Content of Military Theory:

In this essay we can discuss only a small part of Machiavelli's thoughts; Machiavelli's general view of human nature and the causes of war. Then I will summarize his views of the model commander and finally his description of the model army.

Human Nature - The Fundamental Cause of War:

For Machiavelli, man is dominated by his passions. He is acquisitive, shortsighted and imitative. His desires are unlimited and bear little relation to his abilities. Not only is the supply of possessions limited, but man's short-sighted, restless nature makes him constantly tire of what he has and desire new and more interesting things. This selfishness leads to conflict between those who desire to dominate and those who desire to be free from domination. Domination is itself the most powerful of emotional desires. The conflict is conducted both on the civil level between men and on the international level between groups of men.

Since conflict stems from the fundamentals of human nature, it is at least latent in all human societies and therefore inevitable. One of the fundamental concerns of politics then is the control and application of conflict in the interests of society. War and politics form an organic whole; while war is a political instrument, politics itself is a warlike activity. You are all familiar with the famous dictum of Clausewitz that war is politics conducted by other, more violent means. This idea has also been adapted by Leninists. But with a different concept of what politics is about. The Leninists actually come closer to the original view of Machiavelli, which is that it is politics that is war conducted by other, less violent means.

Specific causes of war:

Among the specific causes of particular wars Machiavelli mentions lack of food, ambition of princes, internal security, avoidance of punishment, miscalculation, and necessity. While these may be the immediate objects for which a city goes to war "There are but two motives for making war against a republic, one, the desire to subjugate her, the other, the apprehension of being subjugated by her.

Kinds of war:

The various causes give rise to two different kinds of war, one caused by the ambition of princes or republics and the other caused when an entire people desire to overthrow the society of another people. Thus there is a qualitative difference between wars waged for limited and unlimited objectives. The limited political objectives involve the seizure of some territory and or domination of another group or the unseating of a particular ruler. In total war the objective is the complete destruction of the opposing social and political order and if possible the extermination of the population itself. Moreover, the intensity of war - the means and methods employed - is greater when the objective is total. The unlimited character of the military operation stems from the unlimited character of the political objective sought by at least one of the belligerent.

The Model Commander:

For Machiavelli, strong and able leadership is an essential ingredient in successful government, both political and military. His books are in effect treatises on the requirements and methods of good leadership. He devotes considerable space to what a good leader should know, how he should act, and what his characteristics are, and how a city can secure and use good leadership. And whole books have been written on this topic.

The ideal leader is the classical virtuous hero as exemplified by Romulus, Theseus, Solon, Cyrus and Alexander. He is a statesman, ideally a founder of a state or religion, or the organizer of an army. Leadership is a creative quality. It is because of its creative nature that the military profession qualifies as one of the highest. The virtue of a leader is not synonymous with success, although success is an essential ingredient. Nor is mere technical ability sufficient to make the leader virtuous. The pursuit of glory rather than material goods is the highest aim of man. True glory is achieved in the doing of something which will not only be remembered but cherished by mankind. The leader therefore must exercise self-control and moderation. He must live a Spartan daily life. He must be devoted to the common good, but so desirous of glory as to prefer the short glorious life to the long mediocre one.

Leadership involves not only creative effort but also a constant struggle with fortuna an idea derived from classical ideas of fate. The world is in a constant state of change. Fortuna represents the incalculable in the nature of events.

It is impossible for man to foresee everything in order to dominate fortuna. Yet through the use of reason and dynamic leadership the commander should be able to channel events to further his own designs. Of prime importance in keeping ahead of fortuna is the ability to stay flexible enough always to anticipate changing conditions and change with the times. The inability of most men to change their habits and modus operandi constitutes one of their major weaknesses.

The importance of good leadership for Machiavelli stems from his ideas on imitation and his belief in the creative powers needed by the founders of both cities and armies. The faults of people spring from the faults of their leaders.

Conducting warfare is one of the principal duties of the leader, hence it must be the subject of careful study. "A prince should therefore have no other aim or thought, nor take up any other thing for his study, but war and its organization and discipline, for that is the only art that is necessary to one who commands." This admonition is not meant to imply that war in the usual sense is the only activity of a ruler, but that the procedures associated with war have application to all phases of the ruler's activities.

Psychological Warfare:

Machiavelli applies his theory of human nature to military problems and develops major roles for religion, appearances and necessity. He believes that man's desires to acquire money, power, and glory are not sufficient in themselves to overcome an even stronger desire to stay alive. Fear dominates men's minds when they are faced with danger, and their desires cannot be counted on to make them risk death in battle. The commander must have recourse to other means to persuade his men to fight. Among these are music, oratory, and rewards. Three additional means are religion, appearances and necessity.

The role of money in war:

Machiavelli discusses this at length because he disagrees with the common opinion that "money is the sinews of war". He notes that gold will not buy trustworthy soldiers, but good soldiers will always find gold. The small stipend given soldiers in not enough to make them die for their leader. Riches along with natural geographic strength and the favorable disposition of the people is one of the many secondary requirements for success, but the primary one is a strong army.

Religion:

Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of religion. He stresses its utility as a means for instilling a willingness to fight. In this he is writing about ideology in general. It served four military purposes for the Romans. Predicting a favorable outcome increased confidence. The oath threatened punishment from the gods for cowardice. Religion educated the troops in the concepts of love of country and exalted the heroic individual devoted to public service. Machiavelli does not mention religion as an ideological belief to be fought for, for itself.

Appearances:

Since men are shortsighted and prone to believe what they want to believe, the general should use every means possible to make his army appear strongest and best. Appearances is also the foundation for use of stratagems and deceits. Machiavelli mentions many of the stratagems employed by ancient armies.

Necessity:

Necessity plays a determining role in military strategy. It is necessity which causes many wars. Necessity will make one or the other side fight harder. The able general takes necessity into account and actively uses it.

Generalship:

Besides evidencing leadership traits and knowing how to use psychological techniques, the commander must be thoroughly familiar with the tools of his trade. Of fundamental importance is the appreciation of the necessity for careful, detailed planning. Of equal importance is the recognition that there are certain general principles which should not be violated. Machiavelli is one of the first military theorists to point out that the scientific study of war requires an understanding of the principles on which it is based.

Estimate of the situation:

Proper planning and a careful estimate of the situation are important before beginning a war. Machiavelli lists all the ingredients found in modern estimates including enemy, own forces, terrain, weather, etc.