Custom and Worship
Rex Banks
Many are
convinced that Paul’s head covering instructions in 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 are
designed to ensure that the brethren at Corinth do not incur social disapproval
by violating customs of the day. Supposedly
Paul is urging the brethren at Corinth to avoid practices which society at
large considered disgraceful. Let’s consider this position in light of the
available evidence.
The brethren to
whom Paul wrote in the Corinthian correspondence inhabited a Roman Greek city
and the available evidence suggests that this city was more Romanized
than most others in the area (See About
Corinth).
Bruce W. Winter says:
“The implications of our findings have an important
bearing on the selection of sources on which to base our subsequent
explorations. It would be inappropriate to search for ethics, customs, etc
in ancient classical Greece or Hellenistic eras rather than the late Republic
and early Roman period. This does not mean that sources written in Greek
from the latter period may not be
germane to our explorations, but that in dealing with Roman Corinth we must be
aware of the Roman influences that had played the role in shaping
life in Corinth for more than a century" (After Paul left
Corinth: the influence of secular ethics and social change p. 20 emphasis mine).
With this in
mind, let’s consider Paul’s admonition in 1 Corinthians 11:4, 5:
1Cor
11:4
Every man who has something on his head while
praying or prophesying disgraces his head.
1Cor 11:5 But every woman who has her head uncovered while praying or
prophesying disgraces her head, for she is one and the same as the woman whose
head is shaved.
In my view those who argue
that Paul’s instructions simply reflect first century custom are confronted
with a real problem when dealing with these verses because the evidence
suggests that the practices which the apostle calls disgraceful were considered quite acceptable by many in the typical
Roman Greek city of the first century.
We recall that Roman
influence was dominant at Corinth and that a good number of the Corinthian
Christians were likely Roman. Next to a picture of a statue of Augustus,
Cynthia L. Thompson writes in an article entitled Hairstyles, Head Covering
and St Paul, Portraits from Ancient Corinth:
“This larger-than-life
statue of Augustus making a sacrifice
according to the Roman rite was displayed prominently in a large
civic building at the end of Roman Corinth called the Julian Basilica
... His toga, the draped outer garment of the Roman citizen, is worn over
the head, as it was characteristically in
a Roman religious sacrifice. Part
of this head covering has broken off, yet it clearly frames his face ... The religious
symbolism of Augustus' covered head would have been unmistakable and quite
appropriate, since Augustus became pontifex maximus, the chief priest of Rome in 13 BCE and since as
Emperor he was intent on restoring traditional piety ( Biblical Archaeologist,
June 1988 p. 101 [emphasis mine]).
Thompson is quite correct in her observations about the religious
symbolism of Augustus' covered head. Not only in the Roman Greek city of
Corinth, but all over the empire, state religion, symbolised by the covered
head of the priest, (often the [male] emperor) was part of the "glue"
holding different groups together. The
coin given to Jesus had "Pontifex Maximus"
on it. Many well-known artefacts from the Roman world show Roman male
worshippers with covered heads just like the statue of Augustus in
Corinth. Many books on the Roman world
feature the Ara Pacis
(Altar of Peace ) commissioned by the Senate in 13 B.C. which pictures the veiled High Priest ( male ) and also four flaminian
priests in caps. On the so-called Trajan Column, the emperor Trajan is pictured
making an offering as priest with his head veiled. Examples could be
multiplied. From these and other artefacts it is evident that a "citizen
officiating as priest would cover his
otherwise bare head with the part of his toga that hung down his back" (Daily
Life in Ancient Rome, Florence Dupont). Under the heading The
Importance Of Roman Portraiture For Head-Coverings In
1 Corinthians 11:2-16, David W. J. Gill has: “Paul reminds
men in the church at Corinth that ‘any man who prays or prophesies with his
head covered dishonours his head’ (v. 4). He is referring to specific
actions within the meeting of the church; it does not refer to every action.
At Corinth several images of men with their heads covered have been found. The
best known is a slightly larger than life-size statue of the emperor Augustus.
It was found in the so-called Julian Basilica at the east end of the Roman
forum. Augustus is shown wearing a tunic and a toga, the dress of a Roman
citizen, which is drawn up over his head. The right hand, although missing,
would almost certainly have held a patera, or shallow
dish, for pouring libations. This image of Augustus is one that is not
confined to Corinth and there are about twenty known statues showing him as sacrificant. Most come not from Rome but from Italy and
the provinces; at least five have been found in non-colonial contexts (Tyndale Bulletin 41:2 NA
1990 p. 246). Vincent is generally correct then in his comments upon l Cor 11:4 when he says: "The Roman prayed with
the head covered. So Aeneus:
'And our heads are shrouded before the altar with a Phrygian vestment' (Virgil Aeneid 111, 545)" (Word Studies in the New Testament vol.
3 p. 246). Now Virgil ( Publius Vergilius
Maro ) was a poet who lived 70-19 BC. The Aeneid
is a fictional work concerned with the glory of Rome. Typically Virgil appropriates whatever seems
worthy in the past and finds an origin for whatever interests him in the
present, and he "explains" the origin of the Roman practice of covering the head in
worship, in the words of Helenus, Priam's son to Aeneis: This
too remember; when over the water thyn ships Have made their passage, and stand at anchor
again, And building an altar, thou payest thy vows on the shore, Cover thy hair with the
veil of a purple robe That amid the holy fires
and the worship of heaven. No enemy may intrude and trouble the omens. Let this be the ritual kept by the comrades Let this be that thou keepest
thyself, and pure in this rite Let thy children dwell. So Virgil, observing the
custom of his day, of covering the head in worship, composes a story to
"explain" the origin of this practice. Later Plutarch ( A.D. 49-125) a Greek, asks concerning the Romans: “Why is it that when they worship
the gods, they cover their heads, but
when they meet any of their fellow-men worthy of honour, if they happen to have
the toga over the head, they uncover?” ( Moralia: The Roman Questions
10). Speaking of this
"behaviour in regard to the gods," Plutarch says that this observance
"has persisted since the days of Aeneas" (p.266). He adds: "But
they thus worshipped the gods, either humbling themselves by concealing the
head, or rather by pulling the toga over the ears as a precaution lest any
ill-omened and baleful sound from without should reach them while they were
praying" (ibid). Also, "Or as
Castor states when he is trying to bring Roman customs into relation with Pythagorean
doctrines: the Spirit within us entreats and supplicates the gods without, and
thus he symbolises by the covering
of the head the covering and
concealment of the soul by the body " (ibid). The Roman poet Lucretius
(born late 90s BC) wrote in his de Rerum Natura 5: "It is no piety to show oneself often with
covered head, turning towards a stone and approaching every altar, none to
prostrate upon the ground and to spread open the palms before shrines of the gods . . ." (Lucretius
1198-1201). Now there were exceptions
to this custom of males and
females covering their heads in worship. Plutarch also asks in Roman Questions:
"Why do they sacrifice to the god 'Honor' with
the head uncovered" (R.Q.11).
Plutarch makes two suggestions which do not concern us here. In his Year
of the Goddess,
Lawrence Durdin-Robertson says: "The priests make their offerings (at the
feast of Saturnalia ) with heads uncovered, a custom which
was never observed at other feasts"
(p. 94 [emphasis mine]). So although there were exceptions to this practice it
is clear that respectable Roman men engaged in worship with covered heads and
that this practice was acceptable and normal:
“There have been recent
publications that bring together numerous examples of literary and
archaeological data that show the widespread use of male liturgical head
coverings in Rome in Italy and in numerous cities of the Roman east. The
Roman practice can be documented for several generations before and after the
advent of Christianity in Corinth. The
custom is clearly portrayed on coins statues and architectural monuments from
around the Mediterranean basin … since Corinth was itself a Roman colony there should
be little doubt that this aspect of Roman religious practice deserves greater
attention from commentators than it has received” (Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
und die Kunde der Älteren Kirche p
69 Use, Misuse and Neglect of Archaeological Evidence in
Some Modern Works on 1 Corinthians (ICor 7,1-5; 8,10; 11,2-16; 12,14-26) by Richard E. Oster, Jr.
http://www.deepdyve.com). Clearly then Paul did not have Roman custom in mind. First Corinthians 11:5 also presents the “custom position” with a problem. We recall Plutarch's asking why Romans covered their
heads in worship. Plutarch, a Greek was
interested in this matter because, as Vincent affirms: "The Greeks (meaning both males and females
-Rex) remained bareheaded during
prayer or sacrifice..." (Vincent vol. 3 p. 246 [emphasis mine]). Many books on Greek culture and history feature
artefacts, including many examples of representations of Greeks at
worship. Vase paintings in particular
have many examples of the male and female worshippers offering
sacrifices to the Olympic gods bareheaded but with laurel wreaths upon their
heads. See for example such works as Robert Browning's The Greek World,
Classical Byzantine and Modern p.75.
In many settings Priestesses are pictured making offerings and similarly
attired (e.g. Mythology, An Illustrated Encyclopaedia, Ed. Richard Cavendish, p. l33). Male worshippers are shown "laurel
crowned" just like the female worshippers (e.g. The Oxford History of the Classical World, editors John
Boadman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray p. 262). Particularly informative and
well-illustrated is Jane Harrison's Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religions, but it is not at all difficult to locate discussions of Greek worship situations, and depictions of
male and female worshippers, priests
and priestesses bareheaded,
often laurel-crowned and sometimes not. We are not talking about a
few obscure artefacts but rather some of the best-known and widely featured
materials of the ancient world. It must be admitted that it is not always easy to date
inividual artefacts precisely, but they cover the period antedating and
postdating the first century. Evidently the laurel wreath, seen on both males and females was of some
significance. In her Hairstyles, Head
coverings, and St Paul, Portraits from Roman Corinth archaeologist Cynthia
L. Thompson says: "In Greek religious
contexts, wreaths fashioned out of precious metals particularly gold are
frequently listed in inventories of objects dedicated at shrines" (Biblical
Archaeologist vol 51, No 2, June 1988.
p. 100). Certainly we do not know all there is to know about
Greek worship situations, but the best evidence available suggests that among
the Greeks there was worship attire which was regarded as normal, and typical which
did not conform to Paul's instructions in 1 Cor 11:2-16. In Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament Albrecht Oepke has a good summary of
the Roman-Greek situation: “Veiling was customary among
the Romans at sacrifices (with the exception of the honos sacrifice ...) but
this did not apply to the Greeks.
In neither case was there any
distinction of sexes. Hence Paul was not thinking of these customs” (Vol. 3 p. 562 [emphasis mine]). In agreement
with the above Keener, whose discussion of head covering practices is supported
by a very useful bibliography of ancient writers says: “In general, Greek women were
expected to participate in worship with their heads uncovered ... Of course Greek men were also to
worship bareheaded" (p. 28). Mystery Religions When we turn to the Mystery religions which attracted both Roman and
Greek worshippers the information is difficult to interpret. Evidence is
fragmentary about the "mystery" cults, and what does exist reveals a wide assortment of practices and rites varying
from cult to cult. We need to be careful about generalising but the following
are often noted. In his The Ancient Mysteries, Marvin W. Meyer
has a translation of the rule of the Andanian Mysteries, “a public record of
the specific regulations to be followed in the celebration of the Andanian
mysteries (which) may be dated with confidence to 92/91 BCE” (p. 51). The rule
concerning clothing has the following: “None of the women are to wear gold, or rouge, or
white make up, or a hair band or braided hair or shoes made of anything
but felt or leather from sacrificial victims.”
The cult of Mithraism was widespread and in particular "offered
some challenge to early Christianity" (Zondervan
Pictorial encyclopaedia. vol. 4 p. 330). "Mithraeum"
or shrines to this god existed throughout the empire and each shrine contained
a representation of Mithras (a male) sacrificing a bull. He is pictured as wearing
a cap while making this offering. According to Pausanias
(second century) there was a sacred precinct in Corinth for Isis, and from the
Isis temple in Pompeii (a city also Roman-Greek in character) comes a painting
of a priest (male) wearing a winged
hat who is reading a scroll (Fee
p. 507 footnote 61). A relief of an Isis procession shows the
"prophet" (male) with his tunic pulled up over his head and the
priestess uncovered (ibid). (In fairness we need to
point out that Pausanias is writing about Corinth of the second century.
In AD 77 the city of Corinth was again devastated, this time by an earthquake.
Rome rebuilt the city and it is this new city that Pausanias writes
about in his Description of Greece). Dionysus is also considered one of the "mysteries."
One of the famous Pompeii artefacts is a painting showing a bareheaded female worshiper making an
offering to Dionysus-Bacchus. (See for example The Art and Life of Pompeii
and Herculaneum Michael Grant p. 51). Another Pompeii fresco shows two
bareheaded women with flowers in their hair making offerings to Dionysus. (See
for example The New Testament World in Pictures William H. Stephens p.
340). The most famous discovery from
Pompeii is the so-called Villa of Mysteries which is named after the frieze
contained within it. The frieze has 29
life-sized figures and "probably shows the significant stages of an
initiation rite into the Dionysus mysteries" (Splendours of the Roman
World Anna Maria Liberati and Fabio Bourbon). One scene for example pictures a female with a
covering who is clearly an initiate, a seated bareheaded woman who presides over the activities
and a woman carrying a tray who is bareheaded but wearing a laurel leaf in her
hair. The bottom line is this: we just do not know a great
deal about the mystery religions. We cannot be sure if we have a correct
understanding of the situations depicted in various artefacts available to us.
However, as we have seen, the available
evidence does not permit us to conclude that the bareheaded female and the
covered male were considered disgraceful in the mystery settings. Jewish Male Worshippers Although
Corinth was a Roman Greek city we need to say a word about Jewish worship. Some are adamant that the "tallith" or prayer shawl was worn
in worship by first century Jewish men.
Others are equally adamant that the tallith was introduced sometime
after the first century. In his Jewish Worship Abraham Millgram has: "With the passage of time, the custom of covering
the head during worship increasingly became mandatory. As the persecutions of
the Church increased, the Jewish aversion to everything Christian deepened. The
uncovering of the head became associated with Church etiquette and therefore
became repugnant. To worship or even to go about with an
uncovered head was regarded as imitation of the Christians and an act of
irreverence" (pp. 351, 352). Some earlier
commentaries asserted that first century Jewish men covered their heads in
worship on the basis of certain statements in the Talmud, but there is reason
to be cautious about using this later material as evidence for practices
in the apostolic period. Speaking of veiling practices within Judaism James B.
Hurley says: “The evidence available to us concerning Jewish
practice stems largely from Talmudic and other late sources. The question we
must ask is whether these may legitimately be presumed to represent Palestinian
practices in the time of Christ. A majority of students of the field have
assumed so. A closer look at the evidence, however suggests
that they may be mistaken” (Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective p. 66). What we can be sure of is
that all Jews knew that ministering Levitical priests
(all male) were to wear headgear by divine command (Ex 28:40ff) and this is
significant in view of the fact that a great many of the priests were becoming
obedient to the faith" (Acts 6:7).
The Jews also had their precious Old Testament record and the example of
the covered male head in worship (e.g. David 2 Sam 15:30ff). Conclusion · Regardless of what other verses in 1 Cor
11:2-16 teach, vv 4 and 5 deal with
“praying and prophesying" · When we examine first century worship customs
in a Roman Greek town we find that the available evidence strongly suggests
that what Paul calls disgraceful was common
practice. This is damaging to the
custom position. · As we will
see, the archaeological material has convinced some who take the “custom”
position that traditional arguments are
weak, and they have attempted to invoke another alleged “custom” to explain the
text (See Replacing Old Customs with New
Customs later). They
remain committed to the “custom“
position but they have abandoned attempts to explain Paul’s instructions
in terms of first century head covering customs. This is significant.