Properties and Behavior

Superposition and interference

When two electromagnetic waves of the same frequency superpose in space, the resultant electric and magnetic field strength of any point of space and time is the sum of the respective fields of the two waves. When one forms the sum, both the magnitude and the direction of the fields need be considered, which means that they sum like vectors. In the special case when two equally strong waves have their fields in the same direction in space and time (i.e., when they are in phase), the resultant field is twice that of each individual wave. The resultant intensity, being proportional to the square of the field strength, is therefore not two but four times the intensity of each of the two superposing waves.
 

By contrast, the superposition of a wave that has an electric field in one direction (positive) in space and time with a wave of the same frequency having an electric field in the opposite direction (negative) in space and time leads to cancellation and no resultant wave at all (zero intensity). Two waves of this sort are termed out of phase. The first example, that of in-phase superposition yielding four times the individual intensity, constitutes what is called constructive interference. The second example, that of out-of-phase superposition yielding zero intensity, is destructive interference. Since the resultant field at any point and time is the sum of all individual fields at that point and time, these arguments are easily extended to any number of superposing waves. One finds constructive, destructive, or partial interference for waves having the same frequency and given phase relationships.
 

Propagation and coherence
 

Once generated, an electromagnetic wave is self-propagating because a time-varying electric field produces a time-varying magnetic field and vice versa. When an oscillating current in an antenna is switched on for, say, eight minutes, then the beginning of the electromagnetic train reaches the Sun just when the antenna is switched off because it takes a few seconds more than eight minutes for electromagnetic radiation to reach the Sun. This eight-minute wave train, which is as long as the Sun-Earth distance, then continues to travel with the speed of light past the Sun into the space beyond.
 

Except for radio waves transmitted by antennas that are switched on for many hours, most electromagnetic waves comes in many small pieces. The length and duration of a wave train are called coherence length and coherence time, respectively. Light from the Sun or from a light bulb comes in many tiny bursts lasting about a millionth of a millionth of a second and having a coherence length of about one centimetre. The discrete radiant energy emitted by an atom as it changes its internal energy can have a coherence length several hundred times longer (one to 10 metres) unless the radiating atom is disturbed by a collision.
 

The time and space at which the electric and magnetic fields have a maximum value or are zero between the reversal of their directions are different for different wave trains. It is therefore clear that the phenomenon of interference can arise only from the superposition of part of a wave train with itself. This can be accomplished, for instance, with a half-transparent mirror that reflects half the intensity and transmits the other half of each of the billion billion wave trains of a given light source, say, a yellow sodium discharge lamp. One can allow one of these half beams to travel in direction A and the other in direction B, as shown in Figure 4
 

Michelson interferometer..

By reflecting each half beam back, one can then superpose the two half beams and observe the resultant total. If one half beam has to travel a path 1/2 wavelength or 3/2 or 5/2 wavelength longer than the other, then the superposition yields no light at all because the electric and magnetic fields of every half wave train in the two half beams point in opposite directions and their sum is therefore zero. The important point is that cancellation occurs between each half wave train and its mate. This is an example of destructive interference. By adjusting the path lengths A and B such that they are equal or differ by , 2, 3 . . . , the electric and magnetic fields of each half wave train and its mate add when they are superposed. This is constructive interference, and, as a result, one sees strong light.
 

The interferometer discussed above and represented in Figure 4 was designed by the American physicist Albert A. Michelson in 1880 (while he was studying with Hermann von Helmholtz in Berlin) for the purpose of measuring the effect on the speed of light of the motion of the ether through which light was believed to travel (see below The electromagnetic wave and field concept).