I. Second Continental Congress -- May 10, 1775
A. All 13 colonies present -- delegates still
not interested in independence but rather
redressing of grievances
(conservative position).
B. Most significant act of Congress: Selected
George
Washington to head of the
Continental
Army.
-- Selection largely political
– Northerns wanted to bring Virginia into the war.
C. Declaration of the Causes & Necessity
of Taking Up Arms (Jefferson & Dickinson)
1. Drafted
2nd set of appeals to the king and British people for redress of American
grievances.
2. Seen as intermediate
step towards the Declaration of Independence
-- (Declaration & Resolves from 1st Continental Congress was
earlier step.)
3. Adopted measures
to raise money and to create an army and a navy.
D. Olive Branch Petition (written largely
by John Dickinson)
1. Last ditch
effort by moderates in the Continental Congress to prevent an all-out war.
2. Once again,
professed loyalty to the crown; sought to restore peace
3. Appealed
to the king to intercede with Parliament to reconsider the “Intolerable
Acts”
4. King refused
to recognize Congress and the war raged on
II. Early Battles
A. Ticonderoga and Crown Point -- May 1775
1. Tiny forces under Ethan
Allen and his Green Mountain Boys of Vermont & Benedict
Arnold of Connecticut surprised & captured Br. garrisons.
B. Bunker Hill – June 17, 1775
1. Colonials seized Breed's
Hill -- commanded a strong position overlooking Boston.
2. Over 1,000 oncoming redcoats
in ill-conceived frontal assault were mowed down by
1,500 American sharpshooters.
-- Americans had 140 killed and 441 wounded.
3. American supply of gunpowder
ran out and were forced to abandon the hill in disorder.
4. Viewed as an American
victory for the frightful British casualties inflicted.
5. Bloodiest battle of
the War for Independence
6. British Army left Boston
to conduct the war from New York.
C. Following Bunker Hill, King formally proclaimed
the colonies in rebellion (Aug. 23, 1775).
1. This was tantamount
to a declaration of war against the colonies..
2. 18,000 Hessians
(German mercenary soldiers) hired by King to support British forces
-- Colonials shocked that the king would hire forces known as butchers
for the war
between Anglo-Saxon cousins.
D. Americans failed to successfully invade Canada
in Oct. 1775
-- Yet, invasion postponed
large British offensive which eventually contributed to American
victory at Saratoga.
IV. Declaration of Independence
A. Most Americans did not desire independence; proud
to be British citizens
B. Reasons for shift of loyalty
1. Hiring of
Hessians
2. Burning of
Falmouth & Norfolk
3. Governor
of Virginia promised slaves who would fight for the British would be freed.
-- Impact: persuaded many southern elite to join New England in the war
effort.
C. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (published
early 1776)
1. Became an instant best-seller
in the colonies; effective propaganda
2. Main ideas:
a. Colonial
policy was inconsistent; independence was the only course
b. Nowhere
in the physical universe did a smaller heavenly body control
a larger one. Why should tiny England control huge North America?
c. King
was nothing more than the "Royal Brute of Great Britain."
d. America
had a sacred mission; moral obligation to the world to set up an
independent, democratic republic, untainted by association with corrupt
monarchical Britain.
3. Persuaded Congress to go all the
way for independence
a. Could
not hope for aid from France unless they declared independence
b. France
not interested in colonial reconstruction under Britain
D. June 7, 1776, Philadelphia Congress,
Richard Henry Lee moved for independence.
1. "These United Colonies are, and of
right ought to be, free and independent states..."
2. Motion was adopted on July 2,
1776
3. Yet, formal explanation was needed
to rally resistance at home and invite foreign
nations to aid
the American cause, especially France.
E. Congress appointed Committee on Independence to prepare
an appropriate statement
shortly after Lee's speech
on June 7.
1. Task fell to a committee that
chose Thomas Jefferson—33-year old Virginia attorney.
--Other members:
B. Franklin, J. Adams, Roger Sherman, & Robert Livingston
2. Some debate and amendment had preceded
its adoption especially slavery clause
which was heavily
modified with some portions being excised.
a. Jefferson
had blamed England for continuing the slave trade despite colonial
wishes (despite his owning slaves).
b. Yet,
southerners in particular still favored slavery and dismissed the clause.
3. Declaration not addressed to England, nor
did signers expect any response from the king.
4. Declaration of Independence formally
approved on July 4, 1776
F. Declaration of Independence had three major
parts:
1. Preamble (heavily influenced by
John Locke)
a. Stated
the rights of colonists to break away if natural rights were not protected:
Life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (property)
b. All
men are created equal
2. List of 27 grievances of the colonies
(seen by Congress as most important part)
a. Underwent
the most changes from the original draft -- 24 changes
b. Charged
the King with imposing taxes w/o consent, eliminating trial by jury, abolishing
valued laws, establishing a military dictatorship, maintaining standing
armies in peacetime,
cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring mercenaries, inciting Indian violence
upon colonies
3. Formal declaration of independence
a. Officially
broke ties with England
b. "United
States" officially an independent country
G. Result: Foreign aid could now be successfully solicited
V. Patriots & Loyalists
A. "Tories" (loyalists) = about 20% of the
American people
1.
Colonists who fought for return to colonial rule; loyal to the king.
2.
Usually conservative: educated and wealthy; fearful of “mob rule.”
3.
Older generation apt to be loyalists; younger generation more revolutionary
4.
King's officers and other beneficiaries of the crown
5.
Anglican clergy and a large portion of their followers; most numerous of
the
loyalists (except in Virginia)
6.
Well entrenched in aristocratic NY, Charleston, Quaker PA, and NJ.
7.
Least numerous in New England
8.
Ineffective at gaining allegiance of neutral colonists
B. Patriots
1. Sometimes
called "whigs" after British opposition party
2. American
rebels who fought both British soldiers and loyalists
3. Most numerous
in New England
4. Constituted
a minority movement
5. More adept
at gaining support from colonials
6. Financing:
Robert
Morris, “the financier of the Revolution” helped Congress finance
the war.
C. The Loyalist Exodus
1. Loyalists regarded by
Patriots as traitors.
2. About 80,000 loyalists
were driven out or fled the colonies
-- Estates
confiscated and sold; helped finance the war
3. 50,000 fought for the
British
VIII. The War in 1776-1777: Britain changed its focus to the former
Middle Colonies.
A. Battle of Long Island (Summer & Fall 1776)
1. Washington’s army allowed
to escape from Long Island to Manhattan and then NJ.
2. British lost a great
opportunity to crush the Americans early.
B. Battle of Trenton (Dec. 1776)
1. Washington crossed the
ice-clogged Delaware River on Dec. 26, 1776
2. At Trenton, surprised
and captured about 1,000 Hessians who were
sleeping off their Christmas partying.
C. Battle of Princeton (Jan. 1777)
1. One week after Trenton,
Washington defeated a smaller British force at Princeton
2. British forced to pull
his outposts back to New York
3. Trenton and Princeton
was a gamble by Washington to achieve quick victories to revive
the dissintegrating Continental Army.
D. Battle of Saratoga (most important
battle of the American Revolution.
1. British sought to capture
New York and sever New England from rest of the Colonies
2. Benedict Arnold saved
New England by slowing down British invasion of New York
3. General Burgoyne
surrendered entire command at Saratoga on Oct. 17,1777
to American General Horatio Gates.
4. Saratoga one
of history's most decisive battles
a. Made
possible French aid which ultimately ensured American independence.
b. Spanish
and Dutch eventually entered and England was faced with world war.
c. Revived
the faltering colonial cause
E. Washington retired to Valley Forge for winter
of 1777-78
1. Supplies were scarce:
food, clothing
2. Army whipped into
shape by the Prussian drillmaster Baron von Steuben.
3. Episode demonstrated
American resolve despite horrible conditions.
F. Benedict Arnold becomes a traitor in 1780
-- tremdendous blow to American morale
1. Arnold frustrated with
his treatment by his superiors despite his heroic service
2. Persuaded Washington
to make him head of West Point
3. Plotted with the British
to sell out the key stronghold of West Point commanding
the Hudson River
4. Plot accidentally discovered
by Washington
IX. Articles of Confederation adopted in 1777 (Drafted
by John Dickinson)
A. Set up by 2nd Continental Congress in light of
exigencies: need to organize a nation and
an army; maintain civil
order and establish international recognition and credit; defend its
territory from the British;
and resolve internal quarrels and competition.)
B. Did not go into effect until 1781.
C. First constitution in U.S. history; lasted
until 1789 when the Constitution was adopted
D. Congress had power to: conduct war, handle foreign
relations & secure loans, borrow
money.
E. No power to: regulate trade, conscript troops,
levy taxes.
X. France Becomes an Ally
A. French eager to exact revenge on the British
for the Seven Years War.
1. Saw Revolutionary war
as an opportunity to stab England in the back.
2. New World colonies were
England's most valuable overseas possessions
B. Secret supply to the Americans
1. France worried open aid to
America might provoke British attacks on French interests.
2. Americans Silas Deane
and Benjamin Franklin arranged for significant amounts of
munitions
and military supplies to be shipped to America.
-- Helped
forge the Franco-American Alliance.
3. Marquis de Lafayette
significant in helping Americans gain financial aid from France.
C. Declaration of Independence a turning point for
French aid
1. Showed Americans meant business
2. Victory at Saratoga displayed an
excellent chance for defeating England
D. Franco-American Alliance, 1778:
France
offers U.S. a treaty of alliance.
1. Promised Americans recognition of
independence.
2. Both sides bound themselves to wage
war until the US won its freedom or until
both agreed
to terms with Britain.
3. Many Americans reluctantly accepted
the treaty.
a. France
a strong Roman Catholic country
b. Hitherto
a traditional enemy of Britain for centuries.
E. American Revolution turned into a world war that
put severe stress on Britain’s resources.
1. Spain and Holland entered in 1779.
2. Catherine the Great of Russia organized
the League of Armed Neutrality
-- Lined
up almost all remaining European neutrals in an attitude of passive
hostility toward England as a result of England disturbing Baltic shipping.
3. War raged in Europe, N.A., South
America, the Caribbean, and Asia.
XI. Land Frontier & Sea Frontier
A. West raged throughout most of the war
1. Indian allies
of Britain attacked American frontier positions
2. 1777 known as "the
Bloody Year" on the frontier
-- Joseph Brant (“Monster Brant”), Mohawk Chief, and leader of the
Iroquois
Six Nations, led Indian raids in Backcountry PA and NY.
-- Forced to sign Treaty of Ft. Stanwyk -- 1st treaty bet. U.S. & Indians.
-- Indians lost most of their lands.
B. Westward movement continued despite treacherous
war conditions (especially Kentucky)
C. Illinois country taken from the British
1. George Rogers Clark,
a frontiersman, seized several British ports along the Ohio
River by surprise: Kaskaskia, Cahokia (St. Louis), and Vincennes, Indiana.
2. Helped quiet Indian involvement
3. His admirers' credit
him for forcing the British to cede the whole Ohio region in
the peace
treaty of Paris after the war. This is still a debate.
D. The American Navy
1. John Paul Jones
most famous American naval leader (Scottish born)
2. Chief contribution
was destroying British merchant shipping and carrying war
into the waters around the British Isles.
3. Did not affect Britain's
navy
E. American Privateers were more effective
than the American navy
1. Privately owned ships
authorized by Congress to attack enemy ships.
2. 600 British ships captured;
British captured as many American merchantmen &
privateers.
3. Brought in gold, harassed
the British, and increased American morale by providing
American victories.
F. Major naval battles between British, French,
& other European powers
1. Mostly in the West Indies
2. British overcome by French,
Spanish and Dutch.
-- War
continued until 1785 when British won last battle near India.
XII. In 1778, Britain again changed its strategy: focused on former
Southern Colonies
A. Savannah, Georgia taken in late 1778-early 1779
B. Charleston, SC, fell in 1780 (4th largest
city in America)
1. Devastating loss to American
war-effort
2. Heavier loss to the Americans
than Saratoga was to the British
C. Nathanael Greene eventually succeeded
in clearing Georgia and S.C. of most British
troops
-- Cornwallis forced to
abandon the Southern strategy; fell back to Chesapeake Bay at
Yorktown
D. Battle of Yorktown: last major battle
of the war
1. French Admiral de Grasse,
head of powerful fleet in W. Indies, advised Americans
that he
would join them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown.
2. Washington made 300-mile+ march to
Chesapeake from NY.
3. Accompanied by Rochambeau's
French army, Washington attacked British by land as
de Grasse blockaded
them by sea after beating off the British fleet.
4. Oct. 19, 1781, General Cornwallis
surrendered entire force of 7,000 men
5. War continued one more year (especially
in the South)
E. Newburgh “Conspiracy” (1783)
1. Cause: Soldiers in the Continental
Army were not paid regularly throughout the war
and the
money they did receive was often worthless due to inflation.
2. Several officers, Congressional
nationalists, sought to impose an impost on the states
for
back-pay by threatening to take over the American government.
-- Horatio
Gates was consulted about the possibility of using the army to force the
states
to surrender more power to the national government.
3. Washington appealed to the officers
to end the conspiracy; they acquiesced.
XIII. Peace at Paris
A. British ready to come to terms afer losses
in India, West Indies, and Mediterranean
1. Lord North's ministry collapsed in
March 1782, temporarily ending the personal
rule of
George III.
2. Whig ministry (more sympathetic
to Americans) replaced the Tory regime.
B. French attempt to create a weak U.S.
1. American diplomats Ben Franklin,
John Adams, and John Jay sent by Congress to
make no
separate peace and to consult with France at all stages of negotiations.
a. Disregarded
the directive as they were highly suspicious of France & Spain.
b. John
Jay believed France wanted to keep US east of the Allegheny
mountains and give western territories to its ally Spain for its help in
the war.
2. U.S.turns to Great Britain
a. Britain eager to
separate U.S. from anti-British alliance.
b. Preliminary Treaty
signed in 1782
C. Treaty of Paris of 1783: Britain formally
recognized US independence
1. Granted US generous boundaries
stretching to the Mississippi on the west, the Great
Lakes
in the north, and to Spanish Florida in the south (Spain had rewon Florida)
a. Americans
allowed to retain a share in the valuable Newfoundland fisheries.
b. British
promised troops would not take slaves from America.
2. American concessions:
a. Loyalists
could not be further persecuted
b. Congress
was to recommend to state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist
property be restored
c. American
states were bound to pay British creditors for debts long owed.
d. U.S.
did not comply with many of these concessions and it became partial cause
of
another war with Britain in 1812.
3. France formally approved the British-American
terms (officially, no separate Franco-
American peace)
4. America alone gained from the war
a. Britain
lost colonies and other territories
b. France
got revenge but became bankrupt which caused French Revolution.
c. Spain
gained little
XIV. American society during the war
A. Over 250,000 American soldiers fought
-- 10% who
fought died; largest % of any American war in history (Civil War =
2%)
B. British captured and occupied most major
cities including Boston, NYC, and Philadelphia.
C. War Economy: all of society became involved
in the war.
1. State and
national governments created.
2. Men with
military experience volunteered for positions in the army.
3. Some merchants
loaned money to the army and to Congress. Others made fortunes
from wartime contracts.
4. Most of the
fighting was done by the poorest Americans
-- Young city laborers, farm boys, indentured servants, and sometimes slaves.
5. African
Americans fought on both sides.
-- 5,000 in the Continental army and nearly 30,000 in the British army
in
return for promises of freedom.
6. Native
Americas also fought with the British since they hoped to keep land-hungry
Americans out of their territories.
-- Bitter feelings remained long after the war ended.
D. Women in the War
1. Women managed
farms and businesses while men served in the army
2. Other women
traveled with the Army as cooks and nurses.
3. Women became
more politically active and expressed their thoughts more freely.
XV. CHANGE IN SOCIETY DUE TO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
A. Many conservative Loyalists no longer in America;
paved way for more democratic
reforms in state governments.
B. Slavery issue
1. Rise of anti-slavery
societies in all the northern states (plus Virginia)
-- Quakers the first to found such societies.
2. Slavery eradicated
in most northern states by 1800
-- Quok Walker case in Massachusetts (1781) effectively ended slavery
there.
3. Slavery not allowed
above Ohio River in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787
4. Slave trade to be
abolished in 1808 according to Constitution.
5. By 1860, 250,000 free
blacks lived in the North, but were disliked and discriminated
against
-- Several states forbade entrance of blacks, most blacks denied right
to vote, and some
states barred blacks from public schools.
6. Thousands of
slaves in the South were freed after the Revolution and became free blacks
7. Yet, slavery
remained strong in the South, especially after 1793 (cotton gin)
C. Stronger emphasis on equality: public
hatred of Cincinnati Society
1. However, equality
did not triumph until much later due to tenant farming, poor rights
for
women and children, slavery, and land requirements for voting and office
holding (although
reduced) were not eliminated.
2. Further reduction of
land-holding requirements for voting began to occur in 1820s.
3. End of primogeniture
and entail before 1800.
a. Primogeniture: eldest son inherits father's estate.
b. Entail: Estates could not be sold off in pieces; guaranteed
large landholdings to a
family and meant less land available for purchase to the public.
D. Separation of Church & State: Jefferson’s
Virginia
Statute on Religious Freedom, 1786
1. Anglican Church replaced
by a disestablished Episcopal church in much of the South.
2. Congregational churches in
New England slower to disestablish (CT in 1818, MA in 1833)
E. State governments:
1. Three branches: weak
governors, strong legislatures, judicial branch
2. sovereignty of
states, republicanism
F. Indians no longer enjoyed British protection
and became subject to U.S. expansion
westward.
-- Iroquois suffered significant
losses after the war
G. Women did not enjoy increased rights;
idea of “Republican Motherhood” took hold.
XVI. Gordon S. Wood -- The Radicalism of the American Revolution
Thesis: Revolution was the most radical and far-reaching event in American
history
A. Made the interests and prosperity of ordinary
people -- the pursuit of happiness -- the goal
of government.
B. Changed the personal and social relationships
of people.
1. Destroyed aristocracy
as it had been understood for nearly two millennia
2. Made possible egalitarian
thinking: subsequent anti-slavery and women's rights
movements
C. Brought respectability and even dominance to
ordinary people long held in contempt
-- Gave dignity to their
menial labor in a manner unprecedented in history
D. Brought about an entirely new kind of popular
politics and a new kind of democratic
officeholder.
E. Released powerful popular entrepreneurial and
commercial energies that few realized existed
-- Transformation occurred without
the industrial revolution, urbanization, & railroads
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