| History |
| Religious Beliefs |
| Language |
| Social and Family Structure |
Lakota
Hollywood's version of Native Americans:
The Sioux are used to portray all Native American tribes in
Hollywood, anyone wanting to see a "real Indian" wants to see a war bonnet and a
teepee.
History
The Sioux are a group of North American Indian tribes of the
Great Plains area. Their Siouxan language is spoken in various dialects by
tribes across the United States. The three main Sioux groups are the Lakota
to the west, the Dakota to the east, and the Nakota between them.
Each group is composed of several bands. The Lakota, or Teton Sioux,
include the Oglala, Brule, Hunkpapa, Minneconjou, Itazipcho, Oohenonpa, and
Sihasapa (Blackfeet). Together the Sioux numbered about 30,000 in the mid-18th
century. They were outstanding warriors, fighting not only hostile tribes but
also white intruders and the army troops that protected them. To the Sioux,
fighting was in many ways a game based on valor and bravery; they might simply
touch an adversary, representing a kill, and let him live. Prestige was won
through deeds, validated by a recital of the facts, because truthfulness was a
paramount virtue. Sioux culture is characterized by mobility on horseback, a
buffalo economy, vision quests, soldier societies, and the Sun dance. After the
Sioux massacre at Wounded Knee (1890), they remained on reservations in
Minnesota, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Montana and in Manitoba and Saskatchewan
in Canada. Sioux leaders in the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1973 protested
against reservation abuses by taking over the village of Wounded Knee, S.Dak. In
1993, Sioux in the United States on or near reservations numbered more than
70,000.
The seven original bands of the Great Sioux Nation
were joined in an alliance called the Oceti Sakowin or Seven Council
Fires. This confederation of tribes spoke three dialects. The Santee
spoke Dakota. The Yankton originally used Nakota, but many
adopted the Dakota dialect in the mid-1800s. And the Teton spoke
Lakota. The term Sioux, short for nadouessioux or little
snakes, actually came from the Chippewa, a longtime foe. Over the
years, it has been widely adopted. However, the people of the Great Sioux
Nation prefer to be called Dakota, Lakota, or Nakota,
according to their language group. A rich oral tradition relates the values,
culture, and spirituality of the Great Sioux Nation. The stars, known as
the Great Spirit's holy breath, the sun and the earth figure prominently
in this tradition. Today, as yesterday, the people of the Great Sioux
Nation seek to live in harmony with the universe.
Religious Beliefs
Religion stresses an omnipotent supernatural power
(wakan) and the sacredness of the peace pipe, or calumet. Contrary to
common belief, the Lakota Sun Dance was neither a form of solar worship
nor a ritual ordeal or sacrifice. For the Lakota, the Sun was indeed a
representative of the Great Mystery (wakan tanka), and was known
as a wakan akanta (superior divinity) whose name was Wi.
However, the Sun Dance is not for the purposes of offering blood or
anything else to the sun. Even though many people have focused on the use of
hooks being driven into the flesh of the dancers or their way of dancing until
exhaustion, this was not an 'ordeal' in the commonly understood sense. Instead,
the "probationer" or dancer volunteered to partake in the ritual in order to
help put himself and his band in harmony with the cosmos. The Lakota hold their
Sun Dance very year in late July or August. It is thought that the timing
of the Sun Dance had more to do with the height of the buffalo herd
population at that time of the year (that was when all the nomadic hunting bands
could gather in one place) than with any specific astronomical or calendar
event. A vertical connection (axis mundi) to the sun and the cosmos is
necessary for the ceremony to continue, and this is symbolized by erecting a
large cottonwood tree at the center of the dance ground. The tree is adorned
with flags and artifacts of six colors, representing the six cardinal directions
(east, west, north, south, above, below.) The dancing ground is surrounded by an
arbor covered with boughs with an opening to the east, where the dancers and the
Sun enter each day.
One of the more sensational aspects of the Sun Dance
is, of course, the piercing of dancers with pegs through the chest; these pegs
are connected to a rope, which is tied around the central tree. The dancer runs
from the periphery of the circle to the center and back three times, building up
speed. After the third flight, the dancer runs with such force that the pegs are
torn out of his chest, ripping free from his flesh. Many Lakota point out that
this part of the ritual simply emphasizes that at birth, people are "torn" this
way from the Great Mystery and from their connection to the veridical
dimension of the cosmos. It reinforces the idea that everything is ultimately
dependent on the gifts of the Sun, and can't ever truly be free of the
heat and light that it gives. According to the Lakota, the Sun Dance is
one of the six great ceremonies, including the smoking of the holy Pipe, that
was given to them by their culture-bringer, White Buffalo Calf Woman.
Although it became something of a powwow-style tourist attraction around the
middle of the century (after the U.S. government outlawed the more sensational
aspects of it in the name of "decency"). Since the 1970s, AIM members and other
Lakota traditionalists have tried to recapture some of the solemnness of the
original ritual, and have subsequently banned tourists, alcohol, and other
distractions, while restoring the piercing and rigor of the ritual. Non-Indians
have been allowed to participate, but only if they are well known and agree to
obey by all the rules and taboos of the ceremonies.
The counterpart of Wi, the Sun, was Hanwi,
the Moon, whose name literally means Night Sun. The stars were
regarded simultaneously as parts of Skan, the Sky, and were also
thought to be supernatural people in their own right. Because Sun had
abandoned his wife at a feast of the gods, Skan passed judgment on him.
From then on, Sun was forced to rule over the day and Moon over
the night. Wohpe, their daughter, was the White Buffalo Calf Woman.
In Lakota cosmology, there were quadripartite divisions of everything: four
colors (red, green, blue, yellow) four superior mysteries (sun, sky, earth,
rock), four classes of gods (superior, associate, subordinate, spirits), four
elements in the sky (sun, moon, sky, stars), four parts of time (day, night,
month, year), and four winds corresponding to the four cardinal directions. All
of these are symbolized by the Lakota cross-within-a-circle, a symbol which
appears throughout the Americas. For the Lakota, it is the "sacred hoop" and
represents the totality of their people. The user of the Sacred Calf Pipe
faces east toward the rising sun at dawn, west toward the setting sun at dusk.
The Sun was recognized as one of the greatest of the Lakota's divine
Controllers. Inktomi, the trickster-spider, mediates between gods and
men. According to this text, Wohpe is Falling Star, and she
marries the South Wind as her husband. The Morning Star is said to
represent the light of knowledge as a counter to the darkness of ignorance. The
eastern part of the teepee symbolizes the source of light. The south represents
death and the spirit path. The west represents darkness and thunderbirds. The
north represents the path of forefathers. The Buffalo People are said to
reside in the north. The Lakota claim to see a woman, rather than a man's face,
in the moon, and she is said to be stirring a kettle by the fire. The moon is
explicitly linked to a woman's menstruation cycle and to pregnancy and
fertility.
The stars are said by some Lakota to be very remote from
human affairs. People are not to concern themselves with their business because
the stars are wakan. However, this is contradicted by stories which
suggest that the star people come to earth to look for brides, and the fact that
heroes and other important ancestor figures go to join the stars. Lakota society
was very individualistic, and so were the visions that were granted to all
Lakota people.
Language
The three dialects of the Sioux are Dakota, Nakota, and
Lakota. The Nakota is now almost extinct. All three dialects can understand each
other, the differences being the initial consonant sound. Basic rules for the
Lakota language: Lakota words have the same number of syllables as they have
vowels. Therefore, by counting the total vowel sounds (basic and nasal) one can
identify the number of syllables. There are 32 Lakota consonants. The Lakota
language is spoken differently by each of the genders female speakers talk
differently than male speakers. For example: To ask "how are you?" a female
Lakota speaker would say, "To ni ktu he?"while a male Lakota speaker would say,
"To ni ktu wo?" Also in the Lakota language, it is essential to understand
pronunciation in order to fully express emotions and to make a statement with
feeling. Feelings are important in the Lakota language. We can say a thousand
words and not mean a single one if our feelings are not in it. Listening to
Lakota speakers, you can tell when they effectively use their language because
you can feel their feelings. In addition to emotions and feelings, language
reflects environment. It expresses philosophy. It affirms spirituality. It
supports music, dances, good times, sad times. All those feelings are held
within it. It is the life force of the culture. Also note that some words have
the same spelling, but different intonations change the word's meaning, and
therefore accents are important.
In the tiyospaye (village), communication
served a very important role. It was the means of establishing and maintaining
proper relationships. It was considered rude to speak another name boldly
therefore you addressed them by a kinship term. This was the way to show
courtesy, kindness and good will. To address a relative one must first avow
their own status, being mindful of duties incumbent on himself and remind the
relative of his. When done, reciprocal trust and confidence was guaranteed.
Among the Lakota, they had a non-demonstrative emotional bearing. What this
translates to is an over statement of action and an understatement of words. The
rule was "don't tell me, show me." When a person was acknowledged, it was done
publicly with attendant gifting of people. When children were named, a "naming
ceremony" was held with public acclaim and the parents had a "give away,"
gifting the people to honor their daughter. Modest decorum was the proper way
one conducts himself in public and boasting or bragging were intensely
discouraged. It was considered in bad taste to blow your own horn. Your peers
and tiyospaye acknowledged your deed and abilities, you did not.
Respectful eye contact was the norm. Respectful eye contact meant you only make
full eye contact when you first meet a person to acknowledge their presence,
after that you kept your eyes downcast to show your respect. Children were
asked, "do you hear with your eyes?" to teach them not to stare. In many of
Lakota life practices, they mimicked the animal's behaviors. Among animal such
as the wolf, elk and coyote, staring is done as a challenge when males intend to
fight. Among the Lakotas, to stare meant you were challenging or did not believe
the speaker. Respectful eye contact was always afforded one older than you, an
elder or one in authority. Small talk was not a part of Lakota social graces.
Among today's majority culture, small talk is a cornerstone of their social
graces. Proper decorum or social graces, meant you were quiet and attentive,
without staring. You listened intently to what the other said to determine what
they wanted. When that became clear, you tried to give to them what they wanted.
Among relatives, visiting took place except with avoidance relationships, but
this is not the same kind of "small talk" that is a part of the majority
cultures social graces.
Social and Family Structure
While the Sioux were known to be great warriors, the family
was considered the key unit of Sioux life. Lakota family groups and extended
families came together to form a tiyospaye. Such a group of families,
bound together by blood and marriage ties, lived side by side in the camp circle
and operated as a single unit in practically all activities. They came together
for the basic purpose of survival and belonging. The Lakota married between the
ages of 12 and 15 years old. Children, called wakanisha (Waka
meaning sacredness) were of primary importance to the Sioux family and
were therefore the center of attention. The Lakota norm is monogamy. The roles
of men and women were clearly defined. While the men were expected to provide
for and defend the family by hunting and making war, the women were the
matriarchs, ruling the family life and the domestic life of the tepee. When a
man married a Sioux woman, it was expected that he would move into her home. A
grandfather, whose wisdom and knowledge would be greatly respected, would bring
up his grandson teaching him the basics of horse riding and the use of a bow and
arrow and lance. A grandmother would help to bring up her granddaughter,
teaching her how to cook, clean, skin buffalo, make clothes, etc. Grandparents
were very important to a tribe as their wisdom enriched the next generation of
children. However, one of the customs of the Lakota practiced what they called
exposure. When an elderly person, male or female, considered that he/she
was of no use to his/her family any longer and that they were using up important
food and giving nothing in return, they would go out at night to an area outside
of the tribal village, preferably in poor weather, and wait to die from exposure
to the cold and lack of food. Their family would not insult them by attempting
to persuade them to change their minds. This was a custom of the Lakota but the
white settlers found it inhuman and barbaric.
From the earliest of ages, boys were taught how to ride a
horse. This prepared them for the time when they would become a warrior for the
tribe. They were also taught how to use tomahawks, bows etc. Older boys might be
allowed to join and experience a buffalo hunt. Young girls were taught how to
look after a man. They played no part in hunts other than the hard task of
cutting up the carcasses of the dead buffalo. A young girl would be considered a
potentially useful wife if it was known that she was a good cook, clothes maker,
etc. Children were never physically punished for doing wrong. This again fitted
in with the belief that tribal harmony could only be maintained if everybody was
happy including the children. The worst punishment for children in Lakota was
for a bucket of water to be thrown over them by angered parents. A family would
live in a teepee. These were made from buffalo hides. The buffalo herds moved
throughout the year and the tribes had to follow the herds if they were to
survive. It did not take long to put up or take down a teepee. A hole was left
in the top so that smoke from a fire could escape. When the weather was poor,
cooking was done inside a teepee. Buffalo hides were also used as blankets - the
Plains of America can become very cold at night and the tepees were not well
insulated.
The Sioux were a deeply spiritual people, who communed with the spirit world through music and dance. The Sun Dance was considered one of the most religious ceremonies of the Sioux. This twelve-day summer ritual of self-sacrifice was a testimony to individual courage and endurance in serving the Great Spirit. As a shared experience among men, the Sun Dance also instilled a sense of tribal unity. By dancing and enduring the pain of self-inflicted wounds, each participant reasserted his identity as a Lakota warrior. Going on the warpath was part of a rite of passage for males. War was the underlying principle of the Sioux people, because through it men gained prestige, and their prestige was reflected in the family honor.
For the Sioux, the title of Chief was viewed as a medal
earned for outstanding performance during times of war or peace. To be Chief was
considered an honorary title. It did not mean, however, that the Chief was
solely "in charge" of his people. Rather than a linear chain of command, the
Indians traditionally ruled by unanimous vote of a council of Chiefs of
"Headmen" from a variety of bands. Decisions made by the council served to guide
rather than command the people.
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