Russia's First Manned Space Flight Programs
Table of Contents
Introduction
---Tsiolkovsky
---Korlev
---German A-4 and Von Braun “V-2”
Russian Launch Vehicles
---R-1
---R-2
---R-3
---R-5
---R-7
---Sputnik-1
---Sputnik-2
---Sputnik-3
Russian Manned Program
---First Manned Space Vehicle Project
---Cosmonaut Selection
---Gagarin
---Vostok 1
---Vostok 2
---Vostok 3
---Vostok 4
---Vostok 5
---First Female Cosmonaut
---Vostok 6
---Voskhod 1
---Voskhod 2
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Tsiolkovsky
The beginnings of theoretical planning and technical capabilities of building rockets in Russia took place well before the first launching of a rocket in 1948. The idea of rocketry and space in the Soviet Union originated in the late 1800’s, with the writings of a deaf, schoolteacher named Konstantain Tsiolkovsky (Siddiqi). As a boy growing up in southern Moscow, he became fascinated with the idea of interplanetary travel. His first published book on rocketry in 1903 explained in depth the use of rockets for launching orbital spacecraft (Launius). He proposed that humans could fly to very high altitudes and eventually into space by using high-energy liquid-propellants, such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. He also investigated the idea of spacesuits for humans in space. Tsiolkovsky devoted all his spare time to theoretical research in aviation and space. Since he was also a mathematician, he supported these ideas with mathematical analyses. Although he was unable to build even a small rocket, his ideas became a starting point for space science (Siddiqi).
Figure 1. Portrait of Tsiolkovsky (Harvey)
After Tsiolkovsky’s death in 1935, the interest in rocketry and space declined as the Soviet government became dictated by Stalin. Stalin’s suspicion and terrorization effected the entire generation of scientists and engineers. No one was safe at the time. A brilliant engineer name Sergey Korolev, was victimized under Stalin’s rule (Siddiqi).
Korolev
Sergei Korolev was born in the Ukraine and studied at home with the guidance of tutors. His first passion was aeronautics. After college, he began working as an engineer at the V.P. Menzhinskiy Central Design Bureau. He worked on new heavy bombers. He was transferred to the prestigious Central Aerodynamics Institute in Moscow. After years working on various projects, he was arrested on June 27, 1938, accused of five charges or treason and taken to Lubyanka prison. Korolev believed that he was wrongly accused by Stalin of improper acts at the test facilities. He was sentenced to ten years in a correctional labor camp with denial of all rights. He was subjected to hard labor and inhuman treatment. Stalin decided that he could make some use of this brilliant engineer and transferred Korolev to a newly formed aviation design bureau. All the engineers at the facility were serving as prisoners of Russia (Siddiqi).
Figure 2. Portrait of Sergei Korolev (Siddiqi)
World War II was an unexpected shock for the Soviet Union. Germany rapidly captured major cities in Russia. The need for advanced weapons resulted in the development of long-range missiles. Korolev found himself designing defense missiles. Although, these missiles contained liquid-propellant rocket engines, this was the job he had in mind. At the end of WWII, no other nation in the world was as devastated and crippled by the war as the Soviet Union (Siddiqi). Russia had lost approximately 27 million lives by the end of the war in 1945.
Germany had the most prestigious and advanced rocketry program during the war. The head of this program was Wernher von Braun. One of the most feared weapons of WWII was the A-4 ballistic missile. Its first successful launch took place on October 3, 1942. It had a maximum range of 300 kilometers and could reach altitudes of approximately 90 kilometers. Although Germany was advanced in rocketry, it was not sufficient enough to help them win the war (Launius).
Stalin became fascinated by German’s rocketry program. After the war, he ordered the formation of a secret group to investigate the German’s V-2 program. The Soviet team collected important parts of the V-2 such as, the combustion chamber and parts of the propellant tank. Salvaged parts of the V-2 was loaded on a Li-2 transport aircraft and returned to Moscow under tight security (Launius).
German A-4 and Von Braun V-2
The United States also knew of Germany’s rocket program. They also sent soldiers to investigate the facilities. All major German engineers, including Wernher von Braun, willingly surrendered to U.S. military troops. U.S. military obtained 525 German engineers, who were the elite of the rocketry team. They also attained documents of rockets spanning 13 years and 100 of V-2 missile were taken back to the U.S. from the plant at Nordhausen in Germany. Stalin was shocked at the swiftness of the U.S. actions. He became furious. Stalin did not want the U.S. to become more advanced in technology than the Soviet Union. Therefore, he took upon himself to organize a group of six engineers (Council of Chief Engineers) to plan a new ballistic missile that would be launched on Russian soil. This lead to the beginning of the ballistic missile space race (Harvey).
In late 1946, the Council of Chief Engineers, began forming meetings to coordinate program goals. Korolev was the chief engineer of the Russian rocket and missile design team. Due to the economic situation in Russia, the team had to finance the facilities by themselves. Their passion of rocketry and aeronautics drove them to sacrifice there belongings. They often sold family valuables to finance their projects. Soviet engineers were paid much less compared to the American engineers. Those with engineering diplomas were paid 4,000 rubles a month, which was approximately $5 U.S. dollars a month. Korolev, chief designer and head of the design bureau was only paid 6,000 rubles a month. (Siddiqi)
Redstone (United States)
The A-4 was a prototype of the German V-2 missile, which was used for the development of the United States Redstone launch vehicle. Early Redstone flights in 1956 reached an altitude of 680 miles and ranged more than 3,300 miles. The Soviet Union transformed their parts of the German V-2 rocket into the R-1, which became the first of the R series rockets (Harvey).
The Russians were focused on recreating the German V-2, working on organizational schemes, improving the main engine, developing a 100-ton thrust engine, preparation of rocket assembly, and designing plant production rooms for the rockets. Guidance and control systems were handled by the Soviet defense industry. The development of all gyroscope instruments was conducted by the Scientific Research Institute (Harvey).
R-Series (Russia)
R-1
Under Stalin’s leadership, the Soviets was eager to move ahead and build their own missile known as R-1, a copy of the German’s V-2 missile. The R-1 was 14.65 meters long with four primary components: tail assembly, propellant compartment, equipment section, and the warhead (Siddiqi). The body diameter was 1.65 meters. The maximum flight range was about 270 kilometers. The total mass was 13 ½ tons, which 9 and 2/10 tons were propellant (Harvey). The lower part of the rocket held the oxidizer tank, which carried five tons of liquid oxygen. A twenty-five ton thrust RD 100 engine was installed at the base of the rocket. Large sheets of magnesium, steels, and alloys were some of the materials used on R-1 Also new types of cables, relays, sensors, storage, and new protective coatings for the warheads were some of the new technologies developed for the R-1 (Siddiqi). The first successful flight of R-1 was on October 10, 1948. It traveled a range of 288 kilometers and reached a maximum velocity of 1,530 kilometers per second. The final R-1 vehicle was launched on November 5th, 1948. This was the ninth successful flight for the R-1 rocket out of 12 launches that were attempted (Harvey).
A new version of the R-1 (R-1A) was equipped with a non-recoverable nose container and two simulated instrument packages. The first R-1A rocket was launched on May 7, 1949. Due to problems with the containers during launch, scientists designed a new parachute system. Six additional test launches were conducted before the flight of the R-2 (Harvey).
R-2
The R-2 rocket had a range of 600 kilometers, twice the range of the R-1. Dry mass was about 500 kilograms and its length was approximately 17.65 meters long. The total mass with fuel was 15 ½ tons. The first major design improvement was in the propellant tanks. One of the tanks contained ethyl alcohol, which contributed to the overall “monocoque” design of the rocket (Harvey). Another major improvement was the separable warhead, which made the rocket body lighter after the separation of the warhead and missile. The Soviet engineers had to find a solution on coordinating the separation of these two parts, trajectories, engine performance, and stabilization of the nose section following separation. Scientists upgraded the R-2 guidance system and added a new engine, the RD 101. It produced 35 tons of thrust, by increasing the concentration of ethyl alcohol and raising the combustion pressure (Harvey).
The first test flights of the R-2 missile were called the R-2E. The purpose of these flights was to test the separable warhead container. The R-2E dimensions were similar to that of the R-2. The first couple of test launches took place on September 25, 1949. These tests were not a complete success due to malfunctions of the automatic stabilization system at the time of separation. The first R-2 launch took place on October 21, 1950, which was a failure. The final R-2, launched on December 20, 1950, was also a failure. All twelve R-2 missiles launched failed due to either engine problems, guidance system breakdown, or warhead trajectory error (Katorgin).
R-3
The R-3 program was the most expensive and largest ballistic missile developments in the Soviet Union rocketry program. It was developed to launch a three ton separable warhead 3,000 kilometers down range. Also, it was a single stage rocket standing over 27 meters in length. The base diameter was three meters and it weighed 72 tons. Launches of the R-3 were held from a mobile platform, just the like the R-1 and R-2 rockets. The R-3 had load bearing tanks, which allowed the propellant tanks to serve as the main frame of the missile. The heavy, large stabilizing fins were removed, which reduced the lift capacity on the R-1 and R-2 missiles. A 120 ton thrust engine was created for the R-3 and the propellant tanks were pressured with liquid gas vapor rather than compressed air. The main structure was made of aluminum-magnesium alloy. Intertank structures were replaced by control and service devices at the rear section of the rocket. Combustions chamber pressure was increased and a shaped nozzle was added (Harvey).
The R-3A rocket used an integral oxygen tank and a finless rear section. It was used to test high boiling oxidizers, high calorific fuel, strap on boosters and winged warheads. Flight tests for the R-3A rockets took place in 1951 (Katorgin).
R-5
R-5 was the “first Soviet strategic rocket”, which consisted of drastic improvements out of all the Soviet rockets (Siddiqi). Scientists developed a new set of small aerodynamic rudders, which replaced the main stabilizing fins. The guidance system used longitudinal acceleration that improved cut off engine time and accuracy in targeting locations. The new RD 103 single chamber engine produced 51 tons of thrust. The R-5 was 20.74 meters long and had a base diameter of 1.66 meters. The total mass of R-5 was 28.57 tons. It was first launched on March 15, 1953. R-5 was designed to carry a nuclear warhead to a range of 1,200 kilometers (Siddiqi).
Figure 3. Diagram of scale sizes of some of the R Series rockets (Siddiqi)
The R-7 was designed to be the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). The development of the ICBM was geared towards creating a multistage cluster of missiles carrying a payload of three to five tons. The first stage would accelerate to an altitude of 20 kilometers and a velocity of 900 meters per second. The second stage would fly at Mach 3 in a horizontal state and then release the warhead. One of the primary problems in the ICBM conceptual design was developing sufficient powerful liquid propellant rocket engines for the first stage. The central engine on the R-7 was called block A and the strap-ons were called bocks B,V,G, and D (Siddiqi).
The R-7 was 27 meters long and the mass was 270 tons. Four 19 meters long conical strap-ons were attached to the main rocket. Each strap-on contained 40 tons of propellant. They were secured by ball and socket joints to the core at the apex of the rocket and tension bands at the bottom. The total height of the R-7 with the four strap-ons was 33 meters. The new engines were the RD 107 and RD 108 .The RD 107 strap-ons produced eighty- three tons of thrust. RD 108, the central engine, produced seventy-five tons of thrust. Each of the strap-on engines had two verneirs and the central engine had four verneirs. Each verneirs produced two and a half tons of thrust (Harvey).
The first stage of the vehicle consisted of the core of the rocket with the strap-ons. At an altitude of 50 kilometers, the tension bands at the base of the vehicle which connected the four external engines, loosened. While the four strap-ons were firing, oxygen valves would open and release pressure on the strap-ons. This forced the strap-ons to rotate upwards and move away from the base. At a certain angle, the socket joints would automatically release, thus moving the strap-ons independently away from the rocket. The central engine continued firing until it reached a range of 700 kilometers. The second stage consisted of the central engine, which brought the payload into orbit. For the remaining part of the flight, the payload would travel in a ballistic trajectory until reentry (Harvey).
Korolev developed the idea of having radio and autonomous guidance systems for the R-7. After lift off, the guidance system would maintain angular stability, velocity, and the unification of the propellant systems. Prior to engine cut off, the central engine would fire and the radio system would control deviations from the planned trajectory (Harvey). Engineers examined different types of launch configurations for the R-7. The first design was a horizontal launch. The second idea was an air launch. Finally the vertical launch configuration was approved. The R-7 was assembled horizontally in the hanger and transported to the launch pad on a railcar, where it was raised into a vertical position. At the pad, the R-7 was suspended by restraining arms at the waist “center of gravity” (Siddiqi). The 250 by 100 by 45-meter launch pad took over 5 months to complete. It was made of concrete (Siddiqi).
The first R-7 was launched on May 15, 1957 and crashed 50 seconds later. The second and third launch failed. Finally on August 1957, the R-7 flew to an altitude of 6500 kilometers and landed in the Pacific Ocean (Harvey).
Intercontinental Geophysical Year (IGY)
In the spring of 1950, a group of American scientists met in Maryland to discuss the possibility of launching a satellite to study outer space and the upper atmosphere. They communicated this to the world during the period of strong solar activity, which was from July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958. This event was called the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The deadline to participate in the IGY passed without the Soviets knowing of this idea. At a meeting in Rome on October 4, 1954, Soviet scientists witnessed the approval of the United States plan to orbit artificial satellites during the IGY. This led to the Soviets establishing their own secret committee called the Interdepartmental Commission for the Coordination and Control Work in the Field of Organization and Accomplishment of Interplanetary Communications, which they discussed the possibility of launching a satellite in the near future (Launius).
Sputnik 1
Soviet engineers designed a satellite called Object D, which was eventually changed to Sputnik meaning “fellow traveler”. The USSR council of Ministers approved the launch of Sputnik in 1957 during the International Geophysical Year (Launius). The mass of the satellite was limited to 1,000 to 1,400 kilograms. There were several major design guidelines that Sputnik had to follow. It had to have maximum simplicity and reliability for future projects. It must be spherical shaped and have a radio working on at least two wavelengths. The preliminary shape of the satellite was conical; however, Korolev found that a spherical shape was more feasible in appearance. The antennae should not be affected by the spinning of the satellite (Siddiqi). The power source had a maximum lifetime of three weeks and the attachment of the satellite to the core must not fail during separation (Harvey). The major mission objectives of Sputnik were to observe Earth’s atmosphere by calculating its orbit, test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking, determine radio wave effects in the atmosphere, and identify the principles of pressurization on satellites (Launius).
Sputnik 1 was made of aluminum alloy and its diameter was 59 centimeters. The sphere was composed of the combination of two hemispherical casings. The sphere was pressurized with nitrogen. The signals on two frequencies made a sound “beep beep”, which was heard all over the world. There were four antennas that were attached to the sphere. Each antenna rod was 2.4 meters and 2.9 meters respectively. The total mass of Sputnik 1 was 83.6 kilograms (51.0 kilograms was the power source) (Launius).
Sputnik 1 was launched on October 4, 1957. Originally, Korolev and the committee of chief engineers had planned for Sputnik 1 to be launched during the 100th anniversary of Tsiolkovsky’s birth on September 17th. However, due to test failures and the redesigning of the satellite, this plan was terminated. A new version of the R-7 would be used to launch Sputnik (Launius). The main engines were updated, the central radio package was deleted from the core of the rocket, burn time of engines were changed, and a new nozzle system was used to separate the rocket from the satellite. The new R-7 was 29 meters long. During launch there were some problems such as, delays in firing some of the engines, the system for the synchronous emptying of the tanks failed, turbine failure, and large consumption of kerosene (Harvey).
The United States was shocked and panicked by the thought that the Russians might have nuclear missiles in space. This threatened America’s safety. Radio listeners and sky watchers heard the “beep beep” sound all over the world. The success of Sputnik conferred the Soviet Union’s advantage in the space industry (Launius).
Dogs in Space
After the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviet Union wanted to study the effects of space on humans. However, before they could put humans into space, they needed to find substitutes. Rabbits, mice, and reptiles were all considered to fly into space, but dogs proved to be more favorable. Dogs are smaller in size and weight. Mongrels were chosen over purebreds. Korolev’s teams of zoologists selected twenty-four dogs, seven were trained for future space flights. They were tested in small pressurized capsules, aircrafts, vibration chambers, and in centrifuges. The dogs were fitted in spacesuits and helmets. Cameras in the nosecone filmed their reactions to stress and strain during liftoff (Launius).
Sputnik 2
Sputnik 2 was designed to carry a live payload into space and orbit the Earth. There were no conceptual sketches. Engineers used the model of Sputnik 1 and attached an additional container for the dog and a cosmic ray detector. Sputnik 2 weighed 508 kilograms, six times more than Sputnik 1 (Launius). Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957, three weeks after the launch of Sputnik 1. It made 2,370 revolutions around the Earth. A few new instruments were installed in the satellite to measure solar radiation in the ultraviolet and x-ray regions of the spectrum, and to investigate cosmic rays. Korolev wanted the central core of R-7 to remain attached to Sputnik 2 throughout its time in orbit, which would help keep the temperature down in the dog cabin (Launius).
Layka
A dog named, Layka (barker), was chosen for this mission based on his good behavior. He was put into a harness inside a small cylindrical pressurized container, which included life support systems. The life support contained a regeneration unit, chemical compounds that absorbed carbon dioxide, and excess water vapor. Wires connected to sensors, monitored Layka’s respiration over his ribs and skin. During flight, Layka barked and ate. He died when the capsule overheated due to the failure of separation from the booster. Doctors expected Layka to die from automatic injection of poison prior to oxygen disintegration in the life support system. Sputnik 2 was easily seen from the ground, because the rocket remained attached to the satellite (Launius).
Figure 4. Diagram of Sputnik 2 with Layka (Johnson)
Sputnik 3
The final segment of the Sputnik series was Sputnik 3. It was the first to carry a command radio-link device to control the instruments in orbit (Launius). There were twelve instruments on board the satellite that detected cosmic radiation intensity, nuclei in cosmic rays, micrometeorites, atmospheric pressure, ion composition in the atmosphere, and intensity of solar radiation. Power was supplied by solar batteries and the internal temperature was controlled by gaseous nitrogen. It was launched on April 27, 1958 with a modified R-7 ICBM. However, it exploded 88 seconds after launch because of acoustical resonance. Two and a half years of work was destroyed instantly in a matter of seconds. A second Sputnik 3 was successfully launched on May 15, 1958. It made 10,037 revolutions around the Earth. During this mission, the data recorder failed. Scientist lost all information during the periods when the satellite was not in view of the ground stations. Although Sputnik 3 detected radiation belts, there was no way for storing and transmitting the data to ground control. Therefore credit for mapping the belts went to the Americans (Launius). Russian engineers then decided to focus on putting actual human beings into space using spacecraft.
First Manned Space Vehicle Project
In August 1958, President Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Under NASA, the first “human in space” project named Mercury officially started in late 1958 (Semenov). Korolev heard of America’s plans and he went to the Central Committee of the Communist Party and USSR Council of Ministers to issue a plan to start a Russian manned spaceflight project. It was approved in 1959 (Semenov).
Engineers started to plan conceptual designs for a manned spacecraft. A spherical shape was chosen because it would not require complicated attitude control devices during reentry to maintain stability and it would increase volumetric space inside the spacecraft. Also, spheres experience low thermal stresses. In the beginning stage of the project, there were three reentry concepts. The first concept was using a parachute system at low altitude. When the capsule separated form the main body of the rocket, it would deploy air brakes and stabilizers to reduce shock. Velocity would be reduced from 2,050 meters per second to just less than one and a half meters per second at landing. The second idea was using the reverse method. The separation of the rocket and capsule would be at higher altitudes with lower velocities. Air brakes would also be used to reduce velocity even further. The final concept of reentry used small rocket engines for stability and larger air brakes for the reduction of landing shock for the passenger (Johnson).
The final launch and reentry process was chosen. When the launch countdown reached zero, the rocket would ignite. The supports, which held the rocket, push free and the vehicle would slowly lift upward. The first stage consisted of the four strap-ons detaching from the rocket and pitching over to a horizontal position. A few seconds later, the nose cone would eject and the capsule would separate from the rocket. This is called the second stage. The final stage was the ejection and landing of the passenger. The spacecraft turned around with its engine pointing in the direction of flight. Then the retro-engine would ignite, slowing down the spaceship. At the completion of retro-burn, the capsule would begin to descend. The entrance hatch is blown off at an altitude of seven kilometers and the ejection seat is released from the capsule. The parachute is deployed at four kilometers and the seat falls to the ground. The passenger safely would land at the designated location (Johnson).
Figure 5. Reentry sequence of the typical Vostok mission (Johnson)
Vostok
Vostok “East” (originally called Object K) (Johnson), the first manned spacecraft, was developed in 1959. The overall length without antennae was 4.4 meters and the diameter was 2.43 meters. It had two sections, the instruments and the capsule. The single seat capsule was covered with thermal coatings and weighed 2,400 kilograms. It had three hatches, one was for recovery parachutes, the other accessed the instrumentation, and the third was used for entry and exit of the passenger. There were three port holes on the module for viewing purposes. The entire mass of Vostok was 4.73 tons. Most of the weight came from the passenger ejection seat, which weighed 800 kilograms and was inclined 65 degrees to the horizontal. This would be used in case of an emergency up to the first forty seconds during launch. It contained a spacesuit ventilation system, temporary life support, pyrotechnical devices, and a parachute system. The life support system was designed to last for at least ten days. On the right side of the ejection seat there were the control stick, a food container, air regeneration system, an electrical clock, a radio receiver, a sanitary system, and electrical supply sources. Storage space was located under the seat (Johnson).
There was a camera inside the capsule to view the passenger during flight. The control panel was positioned directly in front of the passenger seat. It indicated air pressure, temperature, and humidity. It also allowed manual operation of the retrofire engine. Pressure inside of the cabin was maintained between 755 and 775 mm Hg and a temperature between 13 degrees to 26 degrees Celsius. A small rotating globe showed the passenger the spacecraft’s location over the surface of the Earth. The complete Vostok system consisted of a six unit, three stage launch vehicle. There were 241 vacuum tubes, 6,000 transistors, 56 electric motors, and 800 relay and switches (Johnson).
Figure 6. Layout of Vostok cabin (Siddiqi)
Vostok test flights with dogs
The first tests of the Vostok began in 1960. Korolev did not want to put humans into space immediately. Just like the Sputnik project, he decided to use dogs. Dogs are proven to be organized, steady, and easily trained animals. They are closer to man in emotional and physical reactions. Blood circulation and breathing in dogs under stressful conditions are similar to that in humans. One hundred dogs were recruited for Vostok 1, from the research kennels of the Pavlov Institute near Leningrad. The dogs had to be in good physical condition, aged 18 months to three years, and able to fit into small dog containers. They were put into bright orange nylon suits with globe-shaped helmets. They were subjected to vibration, noise, high temperatures, and high g-loads (Johnson).
The first Vostok mission took place on July 28, 1960. Chaika and Lisichka were the first dogs on board the new spacecraft. However the launch was a failure. The second mission consisted of two huskies, Belka and Strelka and other animals (white rats, mice, insects). The ejection seat was converted into a giant ark for the animals. Two cameras were placed inside of the capsule to view the animals during flight. The animals were frightened by the noise and vibration of the cabin. The dogs obtained food and water from tubes. The second Vostok mission made 18 orbits. On the fourth orbit, Belka vomited. During reentry, the retrorockets ignited and the two cabins descended with the parachute. Belka and Strelka survived. They were the first animals known to suffer from space sickness. Engineers decided on one orbit for the first manned spaceflight, because they still did not know the full effects of weightlessness on humans. There were three more Vostok launches with dogs (Siddiqi).
Cosmonaut Selection
Cosmonaut selection began in 1959 and ended in 1960. Men were only chosen. Two Air Force physicians oversaw the selection process. They inspected more than 3,000 pilots, but most were eliminated due to height and weight restrictions. Pilots had to be between 25 to 30 years of age, no taller than 1.75 meters, and with a weight limit of 72 kilograms. These requirements were imposed due to the small space inside of the capsule. Due to age restrictions, most of the candidates were not test pilots. Also, the pilots had to be intelligent, comfortable with high stress situations, and physically fit. Two hundred past the first screening tests and were sent to Central Scientific-Research Aviation Hospital in Moscow for further testing. Physical exams consisted of spinning the pilot in a stationary seat, placing them in low pressure barometric chambers, and setting the pilot in a centrifuge to test high gravity loads. On February 25, 1960, twenty men were selected and told to return home until further notice (Harvey).
Several months later, the remaining 20 candidates (the cosmonaut group) began parachute training. They made approximately 40 to 50 jumps within six weeks. The staff and cosmonauts were relocated to a suburb near Moscow, known today as “Star City” (Harvey). The Air Force accepted only six men to take part in the Vostok project. They were Gagarin, Kartashov, Nikolayev, Popovich, Titov, and Varlamov. However due to several casualties, the final six cosmonauts changed to Gagarin, Bykovskiy, Nelyubov, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov (Harvey).
For the Mercury project in the United States, the astronauts had to fit similar requirements as the cosmonauts. However astronauts were required to graduate from military school in physical science or engineering and have high performance test flight hours. Family lifestyle was checked and divorcees were eliminated. NASA officials had to make sure that the astronaut would want to return back to Earth. Seven astronauts were selected for the Mercury project. They were slightly older than the six cosmonauts selected for the Vostok project. In America, astronauts were publicly known. However, names of Russian cosmonauts were not released before spaceflight (Siddiqi).
Korolev gave lectures to the final six on the design of the spacecraft. Simulators were built of the Vostok, so the cosmonaut can adequately train in real life situations. In the summer of 1960, training consisted of flying jet fighters, learning the functions of Vostok, and survival experiences. Cosmonauts were placed in the wilderness and told to find their way home, using their own navigation and resources (Harvey).
On March 23, 1960, Russia experienced the first of its cosmonaut casualties. During the end of a three day test in an oxygen chamber, a piece of cotton wool caught fire on a small cooking grill. It took a full half hour to depressurize and open the door. Valentin Bondarenko, the youngest of the cosmonaut crew, burned to death (Harvey).
Gagarin
Although affected by the recent tragedy, Soviet engineers decided to proceed with the world’s first manned space flight. They decided to pick Yuri Gagarin to become the first cosmonaut in space. He was the most energetic and ambitious out of the entire cosmonaut group. Yuri Gagarin was born in 1934 in western Russia. As a young man, he enlisted in the Saratov flying school and went to pilot training school. He joined the Soviet Air Force as a fighter pilot. Although he only had 230 hours of fighter pilot experience (less than the average of an American fighter pilot), he proved to be great candidate for cosmonaut training. Because of his short height, Yuri always had to put a cushion on the seat in his fighter jet. After being selected to the Vostok 1 mission, he was not allowed to tell anyone, not even his wife (Harvey).
Figure 7. Vostok mission cosmonauts: from left to right (Herman Titov, Yuri Gagarin,
Valentina Tereshkova, Valery Bykovsky, Adrian Nikolayev, and Pavel
Popovitch) (Harvey)
Vostok 1
Vostok 1 was launched on April 12, 1961. Yuri entered the spacecraft 90 minutes prior to lift-off. Yuri Gagarin was scheduled to orbit the Earth once. The capsule atmospheric temperature was 22°C, the pressure ranged from 750 mmHg to 770 mmHg, and the humidity stayed at 71%. During launch, his heart rate rose from 66 beats per minute to 158 beats per minute. During flight, Vostok 1 was out of range of voice communications, so Gagarin sent a code via telegraph every few minutes indicating the status of the mission. He did not use manual controls and no photographs were taken of space or the Earth. He ate meals in the form of paste from tubes. Experiments were onboard Vostok 1, such as fruit flies, dry seeds and bacteria to measure the radiation effects of outer space (Johnson).
Gagarin’s orbit had to be corrected soon after his spacecraft had entered the shadow of the Earth. After Vostok 1 emerged into daylight again, the automatic orientation system was activated. The instrument module separated and the cabin began entering back into the Earth’s atmosphere. Gagarin was pinned to his seat by strong deceleration forces. As the capsule descended, the temperature outside the spacecraft rapidly increased. The capsule started to rotate, which was quickly automatically corrected by the design of the spacecraft. Gagarin and the capsule safely landed near a village in Saratov. He ejected separately from the capsule using a parachute. Vostok was never design to land containing a cosmonaut (Johnson).
News of Gagarin’s flight spread quickly throughout the world. The space industry in the United States was angry that the Russians won the space race. They were eager to send an American into space immediately. Three weeks later, Alan Shepard became the first American astronaut in space (Harvey).
Figure 8. Gagarin (Siddiqi)
Vostok 2
Vostok 2 was launched on August 6, 1961. Gherman Titov became the second cosmonaut in space. His mission was to complete 17 orbits and remain in space over 24 hours. He had to investigate the effects of long periods in weightlessness conditions, observe the performance of instruments aboard, test manual controls, use the short wave radio communications, and conduct visual observations of the environment around the spacecraft (Johnson).
During the fifth orbit, Titov experienced nausea and orientation problems. It was difficult for him to turn his head sharply or follow the motions of other objects. At the beginning of the seventeenth orbit, he began reentry operations of the capsule. The automatic descent system initiated and the retro rockets ignited. He activated the ejection landing system at an altitude of seven kilometers. Titov and the capsule landed safely in the same region were Gagarin previous landed. Although Titov suffered a mild inner ear problem, the mission was a success (Johnson).
Vostok 3 and Vostok 4
On August 11, 1962 Vostok 3 launched with cosmonaut Andriyan Grigoryevich Nikolayev. The objective of this mission was to further investigate the effects of weightlessness and perfect the spacecraft systems. He made 64 orbits around the Earth. During the fifth orbit, Nikolayev unstrapped himself from the seat and floated free within the capsule. He did not experience any nausea or disorientation. On the seventh orbit, Soviet television station broadcast the first live pictures of a cosmonaut in space (Johnson).
Late in the morning on April 12, 1962, Nikolayev was informed that he was going to have company in space. The Soviet engineers decided to launch two spacecraft within one day of each other. Vostok 4 lifted off carrying cosmonaut Pavel Romanovich Popovich. He completed 48 orbits. His objectives were to observe the conditions of two spacecraft in the vicinity of one another, check for direct radio communication between two spacecraft during flight, and investigate ground control of several spacecraft in nearby orbits. The closest distance that the two capsules reached was 6.5 km. Nikolayev reported seeing the Vostok 4 capsule through the portholes of his cabin (Johnson).
Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 prepared for reentry. Nikolayev ejected from the capsule at an altitude of 7 kilometers. Seven minutes later Popovich did the same. They flew together for 71 hours in space. This was the first simultaneous spaceflight (Johnson).
Vostok 5
Vostok 5 was launched on June 14, 1963. It was piloted by cosmonaut Valery Fedorovich Bykovsky. He had to report tolerances of g-forces, weightlessness, noise, and spacecraft vibration. He also made frequent radio transmissions to ground control concerning the oxygen, carbon dioxide, pressure, temperature, and humidity levels in the cabin. Solid food was now available to the cosmonauts during flight. He made 81 orbits around the Earth and spent five days in space (Johnson).
First Female Cosmonaut
The Soviet Union wanted to demonstrate its social advantages as well as its technology superiority in the world. They wanted to put a female cosmonaut on the last Vostok mission. Forty female candidates applied and only 5 were chosen. Out of the remaining five female cosmonauts, Valentina Tereshkova was selected. Valentina came from an ancient Russian city of Yaroslavl. After her father died in WWII, she joined a local flying club. Parachuting was her specialty. During training at Star City, she was supervised by Gagarin and her future husband Nikolayev (Siddiqi).
Vostok 6
On June 16, 1963, couple of days after the launch of Vostok 5, Valentina lifted off into space on Vostok 6. These two spacecraft did not pass in close proximity of one another as in the previous simultaneous Vostok flights. Originally, Valentina was scheduled to complete 17 orbits. However, she fell asleep the first day of the mission. Engineers felt that if she was able to sleep well in space, then she will be able to stay longer inside the capsule. She spent three days in space and made 48 orbits around the Earth (Johnson).
Table 1. Summary of Vostok missions (Johnson)
Voskhod
The next task that Korolev wanted to complete was multi-manned spacecraft, which he called the Voskhod meaning “sunrise”. New engineering procedures were required to change the Vostok capsule to accommodate more than one cosmonaut. The engineers’ first decision in remodeling the capsule was taking out the ejector seat system, so the cosmonauts can wear overalls instead of bulky spacesuits. Without the spacesuits, the cosmonauts were in danger of depressurization. An airlock and docking system was attached to the Voskhod spacecraft, enabling the possibility of future spacewalk missions. It would be impossible to depressurize the entire cabin and open the main entrance hatch to perform an EVA. The airlock was a two meter long and one meter wide flexible tunnel structure attached to the spacecraft. The R-7 was upgraded with new engines. The main instrument panel was positioned to the side of the commander seat inside the capsule (Johnson).
New safety features were added to the Voskhod capsule. A spare retrorocket was put on the nose to ensure that none of the cosmonauts would be stranded in space. Since the cosmonauts would not be able to eject from the spacecraft during reentry, they would have to land with the capsule. Therefore a second retrorocket, which would fire 1.5 seconds before landing, was fitted to the base of the capsule below the heat shield to cushion impact. The main parachute was enlarged and a solid fuel rocket system was installed. Three seats were placed side by side with the middle seat slightly raised. External television camera was added so the cosmonauts can view the exterior of the spacecraft. An electrostatic ion engine was placed on the Vostok spacecraft as part of the attitude control system (Johnson).
Recruiting cosmonauts for the Voskhod missions was slightly different than the selection for Vostok. Selection began with civilian engineers, designers, scientists, and physicians. Thirteen civilian cosmonauts were selected for the Voskhod missions (Harvey).
Voskhod 1 Voskhod 1 became the first multi-man spacecraft launched on October 12, 1964. The crew consisted of cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov, Konstantin Feoktistov, and Boris Yegorov. Feoktistov was a scientist and Yegorov was a doctor. They wore silver grey woolen suits with blue jackets, instead of the bright orange spacesuits. The goals of Voskhod 1 were to test multi-seat piloted spaceship, interaction investigation of a group of cosmonauts, and bio-medical reports in long space flight conditions. Boris took blood samples and high quality 25 frames/second pictures were taken of the stars and other celestial objects during flight. Temperature was maintained at 21°C and the atmospheric pressure was kept at one atmospheres. At the sixteenth orbit, cosmonauts prepared for reentry. After retro-fire, the capsule separated from the module and began to descend back into Earth’s atmosphere. Within a few meters of the ground, the new solid fuel propellant landing system was activated. After 16 orbits and spending 24 hours in space together, they landed near a town southeast of Moscow (Johnson).
Voskhod 2
Russian engineers wanted to test the new airlock and docking system on the Voskhod. Voskhod 2 was launched on March 18, 1965. Its mission was to test the first manned extra-vehicular activity (EVA). Only two cosmonauts, Pavel Belyayev and Aleksey Leonov, could be onboard of Voskhod 2, since Lenov had to wear a bulky space suit during the EVA experiment. During launch, the airlock was kept in a compressed configuration. Once in orbit, it extended and pressurized. Only one cosmonaut at a time could enter the airlock (Johnson).
Leonov prepared for his EVA experiment. He entered the chamber, shut the interior hatch, depressurized the chamber, and opened the exterior hatch. Leonov wore a backpack containing oxygen and other physical needs. He was attached to the spacecraft by a 5.35 meter long tether. Communications traveled through the tether. An instrument panel was installed inside the cabin and the airlock chamber to operate the airlock system. One of his duties was to place an S-97 movie camera onto the exterior of Voskhod 2 to record his EVA. The solar filter on his helmet protected him from the sun’s rays. He spent 12 minutes outside of the capsule viewing the Earth and space (Johnson).
As Leonov began reentry into the airlock, he reported difficulty with his spacesuit. His spacesuit inflated like a balloon, which made it slightly bigger than the airlock opening. He decided to reduce the pressure inside the suit from 0.4 atmospheres to 0.25 atmospheres. He managed to squeeze into the chamber and close the exterior hatch. The airlock chamber was then released into space (Johnson).
Another problem had occurred within the Voskhod 2. During their sixteenth orbit, a signal indicated that the automatic guidance system malfunctioned and the spacecraft was not orientated for proper reentry. This was the first time that a Soviet spaceship had to land by manual control. A normal reentry sequence occurred and the parachute system was activated. Leonov and Belyayev made an extra orbit and landed in a heavily wooded area in the middle of the winter. It was difficult for the Soviet space center to locate Voskhod 2. The two cosmonauts spent the night inside the capsule. The next day, a rescue party had to ski to the landing site. Leonov and Belyayev were picked up and flown to Star City the following day (Johnson).
Figure 9. Leonov during his spacewalk (Johnson)
Cancelled Voskhod missions
There were repeated delays in organizing Voskhod 3. It was planned to be a two-man flight launching in 1966. Voskhod 4 was designed for space rendezvous to another unmanned spaceship in space. However future Voskhod missions were terminated to prepare for Soyuz missions (Johnson).
Figure 10. Russia’s first manned spacecraft vehicles
Moon Race
Exploration of the Moon was discussed seriously in the 1960’s. Korolev was given permission by the Soviet Council to develop the Soyuz missions to send cosmonauts to the Moon. In the United States, NASA was preparing for their Apollo missions to also send astronauts to the Moon (Siddiqi). . This was the beginning of the Moon race.
Russia was experiencing a financial crisis. Cost was a major factor in planning future space missions. Enormous amounts of money pouring into the space agency led to food shortages and inflation across the Soviet Union. Despite Russia’s difficulty in developing future Moon missions, the Soviet Union did not believe that America would actually put a human on the Moon before the end of the 1960’s, given the spaceflight record of the U.S. However on July 21, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human to land on the Moon (Siddiqi). The United States had won the Moon race. This was also the end of the space race between Russia and the United States.
Summary
Through the production of the R-Series missiles and the launching of Sputnik, Korolev and his engineers were able to achieve putting the first man in space. Russia’s manned flight program achieved developing multi-manned space flights and launching the first female cosmonaut in space. This era was Russia’s golden space age.
References:
Harvey, Brian, The New Russian Space Program, 1996, John Wiley & Sons., New York
Johnson, Nicholas L., Handbook of Soviet Manned Space Flight, 1980, Univelt Inc., California
Katorgin, Boris I., NPO Energomash, 2001, Russia
Launius, Roger D., Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since the Soviet Satellite, 2000, Harwood Academic Publishers, Russia
Semenov, Yu. P., S.P. Korolev Space Corporation: Energia, 1994, Russia
Siddiqi, Asif A., Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 2000, University Press of Florida, Florida