I. Jefferson as President -- more moderate in tone
and policy than in the 1790s
A. "Revolution of 1800"
-- significant for its unprecedented democratic peaceful transfer
of power
1. Inaugural speech:
a. "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."
-- Sought to bring in moderate Fedealists into broad Republican coalition
(but excluding Hamilton & his "High Federalist" followers).
b. Pledged "honest friendship with all nations, entangling
alliances with none."
2. First party overturn in the history of the country
-- Significance: Demonstrated the efficacy of a two-party system
B. Jefferson's governing style less pretentious
than Federalists
1. Established rule of
sending a clerk to read presidential messages (e.g. annual message)
a. Contrasted with Federalist practice of president making personal appearances
which
seemed to much like monarchical speeches from the throne
b. This precedent unbroken until Woodrow Wilson in 1913.
2. Established
rule of small dinners with seating without rank
3. Often received callers
in sloppy attire; aristocrats shocked Jefferson shook hands with
guests.
4. Reduced
the number and grandeur of formal balls, levees, and dinners.
5. Rode
on horseback about the Capital instead of using a carriage.
C. Reversal of political principles he championed
as a private citizen
1. Kept
most public servants from the Federalist administration
2. Kept the Hamiltonian
system intact with the exception of excise taxes
a. Maintained the Bank of the U.S.
b. Retained the mildly protective tariff
c. Did not tamper with Federalist programs for funding national debt at
par
and assuming Revolutionary War debts of the states.
3. As president, Jefferson
became more of a pragmatist than an idealist
-- Wanted to assuage the political rift between both parties
D. Reversals of Federalist policies
1. Defended
rights provided by Bill of Rights and Constitution
a. Pardoned the 10 "martyrs" serving sentences under
the Sedition Law
-- Government returned many fines.
b. Enacted new naturalization law in 1802; return of 5 year requirement
for
citizenship
-- Alien and Sedition Laws had expired in 1801; parts that were still in
effect were
removed.
2. Persuaded Congress to
repeal Hamilton’s excise taxes
3. Succeeded in substantially
reducing the national debt while balancing the budget
by cutting government spending.
a.
"The government that governs least, governs best."
b. Government for the people
c. Sec. of State Albert Gallatin, "Watchdog of the Treasury" agreed
with Jefferson that
the debt was more a curse than a blessing.
-- Debt fell from $80 million to $57 including the Louisiana Purchase.
4. Ended the graduated property
tax imposed by "High Federalists" in 1798.
5. Reduced Hamilton’s standing
army but upheld need for stronger navy.
6. Emphasized states’ rights
7. Encouraged development
of an agrarian nation
E. 12th Amendment (1804)
1. Tie vote between presidential
candidates of same party could no longer cause confusion as
it did in the election of 1800.
2. Provision: electors had
to specify that they were voting for one presidential candidate and
one vice presidential candidate.
3. Jefferson and his VP
candidate, Burr, had tied in the 1800 general election
4. Vote sent to House where
Federalists tacitly gave Jefferson the presidency.
-- Hamilton a major force in the decision and Burr never forgave him.
II. John Marshall and the Supreme Court
A. Judiciary Act of 1801
1. Federalists created 16
new judgeships and other judicial offices
2. One of last important
laws passed by the expiring Federalist Congress.
3. Adams continued on his
last day in office signing commissions of
the Federalist "midnight judges."
4. Jeffersonians charged
Federalists were packing judicial branch for life.
5. Act repealed by the newly
elected Republican Congress in 1802.
B. John Marshall
1. Appointed as Chief Justice
during last days of Adams' term
2. Most important Chief
Justice in U.S. history; served for about 34 years
3. Continued handing down
Federalist decisions long after Federalist party was dead.
C. Marbury vs Madison, 1803
1. "Midnight judge" William
Marbury sued (on the behalf of several other judges) for the
delivery of his commission that was being held up by the new secretary
of state
Madison.
-- Madison was ordered by Jefferson to withhold appointments of Judiciary
Act of 1801
2. Marshall knew Jefferson
administration would not enforce a writ by the Court to
deliver the commission to Marbury.
-- Case was dismissed, thus avoiding a direct political showdown between
the Supreme
Court and the Executive branch.
3. Judicial Review
a. Marshall ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789, upon which Marbury
had based
his appeal, was unconstitutional by giving the Court the right to enforce
appointments
(only the executive branch had right to enforce the law)
b. Marshall gave Supreme Court power to rule a law by Congress unconstitutional
c. Contrasted with the Kentucky Resolutions where Jefferson had claimed
states had that
right (due to compact theory).
d. Power of Supreme Court greatly enhanced
D. Impeachment of Samuel Chase --
Jefferson threatens the Supreme Court
1. Jeffersonians outraged
that judicial review buttressed the power of a Federalist-dominated
Supreme Court.
2. Jefferson supported congressional
Republicans in their desire to remove the highly partisan
Federalist justice Samuel Chase
3. Early 1804, impeachment
charges against Chase were voted by the House of Reps.
4. Senate failed to convict
Chase in early 1805
-- Evidence clear that judge had not been guilty of "high crimes amd misdemeanors",
only
of bad manners and unrestrained partisanship.
5. Significance: Henceforth,
no attempts to reshape the Court by impeachment
a. Grounds for impeachment would be based on criminal charges, not political
partisanship
b. Reassured the independence of the judiciary and the separation of powers
in gov't.
III. Tripolitan War
A. Initially, Jefferson reduced the size of the
U.S. army due to distrust of large standing armies
and also reduced the
navy.
B. Plundering of U.S. ships by pirates of the
North African states led to increased military.
1. North African states
included Algiers, Tripoli, Morocco, and Tunis
2. North African states
had long made a national industry of blackmailing and
plundering merchant ships in the Mediterranean.
-- Federalists had been forced to buy protection especially from Algeria.
3. At exorbitant blackmail
prices, war seemed cheaper than peace in 1801.
C. Pasha of Tripoli declared war on the U.S.
D. Jefferson sent small U.S. navy to the "shores
of Tripoli" -- led by Stephen Decatur.
1. After 4 long years of
fighting, a peace treaty was extorted from Tripoli in 1805
2. Punishment of other North
African corsairs continued off and on until War of 1812.
E. Jefferson ordered built up a fleet of small gunboats
(later contemptuously called
the "mosquito fleet") that
later proved ineffective during the War of 1812
IV. The Louisiana Purchase
A. In 1800, Napoleon induced Spain to cede Louisiana
region to France
1. French in 1802 withdrew
the right of deposit at New Orleans guaranteed under
the Pinckney Treaty of 1795
2. Napoleon seemed to pose
a possible military threat to U.S., perhaps requiring U.S. to
make alliances with other European powers.
B. Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris (to join
with U.S. minister Robert R. Livingston)
1. Instructed to buy New
Orleans and as much land to the east in the Floridas as possible for
$10 million.
2. If negotiations failed,
they were to strike up an alliance with Great Britain.
C. Napoleon decided to sell all Louisiana and abandon
his dream of a New World Empire
1. Failed to reconquer sugar-rich
island of Santo Domingo
a. Toussaint L'Ouverture led ex-slaves in failed bloody revolt
b. Thousands of French troops died of malaria during the struggle.
2. Decided to use sale of
Louisiana as revenue for his conquest of Europe.
3. Did not want to be distracted
by the U.S. as an enemy in North America.
D. Although Livingston initially negotiated for
New Orleans, the entire Louisiana Territory
purchased for $15
million.
E. Jefferson accepted treaty, albeit reluctantly
1. As a strict constructionist,
the Constitution did not authorize the President to
negotiate treaties incorporating huge new expanses of land into the union.
2. Secretly proposed an
amendment to the Constitution to provide for such an act.
-- Advisors urged Jefferson to act now before Napoleon changed his mind.
3. Jefferson reluctantly
submitted the treaties to the Senate while privately admitting
the purchase as unconstitutional.
a. Senate promptly ratified the treaty
b. Land-hungry Americans jubilantly supported the purchase
F. Federalist opposition (typical of "loyal opposition"
up to the present)
1. Ironically argued for
strict construction: President did not have power to purchase LA.
2. Ironically claimed LA
would cost too much especially when balancing budget was a goal
3. Real reason: worried
that western lands would be loyal to Jefferson’s Republicans..
G. Most important land purchase in U.S. History
1. Doubled
the size of the U.S.for only 3 cents an acre
2. U.S. received
western half of richest river valley in the world
3. Guaranteed
Mississippi waterway to the Gulf of Mexico including New Orleans
4. Paved way
for westward expansion
a. Accelerated rise of U.S. as economic & political
power
b. Indian Removal: By 1890, all remaining Native Americans
in the region would be on
reservations.
c. John Jacob Astor formed the American Fur Company in
1808 in order to tap the
newly purchased territory; eventually resulted in U.S. claim to Oregon.
d. Set dubious precedent: Acquisition of foreign territory and peoples
by purchase.
5. Ended European expansion
in North America (for the most part)
6. Avoided a possible war
with France and an entangling alliance with Britain.
7. Boosted national unity
a. Federalists now became a mere sectional party in New England
b. West much more loyal to the union as Jefferson seen as a hero.
H. Exploration of Louisiana Territory
1. Jefferson interested
in exploring the new Louisiana Territory
2. Selected Meriwether
Lewis & William Clark to explore region (1804-1806)
a. Trail extended from the Missouri River through the Rockies and along
the
Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean.
b. Sacajawea, a Shoshoni female, became a scout & translator
when L&C reached
Bismark, SD for the winter; crucial in helping their expedition to succeed.
3. Expedition bolstered
U.S. claim to Oregon; further opened West to Indian trade &
exploration.
4. Zebulon M. Pike
a. In 1805-1806, explored territory near headwaters of the Mississippi
b. 1806-1807, went into Colorado & New Mexico; sighted Pike’s Peak
-- Spain grew wary of increased settlement in these Spanish regions.
V. Essex Junto (1804) & the exploits of Aaron Burr
A. Burr had run for President
in 1796 and 1800 (became Jefferson’s vice president in
1801)
B. Essex Junto: A small group
of Federalist extremists plotted for New England's secession
from the union and the creation of a seven-state northern confederacy (including
NY, NJ,
MA, CT, RI, NH, VT)
1. New England a highly sectional Federalist stronghold
threatened by Jefferson
dominance & the Louisiana Purchase which would lead to western expansion.
2. Plotters courted Hamilton to run for governor of NY in 1804
and then lead the
secessionist movement.
-- Hamilton refused—did not see Louisiana as the problem, only the expansion
of
democracy.
3. Plotters then courted Vice President Burr.
4. Hamilton led opposition to Burr’s NY gubernatorial campaign
and Burr was
defeated
a. Hamilton then exposed the plot at a meeting of leading
Federalists in Albany
b. Burr promptly challenged him to a duel and killed
him in a 1804 duel.
C. Burr Conspiracy
1. In 1806, Burr attempted
to separate the western part of the U.S. from the eastern part
and unite it with to-be-conquered Spanish territory west of the Louisiana
Territory and
perhaps in northern Mexico.
2. Burr was initially supported
by James Wilkinson, military governor of upper Louisiana,
who later exposed the plot to Jefferson
-- Burr arrested in 1806 in Natchez and tried next year at Richmond, VA.
3. John Marshall dropped
the case when two witnesses for gov't couldn't be found.
VI. Jefferson re-elected in 1804 (d. Charles Pinckney 162 - 14)
A. Incorporated many Federalist
principles during his first administration; deflated
Federalist appeal.
B. International peace,
territorial expansion, and inexpensive, unobtrusive government made
the Republicans the obvious choice in the election.
VII. Yazoo Land Controversy, 1804
A. Jefferson’s opponents, led by his cousin, John
Randolph ("Quids"), accused Jefferson of
complicity in controversy
following Georgia’s cession of western lands to federal gov’t.
B. Georgia wrongfully had granted millions of acres
prior to turning land over to the federal
gov’t.
-- 4 land companies had bribed GA legislators for millions of acres in
land grants
C. Jefferson and Madison attempted to repay the
new (corrupt) land owners for lands ceded to
federal gov’t, believing
they were entitled to compensation for turning over the
lands.
-- Randolph and his followers
condemned Jefferson & Madison
D. Significance:
1. Created
strife within Republican party and weakened Jefferson during 2nd
term.
2. Randolph’s
harangue of Jefferson (about the Yazoo controversy) during impeachment
of
Samuel Chase resulted in a number of Jeffersonian Republicans voting against
Randolph’s prosecution of Chase.
VIII. Napoleonic Wars (continuing in 1803) led to harassment
of U.S. shipping
A. By 1805, British controlled the seas but France
controlled the European continent.
B. British began seizing American ships
-- Sought to end U.S. practice
of importing French goods into U.S. & reexporting them as
neutral cargo.
C. Berlin Decree, 1806: Napoleon decided
to starve Britain out by closing the ports of the
continent to British commerce
and outlawing all trade with British Isles.
-- American ships trading
with Britain would be confiscated by France.
D. England, in response, issued the "order
in council" (Beginning in 1806; continued in
1807)
1. Closed
ports under French continental control to foreign shipping
2. Neutrals
(e.g. U.S.) might enter Napoleonic ports only if they first stopped in
Britain.
-- Britain encouraged these ships, including American ships, be inspected
and loaded with
British goods before continuing on the Continent.
3. British sought
to strangle French trade, not French imports.
4. American ships that
didn’t stop at Britain prior to entering the Continent
would
be confiscated.
E. Milan Decree, 1807 – Napoleon’s retaliation
to "order in council"
1. Any
neutral ship entering a British port, or submitting to a British warship
at sea, would
be confiscated by if it attempted to enter a Continental port.
2. Many American shippers
took chances by continuing trade & gaining handsome profits.
F. British Impressment (Impressment = forcible
enlistment of sailors)
1. 6,000 Americans impressed
from 1808-1811; Many died or were killed in service.
2. British complained U.S.
enticed British sailors to desert to U.S.merchant marine or navy.
G. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (June
21, 1807)
1. British commander
of the royal frigate, H.M.S. Leopard, demanded surrender of four
alleged deserters on the U.S.S. Chesapeake; American captain refused.
2. British fired at the
Chesapeake:
3 dead; 18 wounded; Chesapeake limped back to port.
3. American reaction the
most hostile since XYZ affair 10 years earlier.
-- British Foreign Office admitted its error
4. Jefferson, nevertheless,
used the incident to incite calls for U.S. action.
a. Forbade British ships to dock at American ports.
b. Ordered state governors to call up as much as 100,000 militiamen.
IX. Embargo Act -- 1807
A. Forbade export of all goods from U.S.
1. Jefferson got Congress
to hastily pass the act
2. Reasoned that a U.S.
embargo would force Britain & France to respect its rights.
3. Loose construction of
the Constitution
-- Congress' power to "regulate commerce" meant it could stop exports.
4. Undermined Jefferson’s
states’ rights philosophy
B. Embargo Act was a disaster to the U.S. economy
1. In 1807 U.S. exports
= $108 million ; in 1808 = $22 million
a. New England trade most affected
b. South & West: mountains of cotton, tobacco, & grain unsold
2. Embargo probably more
damaging to U.S. than the Brirish & French threat
3. Illegal trade mushroomed
as a result (especially along Canadian border)
C. Jefferson got Congress to pass harsh enforcement
laws.
1. Viewed by many as tyrannical.
2. New England again talked
of secession
D. Congress repealed the embargo in March 1, 1809
(3 days before Jefferson left office)
E. Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 replaced the
Embargo Act
1. Formally reopened trade
with all nations of the world except Fance and Britain
2. Remained U.S. policy
until War of 1812.
G. Reasons for embargo's failure
1. U.S. overestimated British
dependence on American trade & underestimated
British resolve.
2. Embargo not in effect
long enough or administered tightly
3. Embargo Act proved to
be three times as costly as war
-- U.S. lost opportunity to build a strong navy
4. Worsened the conflict
between Britain & France
a. Britain hit harder by the Embargo; French applauded it
b. France seized American ships in French ports; "cooperating" w/ Embargo
Act
5. Northeastern Federalists
undermined the Embargo through smuggling activities.
F. Serendipity of the Embargo
1. New England forced to
become self-sufficient once again.
a. Old factories reopened; new ones built
b. Foundations of America's modern industrial might laid behind the wall
of the
embargo, nonintercourse, and the War of 1812.
2. Jefferson, a critic of
industrialization, ironically may have contributed more than Hamilton
to its rise in the U.S.
G. The Embargo wins but too late
1. British importers and
manufacturers suffered severe losses especially those dependent
on U.S. cotton.
2. Thousands of angry unemployed
British workers affected by the embargo petitioned
Parliament in 1812 to repeal its Orders in Council.
3. Irony: 2 days before
Congress declared war in June 1812, the British foreign secretary
announced the suspension of the Orders in Council.
H. Election of 1808 impacted by the Embargo
Act issue
1. Federalists gained
ground in the presidential election although the Republican, James
Madison, defeated Charles Pinckney
2. Federalists made significant
gains in Congress (although still in minority) and gained control
of several state legislatures.
X. Jefferson's legacy
A. Expansion became prime goal of Jeffersonians
1. Expansion had also been
Federalist policy but with limited success
a. Orderly expansion in Old Northwest but not in South
b. Northwest not subdued until Battle of Fallen Timers in 1794.
c. Southern conquest difficult due to Spanish presence.
2. Essentially ended unwanted
European expansion in North America with Louisiana
Purchase.
3. Historically stunning
achievement: no society had ever combined indefinite expansion, and
hegemony within the hemisphere without building a strong centralized European-style
state (big armies, big navy, big taxation)
4. Soft-side of Jeffersonian
expansion: invasion of Canada during War of 1812
5. Hard side of Jeffersonian
expansion: removal of Indians, blacks, and Spanish (in Florida
during Madison and Monroe’s presidencies)
a. Empire for liberty was for whites only.
-- Jeffersonians believed free blacks should not be allowed to migrate
west.
b. Failure of gaining Florida in 1810s showed unlimited expansion desires
of
Jeffersonians.
6. Barbary Wars an extention
of Jefferson’s desire to expand his agricultural
empire.
7. Jeffersonian contempt
for Spain carried over into Manifest Destiny in 1840s and the
conquest of ½ of Mexican territory.
B. Creation of a democratic non-aristocratic government.
1. "Government that governs
least, governs best."
-- Lowered debt, balanced budget, promoted states’ rights
2. Reduced oppressive
aspects of Federalist agenda.
3. The people who
owned the state didn’t govern it (like in Europe)
4. Jefferson: real father
of two-term presidency?
a. He feared more than two terms might lead to dictatorship.
b. Washington had stepped down because of age and inter-party bickering.
c. Jefferson could easily have served several more terms.
d. Yet, Madison, his successor, strongly Jeffersonian.
5. Retained faith in democracy
and common people (despite enormous struggles)
C. Total defeat of Federalists by 1816
1. "High Federalists" had
been moving toward creation of European-like aristocracy
through intermarriage, creation of standing army, and gov’t suppression
of political
opponents.
a. Most high-ranking army officers were Federalists.
b. Burr tried to get the ranking officer in U.S. Army, James Wilkinson,
to support
secession of western territory.
2. Jefferson finally gained
a loyal officers officer corps in the military in 1807: a momentous
victory for Jeffersonians.
D. Jefferson kept the country out of a damaging European
war: War of 1812 not until late in
Madison’s first term.
XI. Jefferson's Presidency (condensed version)
A. Peaceful transfer of power in 1801.
B. Maintained many Federalist programs: Nat'l Bank,
tariffs, funding debt at par, kept most
public servants from
Federalist administrations.
C. Reversed programs: excise tax, pardoned martyrs
from the Sedition Act, new naturalization
law (5 yrs), reduced
the debt and balanced the budget.
D. Supreme Court issues: Marbury v. Madison,
impeachment of Chase
E. Expansion: Louisiana Purchase
F. Tripolitan Wars
G. Embargo Act
H. "Father of the 2-term presidency"
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