Topic: Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking
You will find here Training, Background Material and Lists of Critical Thinking Skills
DEVELOPING READING SKILLS
Prepared by
Mohammad Khamis, Dr Majid Qura'n, Abdallah Judeh, Khalid Abu Shihab
The following is adapted from Reading from Process to Practice by Chapman and Czerniewsk. Read it carefully , then do the tasks and prepare the discussion points.
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BEFORE YOU READ:
Spend a few minutes thinking about these questions:
a. Have you read anything in English or Arabic during the past week? What personal knowledge and skills did you use to help you understand what you read?
b. Do you remember an incident when you had to rely on your experience to understand a reading text?
c. What characteristics should a textbook have to enable students become effective readers?
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READING COMPREHENSION
Reading has been defined as the act of responding to printed symbols
so that meaning is created. It has long since been recognized, however, that getting meaning from the printed page is too limited a definition of reading. Bringing meaning to the printed page indicates more accurately the reciprocal process between the printed symbol and the mind of the reader. Constructing meaning is a vital prerequisite of all reading. But reading is also a form of thinking, problem solving or reasoning, which involves analyzing and discriminating, judging, evaluating and synthesizing . all these mental processes are founded on past experience, so that the present context of the reading matter must be scrutinized in the light of the reader’s own experiences. Any definition of the reading process , therefore, must include interpretation and evaluation of meaning as well as construction of meaning.
Exercise and activities designed to check comprehension rarely probe beyond the understanding of the literal level of a passage. It is important to recognize the relevant details, and to be able to abstract the main idea, but this may only take place at the literal level. The accomplished reader must also read between the lines, and frequently extend and assimilate the author’s thought. To derive full comprehension, a reader must first become the co-author, suspending judgment until he has absorbed the concepts presented, and then scrutinizing and assessing the ideas in the light of his own knowledge and experience.
Interpretation and evaluation have been linked under the label of critical reading. While it is true that the extent of comprehension activities may depend the upon the reader’s purpose and the content of the material read, the effective reader seems to examine automatically the ideas received.
The following lists may be used by teachers as a check to ensure that all aspects are covered. As reading is so complex, the analysis has been divided into the three sections suggested above: construction, interpretation and evaluation of meaning. Obviously, all these activities cannot be taught at all levels and to all pupils. Teachers should choose from the list the ones which they think should be taught to their pupils at their particular level of development, but the list should be checked frequently to ascertain that no main aspect is overlooked. It is not possible to teach 7-year-old children to draw conclusions in the same way as in the case of a 14-year-old pupil. However even at an early age children can be taught to anticipate outcomes by suggesting the ending of a story or an alternate conclusion for example. To produce functional readers in a technological society, growth in reading must parallel and reinforce children’s developmental growth.
Construction of Meaning (Critical Reading)
This area is basic to all other aspects of comprehension. The following abilities must be developed to construct complete meaning:
a. To recognize and understand words or groups of words that are meaningful as units; to recognize ever increasing groups or units of words; this includes word meaning, paragraph meaning, meaning of continuous written discourse ( prose and poetry).
b. To realize the appropriate vocabulary of meanings and to understand nuances of meanings between words.
c. To detect figurative language and “well-turned” phrases and interpret the effect upon meaning.
d. To recognize the function of grammar and syntax in controlling meaning.
e. To interpret typographical devices as clues to meaning.
f. To grasp the literal meaning, or to understand direct statements made by the author.
g. To identify parallel statements.
h. To recognize paraphrases.
i. To identify things mentioned most frequently.
j. To recognize topic sentences and where divisions might come in a single paragraph.
k. To state the main topics of separate paragraphs.
l. To understand the main idea in a passage.
m. To follow the sequence of ideas and to anticipate this sequence.
n. To understand the basis on which a passage is organized.
Interpretation of meaning
(according to criteria: Critical Thinking)
In addition to understanding the direct meaning of a passage, comprehension must also include the ability to recognize implied and inferred meanings. This part of the reading process necessitates further mental activity and involves abilities to infer, deduce and construe the import, purport and interpret the significance of a passage. This composite meaning will only be accomplished if the reader has been trained to interpret the passage in the light of the context and of his own previous knowledge and experience.
Interpretation will include the following abilities:
a. To understand the meanings of words and to realize the effect of
the context upon meaning.
b. To understand why the author included or excluded certain things.
c. To assess the relevance of the materials.
d. To summarize the passage.
e. To select a suitable title.
f. To identify the type of passage, e.g., fiction, history, factual, description, exposition….etc.
g. To be able to recognize and state the author’s purpose in writing.
h. To establish a purpose for reading.
i. To keep the question or problem in mind while reading for the answer.
j. To see the motives of the author.
k. To draw and support conclusions.
l. To identify the tone of the passage.
m. To determine the author’s attitude towards the reader.
n. To make inferences or predictions.
Evaluation of Meaning (Critical Thinking)
The evaluation of a passage will result from the synthesis and integration of the two previous sections, constructing and interpreting meaning. Evaluation involves critical reaction to the material read, which may include many intellectual processes such as discriminating, imagining, analyzing , judging and problem-solving. It must be emphasized, however, that the function of criticism is not to be derogatory, but rather to establish principles for judging well.
The following abilities should be developed to obtain evaluation of meaning:
a. To appraise the passage for its ideas, purpose and presentation.
b. To maintain an objective attitude which demands proof and checking of sources.
c. To recognize objective evidence and to distinguish between fact and opinion.
d. To be aware of basic assumptions the author expects the reader to for granted.
e. To make critical judgments: such as
f. To evaluate statements that conflict with or contradict one another; or
g. To judge if an argument is supported.
h. To identify a valid objection not answered by the author.
i. To detect special pleading such as emotional appeal or propaganda.
j. To judge the effectiveness of devices used by the author, e.g., metaphor, simile, rhetorical questions…etc.
k. To understand that material will differ greatly in validity and reliability because of the time written, pressure of circumstances, bias of writers and many other factors.
As a child progresses through, there must be increasing emphasis on developing more than the literal meaning of what is read and on undertaking the two latter aspects of comprehension.
The fact that many of these activities can only be developed as the child becomes cognitively more mature has led to the extension of the teaching of reading beyond the initial learning-to-read stage. It has been shown that the earlier definite training in comprehension is given, the firmer the foundation will be, thus ensuring full maturity in reading at later levels.
It is in this area of comprehension that gifted children often need considerable help as well as those of average ability. Thy can profit greatly from this type of training. Too frequently the gifted pupil fails to extend the breadth and depth of his reading comprehension (Critical Thinking). He can usually grasp the literal meaning with little effort, so that unless he is made aware of these wider aspects of comprehension he rarely develops his full potential.
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Glossary
Paragraph 1
Reciprocal: given and received in return; or shared
Scrutinized: examined carefully
Paragraph 2
Probe: examine
Accomplished: skilled
Abstract the main idea: separate or get the main idea from the passage
Assimilate: take ideas or knowledge into the mind.
Suspending: delaying, postponing.
Absorb: understand and take into the mind
Paragraph 4
Anticipate: expect
Paragraph 5
Nuances: delicate differences in
Typographical devices: printing devices
Paragraph 6
Deduce: arrive at ( facts, theory…etc) by reasoning.
Construe: explain or interpret
Import: meaning especially not directly stated
Purport: general meaning or intention
Significance: importance
Tone of the passage: the general spirit or character of the passage.
Derogatory: insulting
Appraise: assess he value or quality of.
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TASK 1
In paragraph one, the writer presents two different definitions of reading comprehension. Complete the following summary about them:
1.Definition 1 of reading comprehension: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. This is called Getting meaning from the printed page. Its disadvantage is that it is too limited.
2. Definition 2 of reading comprehension: A form of thinking, problem-solving or involve analyzing and discriminating, judging, evaluating and synthesizing. This is called ---------------------------. Its advantage is that it is -----------------------------------------.
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TASK 2
According to the writer any definition of the reading process must include:
1. ------------------------------------------------
2. -----------------------------------------------
3. -----------------------------------------------
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TASK 3
The writer uses a number of expressions which all mean, getting meaning from the text, while he uses other expressions which all mean “ bringing meaning to the text”. Following are some of these expressions. Put each expressions under the correct heading below.
The expressions:
- reading between the lines - understanding the literal level
- understanding the direct of a passage.
meaning of a passage. - scrutinizing and assessing the
- constructing meaning ideas in the light of … experience - extending and assimilating the author’s thought.
Getting meaning
1. ------------------------------------------------------------------
2. -----------------------------------------------------------------
Bringing meaning
1. ------------------------------------------------------------------
2. -----------------------------------------------------------------
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TASK 4
A. Read throughout the passage and decide whether the following statements are True or False by ticking the appropriate box.
Statements
1. Activities and exercises designed by teachers usually check critical reading. ----------------
2. An accomplished reader usually fails to extend the breadth and depth of his reading comprehension beyond the literal level of a passage.--------
3. a skilled reader reads between the lines.----------
4. Even at an early age, children can be taught to draw conclusion.-----
5. Gifted students often need little help in order o be able o interpret and evaluate what they read.--------
B. Rewrite the FALSE statements making them TRUE.
1. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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TASK 5
Complete the following list about the process of evaluating.
The evaluation of a passage involves:
1.----------------------
2.----------------------
3.analyzing
4.-------------------------
5.------------------------
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TASK 6
Decide whether each skills below is a construction, interpretation or evaluation of meaning by writing the level in the space provided.
a. to be able to recognize and state the author’s purpose in writing.------
b. to make inferences or predictions.----
c. to identify things mentioned most frequently.------
d. to summarize the passage.-----
e. to appraise the passage for its ideas, purpose and presentation.-----
f. to understand that materials will differ greatly in validity and reliability because of the time written, pressure of circumstances, bias of writers and other factors.-----
g. to recognize topic sentences and where divisions might come in a single paragraph.---
h. to recognize objective evidence and to distinguish between fact and opinion.-----
i. to recognize the function of grammar and syntax in controlling meaning.------
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DISCUSSION
a. Do you agree that reading is a reciprocal process between the printed symbols and the mind of the reader? Justify your answer.
b. Go back to the reading skills listed in the relevant section of the English language curriculum for the Basic Stage ( from 1st Grade to the 10th Grade):
c. Can you identify which of them is related to
• constructing meaning,
• interpreting meaning and
• evaluating meaning?
d. Would you like to keep them as they are, or add to them
any new ones from the lists in the passage.
e. The writer says, "exercises and activities designed to check comprehension rarely probe beyond the understanding of the literal level of a passage."
f. Do you agree with him?
g. To what extent does this apply to the reading comprehension exercises and activities? Give examples to support your answers.