5
A. The late 19th century brought the end of a long, shameful
process of
subduing American Indians
B. More bloodshed in Texas than anywhere although also because
bigger
C. Texans viewed Indians as "squalid savages" in the way of progress
1. They were "vermin" rather than humans
2. They were "red niggers"
3. They were "red fiends from hell" in the newspapers
4. There had been no possibility of coexistence
D. Anglo-Celtic Texans viewed selves as a chosen people;
moral
superiority, brutally prejudice, guiltless
1. Believed Indians must be eliminated and Hispanics &
African-Americans must be dominated
E. While Texans brutal in approach to Indians, did not have a monopoly
F. U.S. policy no different
G. The national effort to clear the West of free Indians
began subtly in
1860 in Navajo territory
1. Navajo among some 300,000 who lived in relative freedom
2. Will be first victims of policy consistent through Presidents
Buchanon through Benjamin Harrison
3. Continuation of policy begun during colonial era
4. concentration; reservation system
6
5. popular throughout U.S. although some outspoken critics
like Helen Hunt Jackson who wrote A Century of Dishonor
H. In 1860, US military built a fort in middle of Navajo
territory,
Ft. Defiance
1. A peaceful nation that had adapted to ranching, the
Navajos
were confused as to why the fort was built
2. However, after some grazing issues had been resolved,
peace resumed
3. Then in Sept. 1861 during a horserace (both soldiers
and
Navajo enjoyed this hobby), a Navajo accused a soldier
of cheating
a. at another fort, Ft. Wingate
b. Manuelito lost race, discovered rein slashed
by a knife
c. Indians protested, one shot dead, chaos followed
4. A fight became a massacre
a. Reading - see handout under "West"
5. Afterwards, more troops sent in and new orders issued
under Gen. James Carleton
a. kill or capture all adult male Navajo, 12 and
over,
destroy property, survivors on reservation
6. Same orders for Mescalero Apache in same vicinity
a. less than 1,000 scattered between Rio Grande
Valley
and Pecos River
b. plant to confine all on worthless reservation
along the
Pecos and clear rich Rio Grande Valley for
settlement
c. Sept 1862 Carleton sent out an order:
"The men are to be slain whenever and wherever
they can be found."
d. late fall, two chiefs and escorts enroute to Santa
Fe
to negotiate peace with Carleton
(1) attacked by soldiers, all killed during
trading
for flour, beef, other provisions
(2) still Apache tried to negotiate peace
(3) finally agreed to accept imprisonment
at
Bosque Redondo reservation
7. By 1863, most Mescalero defeated, on reservations, or
fled to Mexico
8. By 1866, most Navajo defeated
a. Order - every Navajo seen will be considered hostile
and treated accordingly
b. yet no Navajo volunteered to surrender
c. Even longtime friend of Indians Kit Carson, joined
pursuit of Navajo with his soldiers, the New
Mexico Volunteers, mostly Hispanic soldiers
(1) ten times as many Navajo as Mescalero
(2) stronghold Canyon de Chelly
(3) only way to defeat, destroy crops and
livestock, scorched earth policy
d. September Carleton ordered all Navajo males be
killed or captured or taken prisoner on sight
e. By March, 1864 - 3,000 had surrendered but others
under chiefs Manuelito, Barboncito, and Armijo
refused to quit, stayed in mountains
f. captured Navajo began escaping Bosque
Redondo
g. Carleton ordered all Navajo killed off reservation
h. Sept 1, 1866 Manuelito surrendered and short time
later other chiefs followed
i. New reservation established but in many ways
least
unfortunate of all western Indians
I. Meanwhile, similar problems in Minnesota near Fort Ridgely
1. This the Santee Sioux (Lacota) (woodland Sioux)crowded
into
narrow strip along Minnesota River, most wild game gone
a. Chief Little Crow, 60 years old, had tried to
get along
b. wore the clothes, signed treaties, joined Episcopal
Church, built house, started farm
c. by 1862 frustrated, not getting annuities promised
in
treaties, money being used to fight Civil War
2. 1862, Faced starvation; already on reservation but
not getting
supplies from U.S.; bison decline so no hunt
3. At first tried to resolve peacefully, begged for food
a. one trade told them to "eat grass or their own
dung"
4. So Santee warriors took by force, killing above storekeeper
and stuffing his mouth with dung and grass
a. Young Santee led by Shakopee attacked settlers
(1) Little Crow tried to stop violence but
young
warriors accused him of being coward
(2) Promised to die with them, summoned other
bands
a. about 600 killed
b. leader Little Crow
c. launched attack on Ft. Ridgely but cannons wore down
d. attacked settlements -
(1) New Ulm, 190 buildings burned,
100 casualties in village, Little Crow wounded
5. Col. Henry H. Sibley took command of Minnesota troops
a. after major fighting that forced Sibley to retreat,
warriors energized
b. Sibley tried diplomacy but constant raids continued
c. Sept. 18 battle at Yellow Medicine River forced
troops to retreat pursued by Sioux but unable to
defeat due to cannons
d. Battle of Birch Coulee turning-point - Santee
realized
could not defeat, must surrender or flee to Dakota
(1) some stayed, others fled including Little Crow
d. Sept 26, Sibley arranged through friendly Sioux
to
reach an agreement to receive the white captives
e. The war was over but not the revenge
6. 1500 Sioux imprisoned, 303 sentenced to death although
all but
38 reprieved by Lincoln but one killed in error
a. Little Crow managed to escape although followers
deserted - made mistake making way back to
area
b. killed by two hunters while picking berries with
his son
c. bounty of $25 on Sioux scalps
7. rest marched to Ft. Snelling - stoned and clubbed on
way,
one child beaten to death
J. The worst was yet to come
1. In 1864, the SAND CREEK MASSACRE - an attack on
Cheyenne and Arapaho in Colorado
2. Treaty to live on Sand Creek under "protection" of Ft. Lyon
3. Agreed to fly American flag as symbol of peace
4. Ft. Lyon commanded by General John Chivington of Colorado
Volunteers (militia)
a. Chivington a Methodist minister, had been a
missionary to Wyandot Indians in Kansas and
founded a Masonic Lodge with Indian membership
5. And all along he planned an attack
6. His officers objected
a. He responded: "I came to kill Indians...Damn any
man
who sympathizes with Indians."
7. So attacked November 29, 1864
a. 600 Arapaho and Cheyenne huddled under U.S. flag
and white surrender flag - leader Black Kettle
b. Eyewitness description in Reading 2 (see handout)
c. Between 150 (report by Indians) and 400 (report
by troops) killed
d. Most women and children as men on hunt
e. Survivors fled to Northern Oklahoma but their
problems
not over as will see later
K. Meanwhile problems in Dakota and Montana Territories
1. Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, Lacota
2. Led by Chief Red Cloud (Oglala Teton Lakota)
a. born 1822, typical childhood, skillful hunter,
magnificent horseman, early fame as warrior and
leader
b. all Teton great warriors with code of honor,
rivalry,
honest about admiration of bravery in battle
c. their wars quick and between small groups,
not accustomed to organizing large numbers
4. summer of 1865 Major General G. M. Dodge commanding
the Dept. of Missouri, sent four columns of troops up
the
Missouri to control the Santees, the Teton joined then
joined Cheyenne
3. In 1865, treaty (Harney-Sanborne Treaty) had promised
safe
passage for the white wagon trains, but Red Cloud had
not been involved and was determined to see the provisions
of the treaty destroyed
a. knew if white man ever got a firm footing in his
country,
it would be a disaster for the Lacota
b. Determined to stop settlement, travel on
Bozeman Trail;
expel U.S. military
c. by spring of 1866, U.S. had to send in more troops
d. a peace council was held with Red Cloud present,
now
the foremost warrior of his nation
e. during the council, a column of troops led by
General
Henry B. Carrington rode up
f. They were on their way to the Powder River country
to
erect forts, a move which defied the spirit of the
peace council
g. Red Cloud led his band out vowing to go to war
h. Carrington continued on and established forts
Kearney and C. F. Smith which was seen
by Indians as a declaration of war
i. Red Cloud met with many other chiefs and
most agreed with him
j. Crazy Horse, Black Shied and High Backbone
were as eager as he to fight
k. as they gathered, a huge encampment extended for
miles up and down the Little Goose River
l. 15,000 Indians gathered including 4,000 warriors
(1) most imposing fighting force ever put
into the field
m. for two years, besieged Ft. kearney beginning
less than 48 hours after Carrington had begun
to build the fort
n. five wagon trains also attached
o. Carrington called for reinforcements
p. 154 soldiers killed in and near Ft. Kearney in
51 hostile demonstrations
(1) worse than death - "staking" torture used
by Lacota
4. This known as RED CLOUD'S WAR, 1866-68 war that
led to American Indian control of a large territory
including the Black Hills
a. famous incident Battle of 100 Slain when military
attachment wiped out
(1) Capt. William J. Fetterman wanted to come
to Ft. Kearney because he wanted action
and felt Carrington was too cautious
(2) Got more action than planned
(3) announced "give me eighty men and
I'll ride through the whole Sioux Nation."
(4) Dec. 21 (1867?) wood train out and was
attacked; Carrington Fetterman with
81 men to rescue with orders not to pursue
the
Indians
(5) a brief skirmish ended threat to wood
train
(6) Fetterman then deliberately disobeyed
orders
and pursued
(7) saw a handful of Indians from a ridge
but did
not know hundreds of Cheyenne and
Lakota were clustered at the mouth of the
ravine
(a) the handful had been picked for their
bravery to be decoys
(8) When Fetterman attacked small group split
in two, signal to close in
(9) charged, Fetterman and all his men killed,
stripped, scalped, mutilated, shot full of
arrows
(10) some reports that Fetterman had committed
suicide to escape capture and torture
6. In spring of 1868 commission met with the chiefs including
Red Cloud
7. Led to Second Treaty of Ft. Laramie - U.S. agreed to
stop
travel, military withdrawal, gave Indians control of huge
Powder River territory including sacred Black Hills
a. believed Black Hills the center of the earth,
the
place of gods, went to speak to gods, await
visions
b. Indians agreed not to interfere with building
of Northern
Pacific Railroad
8. As word spread to other Indians, became more determined
9. One of Cheyenne leaders, Roman Nose, decided to ignore
treaty and go hunt in Kansas
10. George Custer sent to control, destroy camps
a. Some of Southern Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowas,
Comanche and Prairie Apache signed
treaties but not Roman Nose, continued raids
11. General Philip Sheridan sent to command Kansas forts
12. Roman Nose killed in Battle of Beecher's Island
L. But warfare continued elsewhere; hundreds of battles
and
usually U.S. victorious and Indians put on reservations
1. but still not left alone as in the case of the Poncas
2. Peaceful living on Missouri River, 1855 treaty
3. Land (96,000 acre reservation) given to Lakota
(1868), their
traditional enemies, in Treaty so ordered to march
to Indian
Territory
a. government admitted this a mistake but did not
want
to irritate the Lakota
4. So, Ponca escorted south - READING #3 (see handout)
5. After a year, one-fourth dead
6. In 1879 one of Chiefs, Standing Bear, took a small
band to return to homeland
7. When federal troops went to arrest, a sympathetic group
including General George Crook,
got a lawyer and tried to prevent the action
8. a District Court ruled could find no authority for forcing
Poncas back to Indian Territory - Standing Bear v. Crook
9. this inspired reformers and after organizing pressure,
Congress in 1881 appropriated $165,000 to cover
Poncan losses and help them secure land on whichever
reservation they wanted
10. But Indian Bureau refused to recognize decision, leaders
arrested
11. Eventually half allowed to go, tribe divided
12. One American Indians suggested they be put on wheels,
so the U.S. could move them around easily
M. And so the story continued and one by one the nations were defeated
1. 1868 - Washita Massacre of Sand Creek survivors
a. led by George A. Custer
b. so savage it was controversial, women and children
c. when soldiers riding up, Black Kettle and his
wife
rode out to meeting, raised his hand in sign of
peace, he and wife shot and killed
d. 103 Cheyenne killed, only 11 warriors, 53 captured
e. When Comanche Tosawi brought his band to Ft. Cobb
to surrender, in broken English introduced self
as
"Tosawi, good Indian"
(1) Sheridan: "The only good Indians
I ever saw
were dead." passed on as "The only
good Indian is a dead Indian."
f. Another band of Cheyenne under Tall Bull refused
to
surrender, attacked, Tall Bull killed
2. Also in 1768 - orders to all Kiowas to surrender or
be killed
despite Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) that gave them
territory south of Arkansas R. were there were still bison
a. Nonetheless told by Custer (leaders Satanta &
Lone
Wolf) to bring bands to Ft. Cobb or face destruction
b. Santanta & Lone Wolf arrested under truce
c. Santanta sent messenger to tell his people
to flee
westward
d. General Sheridan ordered both to be hanged unless
people surrendered
e. Ft. Sill built to watch Kiowas and Comanches -
most of soldiers stationed there - Buffalo Soldiers
f. Santanta & Lone Wolf released
g. 2000 Kiowas and 2500 Comanches settled on
new reservation and forced into farming
h. ironic since Comanche had been agricultural before
Europeans, but lands seized forcing them to
hunt buffalo (?)
i. Whites showing Indians how to plant corn
j. Kiowas saw gardening as woman's work and preferred
trading
3. 1869 - Indians remaining in Texas ordered to Indian
Territory
including Comanche, Kiowa, Apache, Cheyenne, Arapaho,
and
others (eleven Plains tribes)
a. brutal war followed but had always been brutal in Texas
b. In 1869, Indians still controlled half of Texas
c. Line of forts marked frontier from Ft. Worth to West
(1) Ft. Richardson at Jacksboro
(2) Ft. Griffin near Albany
(3) Ft. Concho at San Angelo
(4) Ft. McKavett on the San Saba
(5) Ft. Clark near Brackettville
4. In 1870, Indians in Indian territory given permission
to
go on bison hunt since starving
a. Comanche, Kiowas, Cheyenne young men began
to talk of freedom
b. went to Texas to hunt; angered about waste of bison
c. summer, 1870, joined by Chief Kicking Bear who
had been taunted for avoiding war
d. 100 warriors began raids in Texas - captured
mail coach on way to Ft. Richardson
e. stayed on the plains that winter
f. rumors "iron horse" was coming into bison country
-
could not allow that
g. spring, 1871, Buffalo Soldiers patrolled Red River
h. mid-May war party of Kiowa and Comanche
organized - attacked wagon trail - 7 teamsters
killed
i. most chiefs arrested and sent to Ft. Richardson,
one killed on the way, trial in Jacksboro,
July 5, 1871
(1) jury: ranchers, cowboys
(2) sentenced to be hanged but commuted by
governor - sent to Huntsville prison
j. during winter, many young men slipped away to
Palo Duro Canyon
5. By 1872, eleven plains tribes formed an alliance with
QUANAH PARKER as leader - Comanche leader
who organized Indian alliance in Texas in 1870s
a. 1/2 Anglo (Cynthia Parker - ma.), 1/2 Quahadi
Comanche
b. tribes had survived by staying away from whites,
to destroy them, white civilization would have
to destroy their habitat because seemed
unbeatable on field of battle
(1) to destroy Indian had to destroy bison
(2) buffalo robes in demand in the East
(3) Ft. Worth a trading post
(4) hunters spread out on plains congregating
near forts especially Ft. Griffin
(5) efficient hunter could kill 25-40 a day
(6) bison being exterminated and everyone
knew
it
(7) 1873 1/2 million hides were shipped from
Dodge City alone
(8) 1872 U.S. Congress tried to pass legislation
to
stop but failed
6. Quanah Parker organized 700 warriors
a. vowed to stop illegal bison slaughter
b. Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 said no
non-Indian hunt south of Arkansas River
c. but Texans had vowed to destroy the bison and
Indians as a result
(1) 1867 diary of one calvaryman, Albert
Barnitz: "Officers engaged in competition
to see who of two parties could kill the
most buffalo in one day."
7. Meanwhile, the Army hunting for and attacking
a, Bull Bear's band - 23 killed, 120 captured, 262
lodges
burned
8. Also announced that Santanta and Lone Wolf would stay
in prison until all Kiowa settled on farms - Spring, 1873
-
but later released them anyway
9. Spring, 1874 - Kiowa and Comanche joined for Kiowa
Sundance, discuss what to do about white hunters
destroying bison
a. Quanah spoke of war to drive the white hunter out
b. suggested strike at hunters' base - Adobe Walls
near
Canadian River
c. Cheyenne & Arapaho joined
10. 700 warriors attacked, June 27, 1874
a. 15 Indians killed ended attempts to reclaim hunting
ground
11. Summer awful, most bison gone, drought, no supplies
arriving in Indians Territory reservations
a. By mid-July, half of Kiowa & Comanche registered
at
Ft. Sill gone
b. Went to Palo Duro Canyon
c. By Sept., soldiers on the way
(1) Sept. 26 - Kiowas attacked; 1,000 horses
slaughtered
(2) Feb. 25, 1875 surrendered at Ft. Sill
d. three months later Quanah Parker surrendered,
"the Last
Comanche,"
(1). died 1911, age 64
e. Kicking Bear ordered to select 26 Kiowas to be
imprisoned in Florida which he did,
destroyed his following & died a few months
later
6. Last battle in Texas not until 1881 in Quitman Canyon,
Big Bend area, Mescalero Apache
N. Outside Texas the same story
1. 1871 Aravaipas Apache massacred at Camp Grant, 144 killed
27 children sold into slavery by Papago Indians who were
mercenaries
(a) Eventually a trial over massacre but no convictions
(b) President Grant called the Camp Grant massacre
"purely murder"
2. 1873 Tonto Apache defeated when tried to leave reservation,
leader, Delshay, beheaded by mercenary Apaches
