PRESENTER: Annette M. La Greca
In the wake of devastating natural disasters (Hurricanes Andrew and Hugo,
the Northridge Earthquake, the Oakland fires, and the Loma Prieta Earthquake),
human-made disasters (crash of TWA flight 800 and ValueJet disaster), as
well as recent bombing and terrorist activities (Oklahoma City Federal
Building; World Trade Center), tremendous interest and concern has developed
regarding the impact of disasters on children and adolescents. Recent studies
indicate that disasters represent traumatic events for children that can
result in the emergence of post-traumatic stress reactions. Findings also
indicate that children's reactions to disasters can be severe and are not
merely fleeting, transitory events that quickly dissipate. In many cases,
children's reactions linger and persist and, thus, are likely to cause
much distress to children and their families. In this context, the purpose
of the presentation will be to: a) review the available research on
children's reactions following disasters, b) describe which children are
most likely to be at risk for severe and persistent posttraumatic stress
reactions, c) understand factors (at home, in school) that promote
children's coping after a major disaster, and d) describe various
interventions that have been developed for promoting children's adjustment
following traumatic disasters. In reviewing existing research, the
presentation will draw upon a conceptual framework for understanding
children's reaction to disasters, with implications for postdisaster
interventions. Furthermor e, the presentation will also consider
developmental aspects of children's reactions to disasters, and the need
for matching intervention strategies with the phase of postdisaster
recovery (acute, short-term, long-term).
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Annette M. La Greca
Department of Psychology
PO Box 249229
University of Miami
Coral Gables, FL 33124
(305) 284-5222 (ext. 1)
(305) 284-4795 (fax)
alagreca@miami.edu
http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/alagreca/
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Children's Reactions to Disasters:
Lessons Learned from Andrew and Other Disasters
Annette M. La Greca
I. Background/Introduction
In the wake of devastating natural disasters (Hurricanes Andrew and Hugo,
the Northridge Earthquake, the Oakland fires, and the Loma Prieta Earthquake),
human-made disasters (crash of TWA flight 800 and ValueJet disaster), as
well as recent bombing and terrorist activities (Oklahoma City Federal
Building; World Trade Center), tremendous interest and concern has developed
regarding the impact of disasters on children and adolescents. Recent
work from a number of investigators who have studied children's reactions
to disasters (e.g., Green et al., 1991; La Greca, Silverman, Vernberg, &
Prinstein, 1996; Lonigan, Shannon, Finch, Daugherty, & Taylor, 1991; Shannon,
Lonigan, Finch, & Taylor, 1994; Shaw et al., 1995; Vernberg, La Greca,
Silverman, & Prinstein, 1996) indicates that disasters represent traumatic
events for children that can result in the emergence of post-traumatic
stress reactions (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Findings
indicate that children's reactions to natural disasters can be severe and
are not merely fleeting, transitory events that quickly dissipate. On the
contrary, children's reactions appear to linger and persist and, thus, are
likely to cause much distress to children and their families. Moreover,
because of the severe and persistent reactions children may have to disasters,
efforts to provide effective services and interventions for children and
adolescents following a disaster represent an important, and frequently
overlooked, mental health need.
Following from the above concerns, the main objectives of this presentation
are to: a) review the available research on children's reactions following
disasters, b) describe which children are most likely to be at risk for
severe and persistent posttraumatic stress reactions, c) understand
factors (at home, in school) that promote children's coping after a major
disaster, and d) describe various interventions that have been developed
for promoting children's adjustment following traumatic disasters.
The review of available research on children and disasters will draw on a
conceptual framework for understanding children's reaction to traumatic
events, such as disasters (see Vernberg et al., 1996; La Greca et al.,
1996). This conceptual framework places considerable emphasis on the
importance of characteristics of the individual (e.g., ethnicity,
prediaster functioning), of the disaster (e.g., degree of exposure, life
threat), and of the recovery environment (e.g., availability of social
support, intervening life events), in understanding children's short-term
and long-term reactions. To the extent possible (given existing literature),
the presentation will also consider developmental aspects of children's
reactions. Furthermore, differentiation between immediate, short-term,
and long-term disaster reactions will be emphasized, especially in terms
of the types of intervention strategies that may be needed at different
points in time.
Although interventions with children following disasters have not, by and
large, been evaluated in well-controlled outcome studies, there is a reasonable
empirical literature on the course of recovery and factors that seem to
play a critical role in recovery. The interventions that will be described
in this presentation will meet the criteria of being consistent with
research on factors affecting recovery.
II. Summary of Key Objectives
The presentation will address several specific goals or objectives:
1) How do children react to disasters -- both natural disasters and
those that are human-made?
2) Which children are most at risk for severe posttraumatic stress
(or other reactions), and how can they be identified early on?,
3) What factors affect children's readjustment during the recovery
period?,
4) What kinds of postdisaster interventions (community-based, school-
based and family-based) help children cope more effectively?
5) How does the above information vary as a function of the child's
developmental level?
6) How does the above information vary as a function of the stage of
disaster recovery?
7) What are some common obstacles that need to be considered in planning
community-based disaster relief and recovery efforts?
III. References
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical
manual of mental disorders (IV ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Green, B. L., Korol, M. S., Grace, M. C., Vary, M. G., Leonard, A. C.,
Gleser, G. C., & Smitson-Cohen, S. (1991). Children and disaster: Gender
and parental effects on PTSD symptoms. Journal of the American Academy
of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 945-951.
La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. S., Vernberg, E. M., & Prinstein, M. J.
(1996). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Andrew:
A prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64,
712-723.
Lonigan, C. J., Shannon, M. P., Finch, A. J., Daugherty, T. K., & Taylor,
C. M. (1991). Children's reactions to a natural disaster: Symptom severity
and degree of exposure. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 13,
135-154.
Shannon, M.P., Lonigan, C.J., Finch, A.J., & Taylor, C.M. (1994). Children
exposed to disaster: I. Epidemiology of post-traumatic symptoms and
symptom profiles. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry,
33, 80-93.
Shaw, J.A., Applegate, B., Tanner, S., Perez, D., Rothe, E., Campo-Bowen,
A.E., & Lahey, B.L. (1995). Psychological effects of Hurricane Andrew on
an elementary school population. Journal of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1185-1192.
Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. S., & Prinstein, M. J.
(1996). Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after
Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 237-248.
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Annette M. La Greca
Department of Psychology
PO Box 249229
University of Miami
Coral Gables, FL 33124
(305) 284-5222 (ext. 1)
(305) 284-4795 (fax)
alagreca@miami.edu
http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/alagreca/
Email: snowyrange@bigfoot.com