extensively in America.
   
   In 1890 Edward J. Allen became director of the institute for the blind in Philadelphia.  He had
   taught at the Royal Normal College in London and then at the Boston school, so he had
   a working knowledge of both English braille and modified braille.  At the AAIB convention
   held at Brantford in 1892, he was a prime mover in the appointment of a subcommittee
   set up to consider yet again the choice of the best code.  This time the choice was the
   modified code, later known as American braille, even though no books were then available
   outside the Boston school.
   
   8.    PRINTING
   
   A development of great importance was to substantiate this preference for the modified code.  At
   the same conference (1892) Frank H. Hall demonstrated his braille typewriter.  It had six
   keys, each able to make one dot of the 3 x 2 matrix which could be combined to make
   the symbols.  It was claimed that a competent operator would be able to write "two or
   three scores of words per minute" whereas a writer using a handframe "could seldom
   achieve more than twenty words per minute" (Irwin, 1955, p.8).  The "stereotypemaker"
   followed the same design but was powerful enough to emboss sheets of brass for printing.
   
   Wait speedily produced his own versions of the two machines but he encountered problems.  New
   York point symbols for letters and contractions varied from 1 to 4 points in width and
   between 2 and 4 points for punctuation, whereas braille symbols were always 2 points wide. 
   Wait planned the new apparatus so that "the small letters can be made into capitals by
   means of styles which form larger points than those of small letters" (Bledsoe, 1972). 
   This would save space because no capital sign would be required but according to J.
   Lorimer, who was a braille user, such type might be tactually confusing (pers. comm.). 
   As far as is known this difference in size of dots within a text has never been tested.  "The
   competition between backers of the two systems stimulated the development of improved
   appliances which might otherwise have been long delayed" (Irwin, 1955, p.10), and the
   success of Hall's innovations must have encouraged the use of some form of braille.
   
   9.    MORE COMPARISONS
   
   A committee of the New York Board of Education called a meeting in 1909 to discuss which type
   should be used in their public schools, but the rivalry and exaggeration of the various
   claimants was so fraught that a second meeting had to be arranged (ibid., 1909, March
   and May).  There is also a lively account of the proceedings by Irwin (1955, pp.10-16)
   who was present together with Charles Campbell, son of the director of the Royal Normal
   College for the Blind, and first editor of the American quarterly "Outlook for the Blind". 
   Helen Keller, who was deaf and blind and who rarely intervened in such controversies, sent
   a letter to the secretary of the New York Board of Education giving detailed reasons with
   examples to show her preference for American braille (report of the second hearing held
   before of the Board of Education of the City of New York, 18th May, 1909, pp.85-86). 
   The decision went in favour of American (modified) braille.
   
   In the following year it was agreed that "forty per cent of the federal appropriation went for
   American braille books until revised braille completely supplanted both of the contending
   systems" (ibid., pp.20-21).
   
   10.   AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF WORKERS FOR THE BLIND
   
   While members of the AAIB, many of whom were sighted directors of institutions, were wrangling
   over which code should be best, the Association of Workers for the Blind (AAWB) decided
   upon a more practical approach.  Many of these workers had little or no sight so would
   have been more aware of perceptual factors, and their aims included the encouragement
   of reading and training of blind people for work.  In addition it was decided "that a
   committee be appointed to investigate the various forms of tactile print and to labor for
   the adoption of some one universal system" (Nolan, E.J., 1907, pp.17-18).  A uniform type
   committee was set up and throughout 1907-1913 testing was carried out concerning
   legibility of the characters in New York point, the current British braille, and American
   braille respectively.  These investigations involved dot density and position of dots within
   the cell, equivocal and unequivocal wordsigns and part-wordsigns, capitalisation and also
   the use of hands and fingers.
   
   At the 1911 convention it was realised that with insufficient funds available no conclusive decisions
   could be made concerning the relative merits of the three codes.  A successful appeal was
   made and two ladies, one blind and one sighted, travelled many miles conducting tests in
   thirty-six states (Irwin, 1955, p.32).  Twelve hundred American readers were tested
   eventually, showing that neither New York point nor American braille was superior.  To help
   resolve the matter, "several scores of pupils" were tested (ibid., p.33) at the Halifax school
   where British braille was taught, and by comparison with other codes was found to give the
   best results.  This result was unexpected and would no doubt have caused consternation
   amongst the various claimants for the best code.
   
   In an attempt to resolve the situation a new code to be called "Standard Dot" was invented, which
   synthesised what were claimed to be the best elements of the three previous codes, as
   follows:
   French braille: alphabet letters;
   American braille:    contractions formed on the principle of the most frequently occurring
   letter groups having symbols with fewest dots;
   New York point: moveable base.
   
   This new code seems to have been compiled without any field testing and may have been
   a panic measure because of probable pressure to make a quick settlement.  This seems
   an unfortunate decision when compared with the previous pioneer years of detailed
   research.  By trying to combine the best features of three codes little consideration seems
   to have been taken of resulting defects.
   
   Representatives visited Britain to gain further knowledge concerning British braille and were
   present at the international conference concerning the blind which was held at Edinburgh
   in 1914.  Standard Dot was then presented to the combined meeting of the AAIB and AAWB
   at a convention held in 1915.  The AAWB accepted the new code but the AAIB only did so
   on condition that the British authorities would do likewise (ibid., p.37).  At the same
   convention the Uniform Type Committee of the AAWB was discharged, to be replaced by a
   joint Commission on Type for the Blind.
   
   11.   COMMISSION ON TYPE FOR THE BLIND
   
   The last minuted meeting of the British Braille Committee was held on 25th March, 1905,
   and the British Uniform Type Committee was not convened until 19th May, 1916. 
   Meanwhile, to those interested in uniformity, it was important to take quick action to reject
   the American suggestion of the use of Standard Dot.  Mr. Stone, headmaster of the
   Edinburgh school, wrote to Mr. Latimer, secretary of the American Commission, expressing
   this view (17th December, 1915) and an open letter to the same effect appeared in "The
   Teacher" (January, 1916).
   
   The Commission must have realised that there was little chance of Standard Dot receiving
   universal approval, so even before its rejection by the British, they abandoned the long
   search for the chimera of a near perfect code and decided to look for a politico-economic
   solution instead.  They hoped to dissuade advocates from their chosen preferences and to
   unite in considering a version of the braille code which was already in use in parts of
   Europe.  Such a decision would incur a loss of plates, machinery and books for a code
   which might seem inferior in some respects.  It was much to ask in the name of
   uniformity and credit should be given for this radical decision.
   
   By July, 1915, "Changes in  Revised Braille for Reading and Writing'" had been drafted, and
   on 30th March, 1916, in reply to a request from Mr. Stainsby, Secretary General of the
   RNIB and Registrar of the College of Teachers of the Blind, several copies were sent to
   Britain for consideration.  The British Uniform Type Committee was speedily convened as
   a result.
   
   It is an interesting paper because the contents show how much code knowledge had been
   acquired as a result of the previous years of research, and as each point is made it is
   immediately followed by an explanation of the ground on which it is made.  The emphasis
   seems to have been on ease of reading.
   
   The first suggestion was that British braille should become "as completely capitalised as
   in literature for the seeing".  This difference between American and British braille has
   continued up to the present day with only the Americans consistently showing capitalization. 
   Other suggestions included the suppression of the poetry sign, the suppression of lower
   contractions in the interests of legibility, sequencing to be discontinued, and 17 wordsigns
   left out on the ground that they placed a burden on memory.
   
   It became obvious that the rules of British braille were regarded as settled so once more
   the reply from Britain was negative (Irwin, 1955, 43-44).  The Americans therefore felt
   free to make their own decisions.  They wanted a code which could be understood by those
   who read both Grade 1 and Grade 2 so the choice was Grade 1 (Commission on Uniform
   Type, 1918).  Grade 1 was to be almost identical with the British version except that it was
   to include capitalisation.  For Grade 1 the number of contractions was limited, though the
   44 shortforms included were identical with British characters.  Contractions occupying more
   than one cell were not permitted.
   
   At last the New World had a code which could be understood by other English-speaking
   peoples, and immediately a large scale publication of books in the new code took place.
   By 1923 a permanent commission on uniform type was recognised by both the AAIB and
   the AAWB (Latimer, 1930, 468-472).
   