Social System
The pre-colonial Maori social system
is best described as a chiefdom. It was characterized
by three social units (whanau, hapu, and iwi), and three levels of social class (rangatira, tutua, and
slaves). The word iwi literally means
“bones,” and hapu “pregnancy,”
demonstrating just how important ancestry or whakapapa is to the Maori people.
Stratification
An individual’s “rank” was based on
seniority and the generation to whom he or she belonged. This system of tracing
ancestry was highly complicated, and the Maori, who often could recite their whakapapa going back twenty generations
or more, would frequently see conflicts related to seniority arise. An older
cousin or sibling was called tuakana,
while a younger sibling or cousin was called teina. Descendents of tuakana
would remain socially superior to the descendents of teina regardless of the ages of the individuals. For example, it
was not uncommon for a teina’s
children to be the same age as a tuakana’s
grandchildren, but the tuakana line
was nonetheless still considered of a higher rank. To add to the potential
confusion of the tuakana/teina distinction, this line of descent
was ambilineal and bilineal; it could be traced through either the mother or
father or both.
The rangatira, or aristocratic class, were usually of the tuakana senior descent line and were
believed to carry a large amount of mana
(discussed in the section on belief system). There was no significant division
of labor between these social classes; rangatira
and tutua alike shared in the
everyday tasks of fishing, clearing brush from fields, and all other tasks. By
contrast, there was a sharp difference between the sexes. While aristocratic
women would perform the same chores as their "lower-class" sisters,
and high-born men the same tasks as their tutua
counterparts, men and women performed very different roles in tribal society, as
was discussed in the section on economics.
Slaves were not a separate hereditary
caste in the Maori social system; they were men and women captured during raids
and deliberately spared in order to perform menial tasks. Slaves technically
had no rights in Maori society, but they were generally well-treated and
well-fed, were not held in restraints, and could speak to their owners without
acting subservient. Slaves were also free to marry into the clan of their
captors. Children born from these marriages were given full status as free men
or women, although the “taint” of slave ancestry did not allow them to rise to
the highest ranks of society.
Whanau, hapu, and iwi
The basis of Maori society was the
extended family or whanau. An entire
family -- parents, uncles, aunts, children, cousins, and grandparents -- lived
near each other in a cluster of houses. Cousins were considered siblings just
as one’s brothers and sisters, and aunts or uncles were considered equal to
one’s parents. The male head of the extended family (usually an elder) was
called the kaumatua. While the family
would often meet as a group to discuss important matters, the kaumatua had the final word. The kuia or female elders were also highly
respected.
A larger social unit, the hapu or clan, was of primary importance.
A hapu consisted of various whanau, and could sometimes number as
many as five hundred people. Each member of a hapu would trace his or her descent from a common ancestor through
either the male or female line, if not their own ancestry than through that of
their spouse. The leader of the hapu,
the ariki, invariably came from the
senior rangatira or aristocratic
line. As populations increased, large hapu
might break into two or more smaller hapu,
and large influential whanau could
sometimes become hapu in their own
right. More rarely, several hapu could merge into one. There was no concept of
individual land ownership; the ariki
held the land in trust on behalf of the entire hapu, but it was considered to belong to everyone.
The tribe, or iwi, was composed of various hapu,
but in general had a much looser structure than that of the hapu or whanau; it is perhaps best described as a loose confederation of
clans. Membership again was descent-based, but in this case ancestry was traced
all the way back to the original waka
or canoes which were believed to have come from Hawaiki. Traditionally, iwi of the same grouping are said to be
descended from different individuals on the same waka. Strife between hapu
of the same iwi was common, and
largely depended on the mana and
personal diplomatic abilities of the ariki.
Marriage
Pre-marital celibacy was not a
quality held in high esteem in Maori society, except in the case of the puhi, the tribal virgin, a high-born
girl who was supposed to remain chaste until her meticulously planned marriage.
Otherwise, members of both sexes were permitted almost complete sexual freedom.
This liberty, however, came to an abrupt halt after marriage took place.
Monogamy was the norm for most Maori, although ariki often practiced polygyny and had at least two wives; some had
as many as ten. This was justified by the fact that the ariki had many obligations, and multiple wives could provide the
labor for him to fulfill these obligations. Polyandry among the few female
chiefs has not been recorded. Unions were invariably exogamous outside the whanau and usually, but not always,
endogamous within the hapu. Endogamy
within the hapu was encouraged
because this avoided split loyalties and complications in dividing property. If
an inter-hapu marriage occurred,
patrilocality was the general norm with the woman moving to her new husband’s hapu, but exceptions to this did occur.
In Maori society, marriage was not a
contract between a man and a woman but rather between their families and, in
the case of inter-hapu marriages,
their respective hapu. No actual
marriage ceremony was performed in pre-colonial times. Exchanges of gifts made
the union "legal," but the community's acceptance of a couple
sleeping together was what really counted in making a marriage “valid.” When a
person married into another hapu, he
or she would retain their previous affiliation with the old hapu, including rights to use of the
land, but within one or two generations, these rights were generally considered
to have “lapsed.” If a man married a woman of another hapu and did not treat her well, this was considered an injury to
the woman's entire hapu, and an
inter-hapu scuffle could result.
Marae and powhiri
Unlike other Polynesian cultures, the
Maori did not consider the marae to
be a restricted place. While it serves as a locus of political oratory, this
ceremonial ground is essentially secular and is a gathering place for the
entire clan or tribe. It consists of a wharenui
or carved meeting house, a wharekai
or dining house (to eat in the wharenui
is forbidden), and marae atea, the
sacred space in front of the wharenui.
The wharenui is seen not simply as a building, but as an actual person,
generally a tribal ancestor. The Maori would (and in modern times still do)
talk to the house, and to many of the inner carvings
which also represent ancestors. These carvings were sometimes used as visual
aids for portraying tribal history. (The structure of the wharenui is discussed in further detail in the section on cultural
arts.) The marae was the place where tangihanga or funerals were held, as
well as elaborate welcoming ceremonies called powhiri.
The powhiri is performed for special visitors to the marae, for funerals, feasts, and on
occasions of a hui
or meeting of members of different hapu.
First, male members of the hosting tribe perform a “challenge” while the
visiting party remains at the gate to the marae.
Then a male representative of the marae
places an item of challenge, known as a taki,
on the ground. A male member of the visiting party picks up the taki while keeping his eyes focused on
the man who placed it on the ground; this shows not only the courage of the
visitor in the face of “aggression,” but also demonstrates that his intents are
peaceful. Because it is believed that only the female voice can clear a
spiritual pathway between host and visitors, a kuia or female elder then performs a special call called karanga, which always includes the
phrase “Haere mai!” (welcome!). The visitors perform the hongi, a traditional greeting where two parties press noses, with
their hosts. The kaumatua or male
elders perform formal speeches called whaikorero,
which includes prayers or chants to invoke the gods’ protection and honor the
guests, acknowledgment of the ancestral house, giving thanks to Mother Earth,
acknowledgment of the dead and of the living, and announcing the purpose of the
hui. A waiata or song suited to the purpose of
the meeting is then performed by the group as a whole. Only after this protocol
is followed can the meeting or feast begin. It is also customary for the
visitors to give koha, a gift of
tribute, to the host tribe.
