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The study of the form, function, and composition of matter has been, and
continues to be, one of the greatest intellectual challenges of all time. In ancient
times the Greek Empedocles (495-435 B.C.) came up with the idea that matter is
composed of earth, air, fire, and water. In 430 B.C. the idea of Empedocles was
rejected by, the Greek, Democritus of Abdera. Democritus believed that the
substances of the creation are composed of atoms. These atoms are the smallest
bits into which a substance can be divided. Any additional subdivision would
change the essence of the substance. He called these bits of substance "atomos"
from the Greek word meaning "indivisible". Democritus was, of course, correct in
his supposition, however, at the time, no evidence was available to confirm this
idea. Ancient technology was primitive and could not to confirm or contest any of
these ideas. Various speculations of this sort continued to be offered and rejected
over the next 2,000 years.
The scientific revolution began in the seventeenth
century. With this revolution came the tools to test the theories of matter. By the
eighteenth century these tools included methods of producing gases through the use
of chemical reactions, and the means to weigh the resultant gases. From his studies
of the gaseous by-products of chemical reactions, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier
(1743-1794) discovered that the weight of the products of a chemical reaction
equals the weight of the of the original compound.
The principle of "the conservation of mass" was born. For his achievements
Lavoisier is today known as the father of modern chemistry.
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Late in the eighteenth
century, the first use of another new tool began to be applied to test the theories of
matter. This tool is electrical technology. The first electrical technology to be
applied to the study of matter, electrolysis, involves the
passing of an electrical
current through a conductive solution. If an electrical current is passed through a
conductive solution, the solution tends to decompose into its elements. For example,
if an electric current is passed through water, the water decomposes, producing
the element hydrogen at the negative electrode and the element oxygen at the positive
electrode. With the knowledge obtained from the use of these new technologies,
English schoolteacher, John Dalton (1766-1844) was able to lay down the
principles of modern chemistry. Dalton's theory was based on the concept that,
matter is made of atoms, all atoms of the same element are identical, and atoms
combine in whole number ratios to form compounds.
Electrical technology became
increasingly more sophisticated during the nineteenth century. Inventions such as
the cathode ray tube (a television picture tube is a cathode ray tube) allowed atoms
to be broken apart and studied. The first subatomic particle to be discovered was
the electron. In 1897, J.J. Thomson demonstrated that the beams seen in cathode
ray tubes were composed of electrons. In 1909, Robert Millican measured the
charge of the electron in his, now famous, oil drop experiment.
Two years later, Ernest Rutherford ascertained the properties of the atomic nucleus
by observing the angle at which alpha particles bounce off of the nucleus. Niels
Bohr combined these ideas and in 1913, placed the newly discovered electron in
discrete planetary orbits around the newly discovered nucleus. The planetary model
of the atom was born. With the appearance of the Bohr model of the atom, the
concept of the quantum nature of the atom was established.
Pick the icon to view the Bohr model of the atom.
Pick the icon to view one form of the Germar Davisson experiment.
"Forces of constraint are not an issue. Indeed, the standard Lagrangian formulation ignores them...In such systems, energies reign supreme, and it is no accident that the Hamiltonian and Lagrangian functions assume fundamental roles in a formulation of the theory of quantum mechanics.."Ordinary rules, including the rules of wave propagation, do not apply in configuration space. The propagation mystery was supposedly solved. This solution sounds like and has much in common with those of the ancient philosophers. It is dead wrong!
Grant R. Fowles University of Utah
"Schrödinger never accepted this view, but registered his concern and disappointment that this transcendental, almost psychical interpretation had become universally accepted dogma."Einstein also believed that something was amiss with the whole idea. His remark,
Modern Physics Serway, Moses, Moyer; 1997
"God does not play dice"indicates that he placed little confidence in these waves of probability. For the most part, the error made little difference, modern science advanced, and bigger things were discovered. It did, however, make at least one difference; it forestalled the development of gravitational and low level nuclear technologies for an entire Century.
" This result is rather surprising... since electrons are observed in practice to have velocities considerably less than the velocity of light it would seem that we have a contradiction with experiment.
Paul Dirac, his equations suggested that the electron propagates at light speed. 11 "
![[Force PA.]](images/force.gif)
Matter does not disperse because it is held
together by forces. These forces generate
the gravitational field of matter, establish the inertial properties of matter, and set matter's dynamic attributes.
The remainder of this chapter will be spent
qualifying these forces and the relationship that they share with
matter. The ideas to follow are central to this author's work. Reader's who
have no interest in math may skip to the conclusion without missing the
essential details of this chapter. Essentially the math shows that
forces within matter are responsible for many of the properties of matter.
L = The dimensions of the box
This field is given by below.
Eg at x = 1/r field from wall A - 1/r field from wall B
Equation 3 Showing the super-position of two fields.
Eg at x = (G / [ c2 (r+L) ] ) ( dp / dt ) - (G / [c2r] ) (dp / dt)
Equation 4 Simplifying.
Eg at x = - (G / c2) (dp / dt) [ L / (r2 + r L) ]
Equation 5 Taking the limit to obtain the far field.
Eg at x = limas r>>L - (G / c2) (dp / dt) [ L / (r2 + r L) ]
The result , Equation #7, is the far gravitational field of matter. Far, in this example, means greater than the wavelength of an
elementary particle. In the case of a superconductor far
means longer than the length of the superconductor.
Eg at x = - (G / c2) (dp / dt) L / r2 Equation #7
This momentum of an energy field that propagates at light speed is given by
the equation below 2 .
p = E / c
E = the energy of the photon
c = light speed
p = momentum (radiation pressure)
The amount of force (dp / dt) that is imparted to the walls of the box depends on the round trip travel time of the photon.
Equation 8 gives the force on the walls of the box.
dp / dt = Dp / Dt = (2E / c) / (2L / c) = E / L Equation #8 Note: This force is 29.05 Newtons at the classical radius of the electron.
Equation #8 was substituted into Equation #7. Equation 9 is the far gravitational field produced by energy bouncing in a box
Eg at x = - (G / c2) (E / L) (L / r2) Equation #9
Equation 10 is Einstein's relationship between matter and energy.
M = E / c2 Equation #10
Substituting mass for energy yileds Equation #11, Newton's formula for gravity 5 .
Eg at x = - GM / r2 Equation #11
Forces are produced as energy is restrained.
These forces induce the gravitational field of
matter. 6, 10
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The manner in which an electron acquires and possesses its dynamic attributes is the subject of the quantum reality question. The fact of the matter is that nobody really these days knows how an electron, or any other quantum entity, actually possesses its dynamic attributes."
Pick the icon to view an animation on the DeBroglie wavelength of matter.
The harmonic vibration of a quantum particle is expressed by its Compton wavelength.
Equation #1A expresses the Compton wavelength.
lc = h / Mc
Equation #2A gives the relationship between frequency f and
wavelength l. Please note that the phase velocity of the
wave is c.
c = f l
Substituting Eq #2A into Eq. #1A yields Eq #3A the Compton
frequency of matter.
fc = Mc2 / h
A doppler shifted component of the original frequency is
produced by the restraint of the wavefunction. Classical
doppler shift is given by Eq #4A.
f2 = f1 ( 1 +- v / c)
A beat note is formed by the mixing of the doppler shifted
and original components. This beat note is the deBroglie
wave of matter.
![[Graph]](images/waves.gif)
Equation #5A and the above express a
function "F" involving the sum of two sin waves.
F(L,t)| = amplitude orig. wave + amplitude reflected wave
|
| L held constant
F(t) = sin(2p fc t + p) + sin[ 2p fc (1 +- v/c) t ]
Substituting Eq #4A into Eq #5A yields Eq #6A.
F(t) = sin[2p t(Mc2/h)+ p] + sin[2p t(Mc2/h)(1 +- v/c)]
Refer to the figure above. A minimum in the beat note envelope occurs when
the component waves are opposed in phase. At time zero the angles differ by
p radians. Time zero is a minimum in the beat note
envelope. A maximum in the beat envelope occurs when the component waves are
aligned in phase. The phases were set equal, in Equation #7A, to determine the
time at which the aligned phase q condition occurs.
________________
| \ |
| P1 \ |
| \|
A| / B
| P2 / |
| / |
|______________|
|<---- L------>|
Matter wave in a box
This energy in a containment model is a simplistic representation of
matter. In this analysis no distinction will be made between baryonic, leptonic,
and electromagnetic waves.
p = E/c Eq #2
E = energy
c = light speed
p = momentum
Substituting Eq. #2C into Eq. #1 yields Eq. #3C.
pt = [E1 /2c - E2/2c] Eq. #3C
Given the containment is at rest. The amount of energy in the containment
remains fixed, the quantity of energy traveling in the forward direction equals
the quantity of energy traveling in the reverse direction. This is shown in
equation #4.
E1 = E2 Eq #4C
Substituting Eq. #4C into Eq. #3C yields Eq #5C.
pt = (E/2c)(1 - 1) Eq #5C
Equation #5 is the total momentum of the system at rest. If an external
force is applied to the system its velocity will change. The forward and the
reverse components of the energy will then doppler shift after bouncing off of
the moving containment walls. The momentum of a an energy flow varies directly
with its frequency. Given that the number of quantums of energy is conserved,
the energy of the reflected quantums varies directly with their frequency. This
is demonstrated by equation #6C.
E2 = E(1) [ff / fi] Eq. #6C
Substituting Eq. #6C into Eq #5C. yields eq. #7C.
pt = (E/2c)[(ff1/fi1) - (ff2 /fi2)] Eq #7C
Equation #7C is the momentum of the system after all of its energy bounces
once off of the containment walls. Equation #7 shows a net flow of energy in one
direction. Equation #7C is the momentum of a moving system. The reader may desire
to analyze the system after successive bounces of its energy. This analysis is
quite involved and unnecessary. Momentum is always conserved. Given that no
external force is applied to the system after the first bounce of its energy,
its momentum will remain constant. v = velocity with respect to the observer
c = light speed
ff/fi = frequency ratio
+ or - depends on the direction of motion
Substituting equation #8 into equation #7C yields equation 9C
- .5 .5 _
= E | (1-v2/c2) (1-v2/c2) |
--- | ----------- - ---------- | Eq #9C
2c | (1-v/c) (1+v/c) |
- _
_ - _ .5 .5_
= E | (1+v/c)(1-v2/c2) (1-v/c)(1-v2/c2) |
--- | ---------------- - ----------------- |
2c | (1+v/c)(1-v/c) (1-v/c)(1+v/c) |
- -
- .5 -
E | (1-v2/c2) (1+v/c-1+v/c) |
-- | ----------------------- |
2C | (1-v2/c2) |
- -
___ Ev________
.5
c2(1-v2/c2)
Substituting mass for energy, M = E/c2
= ___Mv______
.5
(1-v2/c2)
The result, equation #14C is the relativistic momentum of moving matter.
This first analysis graphically demonstrates that inertial mass is produced by a
containment force at the surface of matter. A fundamental change in the frame of
reference is produced by the force of containment. This containment force
converts energy, which can only travel at light speed, into mass, which can
travel at any speed less than light speed. 8
/|\
|
| Em = Mc2
|
|
|_90o
Eq = Mvc / (1- v2 / c 2 )1/2
|---------------------->
0o
The vector sum of the standing ( Em ) and traveling ( Eq ) components equals the relativistic
energy ( Er ) of moving matter.
![[ Phase diagram ]](images/traingle.gif)
Acceleration = Hc Eq #1D
H = Hubble's constant, given in units of (1/sec)
c = light speed
To demonstrate the gravitational relationships of a photon
the principle of the conservation of momentum will be
employed. According to this principle exploding bodies
conserve there center of gravitational mass. Mass M ejects
a photon while over the pivot I. The
gravitational center of mass must remain balanced over the
pivot point I. Mass M1 is propelled to the left velocity at
v1 and the energy of the photon E2 travels to the right at velocity c. The
product of the velocity and time is the displacement S.
<---S1---> <---------S2--------->
Mass photon
----------------------------------------
I
Matter and a energy on a balance beam
The center of mass of an exploding body is qualified by equation #2D. This center is both inertial and gravitational.
M1 S1 = M2 S2 Eq #2D
The gravitational field of the particle was descirbed with Newton's formula of gravity, see 2C below left.
The general formula of gravitational indiction, as presented in the General Theory of
Relativity 3, 4 is given below.
Induced grav. field = G/(c2r) dp/dt
This equation (as derived in Chapter 6 ) was describes the gravitational influence of the photon, see 2C below right.
(Newton's grav. field)(displacement) = (Einstein's grav. influence)(displacement) Eq 2C
(GM1 /r2) S1 = G/(c2r) force S2
(GM1 /r2)S1 = G/(c2r) dp/dt S2
Substitutinhg vt and ct for displacement S and multiplying by r squared
GM1(v1 t) = (G/c2) dp/dt (ct)r Eq #5D
Substituting for force, dp/dt = Ma = MHc = (E2/c2)Hc = E2H/c Eq #6D
G(M1v1)t = (G/c2 )( E2 / c) Hctr
Substituting momentum p for M1v1 and E2/c
Gp1 t = (G/c2)p2 Hctr
Setting the momentums equal. p1 = p2
c = Hr Eq #11D
Force induces the gravitational field of matter and energy. The confinement of mass energy produces a field that drops off at a one over r squared rate. A gravitational field is also produced by the acceleration of energy through Hubble’s constant. This gravitational field drops off at a one over r rate. Both mechanisms produce a equivalent effect at the edge of the visible universe. The equivalance conserves the negative gravitational potential of the universe.
The speed of light depends upon the product of Hubble's constant and the radius of the visible universe. This qualification is essentially consistent with the measured cosmological constants. The gravitational constant G is an identity within these equations and is not dependent upon the condtion.
"Schrödinger also had to explain how wave packets could hold together, elaborate the meaning of the wave function, and demonstrate how the discontinuities of quantum phenomena arise from a continuous wave processes."
The Great Equations, Robert P. Creese, Pg. 248
1. French aristocrat Louis de Broglie described the electrons wavelength in his Ph. D.
thesis in 1924. De Broglie's hypothesis was verified by C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer
at Bell Labs.
2. Gilbert N. Lewis demonstrated the relationship between external radiation
pressure and momentum. Gilbert N. Lewis. Philosophical Magazine, Nov 1908.
3. A. Einstein, Ann d. Physics 49, 1916.
4. Einstein's principle of equivalence was experimentally confirmed by R.v. Eötös
in the 1920's.
R.v. Eötös, D. Pekar, and Feteke, Ann. d. Phys 1922.
Roll, Krotkov and Dicke followed up on the Eötvös experiment and confirmed the
principle of equivalence to and accuracy of one part in 10 11 in the 1960's.
R.G. Roll, R. Krokow & Dicke, Ann. of Physics 26, 1964.
5. Sir. Issac Newton, PHYILOSOPHICA NATURALIS PRINCIPIA
MATHENATICA (1687).
6. Jennison, R.C. "What is an Electron?" Wireless World, June 1979. p. 43.
"Jennison became drawn to this model after having experimentally
demonstrated the previously unestablished fact that a trapped
electromagnetic standing wave has rest mass and inertia."
Jennison & Drinkwater Journal of Physics A, vol 10,
pp.(167-179) 1977
Jennison & Drinkwater Journal of Physics A, vol 13,
pp.(2247-2250) 1980
Jennison & Drinkwater Journal of Physics A, vol 16,
pp.(3635-3638) 1983
7. B. Haisch & A. Rueda of The California Institute for Physics and Astrophysics
have also developed the deBroblie wave as a beat note. Refer to:
http://www.calphysics.org/mass.html
http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/gr-qc/9906084
8. Znidarsic F. "The Constants of the Motion" The Journal of New Energy
Vol. 5, No. 2 September 2000
9. "A Possibility of Gravitational Force Shielding by Bulk YBa2Cu307-x",
E. Podkletnov and R. Nieminen, Physica C, vol 203
(1992), pp 441-444.
10. Puthoff has shown that the gravitational field results from the cancellation of
waves. This author's model is an extension version this idea.
H.E. Puthoff, "Ground State Hydrogen as a
Zero-Point-Fluctuation-Determined State"
Physical Review D, vol 35, Number 3260, 1987
H. E. Puthoff "GRAVITY AS A ZERO-POINT FLUCTUATION
FORCE", Physical Review A, vol 39, Number 5, March 1989
11. Ezzat G. Bakhoum "Fundamental disagreement of Wave Mechanics with Relativity"
Physics Essays Volume 15, number 1, 2002
12. John D. Barrow and John K. Webb "Inconstant Constants"
Scientific American June 2005
13. Albert Einstein, "Development of our Conception of Nature and Constitution of Radiation,"
Physikalische Zeitschrift 22 , 1909.