Metaphysics: traditional branch of philosophy that inquires into the nature of the real.
Metaphysical Questions: Does substance exist or are things a “bundle of perceptions”
Do Universals exist, or are things joined just be names.
What is the more fundamental reality: spirit or matter
Does the universe have some grand purpose?
Does God exist?
20th Century critics of metaphysics:
Line of criticism: these ultimate questions can’t be solved
a. why bother
b. are they just pseudo-problems developed by misuse of language
Early philosophy: dialogues end in aporia
Later dialogues–more firm doctrines.
Plato’s mature philosophy: theory of the forms
Type of Universals: perfect chair, perfect equation, perfect justice
Goal of Republic: finding the nature of justice,
To do this we have to find the nature of knowledge.
Two parts to this reading
1. From Book 6 of the Republic: The Divided Line
2. From Book 7: The allegory of the cave
What we have is dialogue between Socrates and Glaucon (Plato’s brother) about who philosophers are:
Plato–wrote the dialogue.
Socrates the main character.
The Republic: a later dialogue: mature views of Plato more than repetition of Socrates
Main THEME: THE INTELLIGIBLE v. THE VISIBLE
Key theme for the history of philosophy: which is more real?
Discussion Open
Socrates debating with Glaucon:
Looking at the difference between how you see things at night, versus how you see things in broad daylight
Key metaphor for Plato: true light v. dim light
Key distinction: 188: the objects that are blended with darkness, the world of birth and death
are a matter of OPINION, a matter of Becoming
Question: what is bad about things being born and dying–generation and corruption?
The objects seen in full light are a matter of KNOWLEDGE, Being
What makes the distinction?
Plato’s doctrine of the forms:
The true, real things that make visible things what they are.
Perfect circle, perfect chair, perfect justice
The Most Important Form: The form of the Good–that which makes all good things good
Plato is a kind of dualist:
188: two powers reigning: one over an intellectual region
The other over a visible region.
Plato’s Divided line:
DIVIDED LINE: THE VISIBLE AND THE INTELLECTUAL
Plato’s DIVIDED LINE
Ascending scale of reality:
UNDERSTANDING: (noêsis) forms, dialectic, first principles
REASONING (dianoia) mathematical realities, sciences
intelligible
visible
OPINION (pistis) real objects corresponding to these images: animals,
the world of nature and art
IMAGE MAKING OR IMAGINATION (eikasia) images, shadows, reflections in water
(works of art)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Analogy of a line divided into two unequal sections.
Two realms: the visible and the intellectual
Divide the visible and the intelligible into the same ratio as the line.
Rank them by CLARITY:
--at bottom--images--shadows, reflections in water, mirrors, shiny things, etc.
Above this: the visible world ORIGINALS of these images: animals, plants, manufactured things.
Mathematical RATIO here: as the opinable is to the knowable, so the likeness is to the thing that it is like.
How to divide the intelligible section?:
FIRST SUBSECTION: reasoning that proceeds from hypotheses to conclusions--not first principles–this level still relies on images
Examples: Geometrical claims: about the square itself, the diagonal itself.
To explain geometry we use images (of squares and diagonals) to get to what can be seen only in thought.
Geometry and the related sciences
Question: can you imagine the perfect circle, or the perfect number two–where do the perfect forms reside?
SECOND SUBSECTION: what reaches first principles that are not hypotheses--doesn't rely on images.
Pure beauty–in itself, pure justice, pure good.
method used in The Republic--DIALECTIC--moving to first principles:
ANSWERS QUESTIONS:
What is the just, What is the beautiful, What is knowledge, What is the GOOD?
Uses Hypotheses as stepping stones, not first principles
Reaching for the first principle of everything.
Plato’s Key CLAIM: The intelligible part is clearer than the sciences which concern visible things.
Move to the Allegory of the Cave: Think of the Matrix here:
Question: has anyone ever been in a cave?
Allegory: the use of characters or events to represent ideas or principles in a story, play or picture.
BOOK VII: ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE:
Socrates wants to compare the effect of education with lack of education.
190 Imagine a number of men living in an underground cavernous chamber, with an entrance open to the light, extending along the entire length of the cavern, in which they have been confined, from their childhood, with their legs and necks so shackled, that they are obliged to sit still and look straight forward because their chains render it impossible for them to turn their heads round;
Behind them is a fire that provides light
Behind them is also a low wall--people carrying artifacts,
statues of people, animals,
--made out of stone, wood, every material.
Some of the carriers are talking, some are silent
--an echo makes it seem like the sound is coming from the front.
The prisoners can't see anything of themselves or any other thing other than the shadows the wall casts in front of them.
They heads are kept motionless.
ANALOGY: The prisoners are like us--trapped in the visible realm.
Prisoners would in every way believe that the truth is nothing other than the shadows of these artifacts.
What would it be like to be released from these bonds?
They could see the light--see things correctly
What would be the effect of this?
Looking toward the light itself.
--Wouldn't someone flee toward the things their able to see, believing they're clearer than the ones they’re being shown?
What if someone dragged a person out of the cave and into the sunlight?
Wouldn't their eyes be pained by the sight of the sun?
At first they wouldn't be able to see the things now known to be true--the Ideas–the forms.
After a while he could see first shadows, then images, then the things themselves,
Finally they'd be able to see the sun itself.
Plato looks back at the cave: what about the society of people in the cave?
How would the person feel about them?
191. Plato says that honors in the cave are just prizes for being sharpest at identifying the shadows as they passed by.
So: Would the newly enlightened person desire these rewards?
--or envy those among the prisoners who were honored and held power?
[Philosopher Jean Paul Sartre–refused the Nobel Prize for literature]
They would rather do anything than share these opinions
At a certain point the philosophers have to go back into the cave:
What if the person went back to their seat in the cave?
Wouldn't their eyes be filled with darkness?
If they had to compete with the perpetual prisoners in describing the shadows--wouldn't they just become a laughing stock?
Plato writes: 191
People would say that he had gone up only to come back again with his eyesight destroyed, and that it was not worthwhile even to attempt the ascent?
And if any one endeavored to set them free and carry them to the light, would they not go so far as to put him to death, if they could only manage to get him into their power?
Question: what do you think Plato is alluding to here?
Visible realm likened to the prison dwelling
Light of the fire inside
Plato likens that to the sun – to visible light
Real Goal is a journey upward of the soul to the INTELLIGIBLE REALM.
There the Form of the Good is the True Light
The cave is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the power of the sun
The journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world.
In the knowable realm--the form of the good is the last thing to be seen and it is reached only with difficulty.
Once it is seen, one must conclude that it is the cause of all that is correct and beautiful in anything,
The Sun produces both light and its source in the visible realm
The Good in the intelligible realm:
It controls and provides truth and understanding so that anyone who is to act sensibly in private or public must see it.
Those who know how the eyes can be confused won't ridicule the troubled soul.
They understand the source of the trouble.
Turn to Education:
Plato's understanding of Education:
--not putting knowledge into souls that lack it.
But turning the whole soul until it is able to study that which is
--and the brightest thing that is--THE GOOD.
Education doesn't put SIGHT in the soul
Rather, it takes for granted that the sight is there
--tries to redirect it appropriately. 278, c2
