8 The Reform Movement 1895-98
Reforms Currents:
– military + industry technology)1861-1894: military reforms + diplomatic innovation + economic reforms (Western technology
1890s: institutional reform à Hundred Days Reform (political + social)
1901-1911: institutional reform à a constitutional movement after 1905
1910s-1920s: May-Forth Movement
Reform Movement:
Background:
翁同龢More reforms needed:
political corruption
foreign encroachment
failure of S.S. Movement
Two groups of reformers:
Conservative (moderate) reformers:
g. Zhang Zhidong, Weng Tong-he
limited administrative reorganisation
Radical reformers:
g. Kong Youwei + Liang Qichao
drastic institutional changes
Hundred Day’s reform: nature (a power struggle)
Cixi Vs Guangxu
Conservative Vs Progressive
Moderate reformers Vs Radicals
Manzhu Vs Han Chinese
Foreign influence:
Foreign missionaries:
Scope of work: channel of Western influences
Schools
Public Lectures
Libraries, museums
Newspapers, magazines
Translations
Timothy Richard李提摩太
Study societies:
Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese
廣學會Newspapers: Globe magazine
萬國公報, Shi Bao時報Japan influence:
東亞同文會Helped China to achieve reforms
East Asian Common Cultural Society
Shelter or protection to Kang, Liang.
Extent of foreign influence:
Limited to progressive scholars
Superficial understanding
Early advocates of institutional reforms:
Two justifications for institutional reforms:
Interpretation of China’s past.
China had institutional reforms before.
Western culture originated in China.
Moderate reformers:
Weng Tong-he: limited administrative reforms
Zhang Zhidong: “Exhortation to study”
Slogan:
“Chinese learning as substance, Western learning as utility.”(
中學為體,西學為用)To save China by a revival of Confucianism
To save China by education
To save China by setting up industry
Sheng Xuan-huai
勝宣懷: Economy, army
Radical leaders:
Kang-Youwei:
He advocated the Modern Text Movement
New text 今文經 |
Old text 古文經 |
Confucius: author |
Confucius: a historian conservator |
Ideal social order |
Classics before Confucius |
Textual criticism 微言大義 |
Antiquarian Studies |
“Confucius as a Reformer” 孔子改制考
“Da-tong Shu” (The Book of Universal Commonwealth) (Utopian Vision) 大同書
Liang Qichao: 1873-1929
左傳 à Gong-yang ZhuanConfucianism was misunderstood
-- Genuine Confucian interpretation of the Spring and Autumn Annals:
Zuo-zhuanThree Age Theory: 3 stages of evolution
Disorder à Order à Universal peace
Stress on equal standing of Chinese and Western Civilisation
– They had identical ideas
Tan Si-tong: 1865-1898
Yen-Xue (A study of Benevolence) 仁學
à Complete Westernisation (Republicanism, Chinese nationism)
Reform activities: 1980s
公車上書Gong Zhe Shang-shu
End of Sino-Japanese War
– 603 candidates wrote ten-thousand-word memorialSignificance: An institutional innovation, first mass political movement
Study societies
Newspapers
Hundred Days Reform
103 days; 40-50 reforms carried; ‘New Deal’ 新政
商會Educational reforms:
Aims:
To train able officials
To create public opinion to support reforms
To prepare for representative government
Measures:
Imperial University
Primary and Secondary Schools
Agriculture, technical schools
Translation Bureau
Content of 8-legged essay schools
Shi-Wu Bao
Problems:
Fund was insufficient
Teachers were insufficient
Textbooks were insufficient
Economical Reforms:
Chief Bureau of Agriculture, industry, commerce
Commercial societies
Railways
Mining
Political administration:
報酬優厚的閒職) were abolishedSinecures (useless post
Delays eliminated
Procedures simplified
Suggestion from citizens
Other reforms:
扎腳Tour by officials
Protecting missionaries
Legal reforms
Preparing budget
No foot-binding
Aftermath:
廢除Reformers:
Kang and Liang fled to Japan
6 gentlemen (martyrs) killed + 22 reformers involved
Reforms:
reforms rescinded
sinecure posts restored
no sending of memorials
no public meetings
Shi Wu Bao banned + no newspapers
8-legged essay restored
reforms continued
education
economical
military
Causes of failure
Reformer’s inexperience – idealists, philosophers
Power of Cixi
Conservative opposition
Significance of the Reform:
Marxist interpretation共產主義者:
a bourgeois (middle class) political one
a reform from above
reformism was deceptive欺騙性: a political struggle
patriotism愛國主義
Others:
a sharp departure from the trend of gradual change
but it merely intensified the S.S. Movement.
Significance (results):
– 1911 revolutionreform was impossible
revolution
conservative control
Manzhu vs. Han Chinese à anti Manzhuism
Essay Questions:
AL1987:
‘The Hundred Days Reform marked a departure from previous reform ideas and methods.’ Comment on the validity of the above statement.
AL1993:
‘Both the Tongzhi Restoration and the Hundred Days Reform showed the persistent influences of Confucianism.’ Comment on the validity of the statement.
AL1987:
Introduction:
It marked a departure from the reform ideas of S.S Movement, but it reflected the trend of reform ideas which had started in the late 1880s and had become a strong current after 1895.
It marked a departure from the reform methods of S.S. Movement.
Reform ideas of 100 Days reform:
Difference: 100 Days reform vs. S.S. Movement
on technology only or institutional reform needed
Similar with the trend since late 1880s:
100 Days Reform reflected the trend since 1880s.
Study societies
Newspapers all advocated institutional reforms
Foreign Missionaries
Reform methods of 100 Days Reform vs. S.S. Movement
S.S. Movement:
limited to Western technology + economic reforms + diplomacy
by high-ranking provincial leaders
provincial efforts only
learning from the West
100 Days Reform:
a wider scope of reforms: institutional reforms
lower ranking central leaders
supported by Guangxu
learning from Japan
Conclusion:
Both preserved Confucianism.
AL1993:
– ‘ Confucius as a Reformer.’Introduction:
Confucianism: Orthodox philosophy
Guiding the political, social and economical development.
Valued throughout the 19th century
Tongzhi Restoration: Persistent influence of Confucianism.
100 Days Reform: Confucianism was gradually undermined, but was preserved
TongZhi Restoration:
Background: External + Internal problems (Taiping rebellion)
Reforms: Restoring Confucianism
100 Days Reform:
Reforms undermining Confucianism:
new schools : mixed curriculum
8-legged essays abolished
modern economy
Confucianism was still preserved:
Reformers: sought justification for the reforms from Confucianism
g. Kang
Reforms:
New curriculum:
Confucian taught
Agricultural schools
No institutional changes, i.e., Political structure.
