Design Approach Based on Learning Theories
By Rebecca McLain & Lee Rabine
Educational Technology Graduate Students at Walden University
As a final project for EDUC 64500
July 10-21, 2000
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Rebecca McLain
Lee Rabine
PURPOSE
The project was designed to provide high school students with an orientation to evaluating Internet websites for credibility as resources for research.
ANALYSIS
Behaviorist, cognitive, developmental, constructivist and motivational principles were incorporated in the design of this segment of instruction. The design also includes principles from Gagne’s, and Reigeluth’s instructional design theories, while the actual production of the instructional unit fell inline with S.D. Tripp and B.A. Bichelmeyer’s theory of Rapid Prototyping.
In approaching a design to this instruction, it was important to be cognizant of the target audience, which will consist of high school students who have had little or no practice in evaluating Internet resources. In light of this, the design of the instruction provides students with clear objectives and outcomes. Although Driscoll (1994, p. 56) points out that the effectiveness of instructional objectives for enhancing academic performance has been debated since the 1960s, there is significant evidence supporting the inclusion of learning objectives and outcomes for this lesson. By providing students with little or no experience in evaluating Internet resources with clear objectives and outcomes, learners will approach the activities with focused attention and will gain confidence as they successfully obtain the objectives. This will create a positive expectation for success by making it clear just what is expected of students. (Dricoll, p. 319). An evaluation of computer-based learning in higher education (McNaught & Wills, 1996) states clear information needs to be given about the objectives of any course in which computer-based learning is being used. The course objectives should clearly specify the levels of cognitive demand. What skills should students develop? What professional attributes should students acquire? How are the course materials rated with the respect to level of cognitive complexity? Hannafin and Peck also speak to the need for computer-assisted instruction to be based on instructional objectives in order for it to be effective. Though they note there is much debate surrounding the need for objectives, they also state that there is a clear consensus that the utilization of objectives is important (Hannafin, M.J. & Peck, K.L., 1998)
The use of objectives or goal statements is supported by the behavioral theory as a way to focus learners’ attention on certain information. The cognitive theory as well as meaningful reception learning argues for objectives as a way of anchoring and providing an entry for new information to be connected. This is critical in this particular instructional module since students will be learning to evaluate an unfamiliar medium. Similarly a key element of John B. Carroll’s theory of mastery learning supports clearly specifying what is to be learned and how it will be evaluated ( Kearsley, 1994, 1999). Gagne’s instructional design theory argues for informing learners of objectives as a way of readying them for learning (Driscoll, p. 352). According to Gagne’s theory of instruction, expectancies are easily established by simple statements of instructional goals, references to what students will be able to do after instruction, or demonstrations of anticipated learning outcomes. This is consistent with Robert Mager’s criterion referenced instruction framework, which lists goal/task analysis and performance objectives as critical to any form of learning (Kearsley, 1994, 1999).
However, the most persuasive theory for including objectives in the instruction was Knowles theory of andragogy as it applies to learning. His theory was specifically developed for adult learning and emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Instruction designed for adult learners needs to address why they need to learn something. (Kearsley, 1994, 1999). The same is true for young adults targeted by this instruction. Since this instruction was designed for young adults the use of objectives and outcomes should serve as an advance organizer for the learners and clearly state what learning outcomes are expected. Objectives and outcomes will also support Keller’s ARCS model for motivation by directing attention, enhancing relevance, creating positive expectations and providing learners with satisfaction upon meeting the objectives.
OBJECTIVES
The learning objective addressed by this multimedia project is as follows: Upon completion students should be able to access Internet sites and use critical thinking skills to evaluate the content for credibility, research value and make a decision about whether or not they would use this source in their papers or projects based on the list of criteria they have developed.
DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT
Once learners are provided with the learning objectives in this instructional module they are encouraged to begin applying higher level critical thinking skills by evaluating predetermined sites contained in the hot list. The hot list of sites serves as the first component in Reigeluth’s elaboration theory and help students move from simple to complex evaluations of websites for content, credibility, research value and potential bias. The hot list of sites is also in align with Gagne’s steps of instruction and fall under the category of presenting material to be learned; however, the hot list is designed to do more than just present material to be learned. It is constructed to assist students in becoming aware of cognitive conflicts and indicate inadequacies in their thinking. It should create dissatisfaction with an existing conception and push learners to their zone of proximal development while creating a state of disequilibrium. To do this the hot list is composed of nine sites, three on three distinct topics of interest to young adults. The three sites on each topic consist of a highly credible site with strong content and research value, a site of questionable value and a biased or slanted site. The three topics are broken into “Challenges” with each challenge becoming increasing difficult and building on the skills learned in the previous challenge. By choosing sites of interest to young adults the relevance of the material to be learned will be re-enforced. This is important for young adult learners who need learning to be relevant and meaningful. According to the cognitive theory of learning, instruction needs to be meaningful and relevant if the learner is going to focus selective attention on the learning at hand. (Driscoll, p. 71). This is reinforced in the situated learning theory which calls for learning to be situated in authentic tasks in order for knowledge to be useful and therefore used in similar situations. It is further supported in the adult learning theory of andragogy, which calls for task-oriented instruction and in the theory of meaningful reception learning which states the material to be learned must be potentially meaningful. (Kearsley, 1994, 1999)
However, the actual selection of the hot list sites aligns with the constructivist theory which recommends juxtaposing instructional content and including access to multiple modes of representation as well as by the discovery learning theory of Jerome S. Bruner. Bruner defined discovery as all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own mind. (Driscoll, p .214). Bruner did not see discovery learning as a random event. It involves an expectation of finding regularities and relationships in the environment. With this expectation, learners devise strategies for searching and finding out what the regularities or relationships are. In students’ use of the hot list, learners will be able to devise strategies for searching and finding out what the irregularities are. Bruner described discovery learning as moving systematically toward a model, which is there all the time. The discovery of a concept proceeds from a systematic comparison of instances for what distinguishes examples from nonexamples (Driscoll, p. 215). To promote concept discovery, the instruction presents the set of instances that will best help the learner to develop an appropriate model of the concept – in this case what is creditable and what is not and what sites contain potential bias. In using the hot list, contrasts, which lead to cognitive conflicts, will set the stage for further discovery learning as students move through all five challenges. Bruner’s recommendation for contrasts that cause cognitive conflict parallels that made by Piaget and the information processing theorists who have focused on restructuring as the major developmental process. It also coincides with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. (Driscoll, p. 218).
Furthermore, the selection of the hot list items are consistent with Collins’ and Stevens’ model for inquiry teaching and meets the first three instructional strategies: 1) Selecting positive and negative exemplars; 2) Varying cases systematically; and 3) Selecting counterexamples. Therefore, the hot list not only provides the material to be learned as required in Gagne’s nine steps of instruction, but also provides guidance for learning. By comparing and contrasting different sites on the same topic, students will be able to build critical thinking skills that encourage them to question material presented.
MEDIUM OF DELIVERY
The web was chosen as the medium for this instruction because it provides students with real-world tasks. According to Jean Piaget’s theory of developmentalism, knowledge is invented and reinvented when learners interact with the world around them (Driscoll, p. 196). Learners acquire knowledge through their actions by actively approaching their environments. A learning environment should be created that encourages the learner to initiate and experiment. According to Driscoll, this means trying things out to see what happens…manipulating symbols, posing questions, seeking answers and reconciling what is found at one time with what it found at another (Driscoll, p. 196). Creating curriculum materials that allow exploration by the learner is also supported in John Bransford’s theory of Anchored Instruction.
Rather than present students with specific evaluation techniques to utilize, this instructional module has students constructing their own techniques. “This way students can become ‘infotectives’ … and note their personal responses” (Moreinis, B., 1996)). Here again, the issue of relevance is important as is the principle of significant learning. According to Rogers’ theory of experiential learning, significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interest of the student. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. The learning is facilitated when the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction and it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems (Kearsley, 1994, 1999). This instructional module meets all of these criteria; however, a critical design factor was to ensure that information overload did not occur. As pointed out by Ryder (1994) extraction of basic information from the World Wide Web involves cognitive strategies. It requires clear objectives, persistence, and the ability to adjust strategies as needed within the problem space. People who are new to this mode of learning will require scaffolding until they master the art of self-directed inquiry (Ryder, 1994). Likewise, the theory of discovery learning calls for models to help guide discovery and calls for guided practice in inquiry learning. In this instructional module we provided scaffolding by selecting predetermined sites for students to evaluate and structuring those sites so that skills obtained in one “Challenge” were built upon in the next “Challenge.” To ensure that skills were obtained in the first challenge students are provided with a study guide to help them in their evaluative quest. Students are provided with an “Answer” sheet for the first “Challenge” to allow students to ensure they are on the right track.
GOOD COMPUTER MEDIATED INSTRUCTION
Specific design recommendations as presented by Bartasis and Palumbo (1995) that pertain to this instructional unit is “learners should be required to make their own associations between nodes. This is critical to the use of hypermedia as a process of knowledge construction and definition of the process as discovery learning. The interface should allow for different types of search strategies and provide ways for the learner to develop different search strategies.
These recommendations are consistent with the constructivist theory of learning in which learners construct knowledge as they attempt to make sense of their experiences. (Driscoll, p. 360). Constructivists see learners as active organisms seeking meaning and emphasize learning in context. It is the job of the constructivist teacher to hold learners in their zone of proximal development by providing just enough help and guidance, but not too much. “In constructivist pedagogy, it is better to give too little than too much in this area, even if the students find it stressful to ‘not know.’ It is enjoyable, as a teacher, to make the connections for our students, but more rewarding for them to discover the connections themselves” (Moreinis, 1996). Therefore, this instructional module provides scaffoling through the use of predetermined sites an operates as a stand-alone unit of instruction that does not require teacher intervention, but does provide the students with hints throughout the instructional process.
This is consistent with established theories on how to design instruction for computer tasks. Carroll’s theory of minimalism is based on the principles of active and self-directed learning, making error handling explicit and linking training with actual use of the system. Likewise, Knowles’ theory of andragogy emphasizes that adults approach learning as problem solving; therefore, since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves. The cognitive flexibility theory also states learners must be given the opportunity to develop their own representations of information in order to properly learn (Kearsley, 1994, 1999).
By the time students enter the “Fourth Challenge” they will be using higher order cognitive skills to critically assess and evaluate websites. The sequence of instruction will have spiraled from the simple concept of accessing predetermined web sites where the contrasts are obvious to the complex concept of applying critical thinking skills to evaluate sites where the contrasts are much more subtle. This is consistent with the constructivist theory which states curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the students continually build upon what they have already learned. Since the lesson objectives and outcomes clearly state that students will apply critical thinking skills to evaluate websites for content, credibility and research value, the students’ attempts and ability to apply these skills is enhanced with each activity.
Providing students with the opportunity to practice newly acquired skills is also consistent with the behavioral theory, which states retention of new skills is improved when the skills are practiced. Thorndike’s theory of connectionism states learning requires both practice and rewards while Rumelhart’s and Norman’s theory on modes of learning includes the principle that practice activities affect the refinement of skills. Providing practice of skills is also a main principle of Mager’s criterion referenced instruction theory and J. Lave’s situated learning where learners move from novice to expert by becoming involved in a “community of practice.” (Kearsley, 1994, 1999) Other theories than promote practicing newly acquired skills include cognitive information processing, meaningful reception learning, discovery learning and Keller’s ARCs model of motivation. According to Keller, opportunities to use newly acquired skills or knowledge in meaningful ways allow for the natural consequences of learning. (Driscoll, p. 317). Other theories that promote practicing are M.D. Merrill’s Component Display Theory and A. Newell’s et al. Soar theory. (Kearsley, 1994, 1999).
It is further believed that by providing students with the opportunity to practice the skills learned in this instructional unit, transferring these skills to other contexts will also be facilitated. Transference of these higher order skills is a crucial factor as pointed out by Sherman (1996). “If they (computers) are to be used effectively, computers should be part of an instructional environment which supports the learning of skills that students will need in order to be successful in the real world.” This is supported by Bruner who viewed schooling as an instrument of culture. He felt that schools should equip students with the cognitive skills required for control of utilization of resources of the culture (Driscoll, p. 222). With the explosion of the World Wide Web and the integration of technology into the workforce it is crucial that learners are not only able to operate the technology but are also able to critically assess the technology and content of material accessed. In this instructional unit students are encouraged to use critical thinking skills while cooperating and actively engaging in their own learning. They should be able to discriminate appropriateness of material, level of difficulty, credibility, authority, relevant information and differentiate fact from opinion. The self-directed learning process, using the World Wide Web allows the student to be an effective information user and to apply that knowledge in diverse situations.
This is further supported by Berg and Collins (1995) in their statement: “If we consider which factors of computer-mediated communication will be most important to education in the information age, it seems that our goals should be to develop self-motivated learners and help people to find and share information.” However, the goal should also include being able to effectively evaluate the information found and recognize potential bias.
Solidifying the concepts that students have learned in the previous segments of instruction is the basis for the design approach for the two final “Challenges” of the instructional unit. The “Fourth “Challenge” provides students with an embedded aid – in the form of an interactive, web-based tutorial – to help broaden their view of what constitutes credible and to provide them with additional strategies in their evaluation of web-based resources. The “Fifth Challenge” ends the lesson a collaborative activity that helps students to define their concept of credibility. At any point in these last two “Challenges” students could be given a list such as the “Ten C’s for Evaluating Internet Sources;” and instructed to compare it with their own; however, by having students collaboratively compare and re-write their own list through the use of a network-based class folder or the bulletin board provided within the instructional module the instructional module will provide for significant learning. Using this approach is recommended in Piaget’s developmentalism where learners reconcile what they find with what others find, and in Vygotsky’s notions about social negotiation of meaning where learners test their own understandings against those of others (Driscoll, p. 360). A collaborative activity is also recommended by the constructivists who see providing for social negotiation as an integral part of the learning. According to the constructivists, collaboration enables insights and solutions to arise synergistically that would not otherwise come about. Hearing a variety of other perspectives helps learners to judge the quality of their own solutions and to learn perhaps far more effective strategies for problem solving (Driscoll, p. 368). Another theory that supports collaboration is Keller’s ARCs model. Keller states that cooperative learning can lead to higher achievement and greater motivation to learn as it creates a social milieu that facilitates motivation. Motivation appears to be enhanced when learners’ expectancies are satisfied, when they attribute their successes to their own efforts and effective learning strategies, and when the social climate fosters interaction and cooperation among students (Driscoll, p. 310). Lave’s situated learning theory also sees social interaction as a critical component to learning as does Pask’s conversation theory (Kearsley, G. 1994, 1999).
Therefore, the design of this lesson concludes with a collaborative exercise where students share and discuss their evaluation with fellow students and develop criteria of what constituents a credible website containing strong content and research value.
References
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Bartasis, J. & Palumbo, D. (1995) Theory and Technology: Design Consideration for Hypermedia/Discovery Learning Environments. Available URL: http://129.7.160.115/inst5931/Discovery_learning.html
Berge, Z, & Collins, M. (1995) Computer-Mediated Communication and the Online Classroom: Overview and Perspectives. Computer-Mediated Communication Magazine. Vol. 2(2). Available URL: http://metalab.unc.edu/cmc/mag/1995/feb/berge.html
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