OPPONENTS OF PAUL

Taken from the "Holman Bible Handbook", published by Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, Tenn.

Everywhere Paul went, he met opposition. At times the opposition came from official sources; at other times it came from riot. Perhaps the best way to understand the opposition Paul faced is to review the complementary evidence from Acts and the relevant Pauline Letters.

The Book of Acts

The Book of Acts describes Paul's opponents more from historical and sociological perspectives than theological. The early opposition came from Jewish sources in Damascus (Acts 9:23) and Jerusalem (Acts 9:28-30). That trend continued as Paul and his companions conducted their missionary journeys.

In almost every city there was a violent reaction to Paul's preaching. Most of the time it arose from his preaching in the synagogue (see Acts 13:44-45; 14:1-6,19; 17:5,13; 18:12; 21:27; 23:12). On some occasions, however, Paul appeared before civil courts to explain his activities, sometimes as a result of Jewish uproar in the city and sometimes because of Gentile opposition to his message (Acts 16:19-40; 19:23; 23:12). On some occasions, however, Paul appeared before civil courts to explain his activities, sometimes as a result of Jewish uproar in the city and sometimes because of Gentile opposition to his message (Acts 16:19-40; 19:23; 23:12). Generally, the opponents objected either to Paul's Christocentric gospel or to its broad implications. The gospel changed people's social, economic, and religious values. In Acts, Luke emphasized that reactions to Paul arose in religious circles, primarily Jewish, and that ultimately Paul was no threat to Rome.

Paul's Letters

Paul's Letters reveal a more directed theological attack against him and the Gospel. The opponents apparently organized, hoping to counter Paul wherever he went. The primary passages to study are Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Colossians, and 1 Timothy.

Galatians. Opposition to Paul's early ministry is recorded in Galatians. Paul expressed surprise that the new converts embraced a "different gospel" so quickly after he left them (Gal. 1:6-8). Traditionally, the opponents, called Judaizers, have been identified with a group of Jewish people who called new converts back to Judaism. Since Paul stated that they wanted to avoid the persecution of the cross (Gal. 6:12), it seems possible that they were nominal Christians who were uncomfortable with Paul's emphasis on freedom from circumcision and the law. A few scholars identify them as Gentiles, and others view them as Jewish-Christian Gnostics. Most, however, conclude they are Jewish.

The debate in Galatians supports the interpretation that they were Jews who had an exposure to Christianity. Primarily the opponents taught about Jewish law and ritual. They hoped Paul's converts would accept a full gospel that included circumcision (Gal. 5:2,3; 6:13), ritual feasts (Gal. 4:10), celebrations, and probably Jewish dietary regulations (Gal. 2:11-16). As a means to this end they undermined Paul's authority, claiming that his apostleship was as flawed as his gospel.

Paul responded by affirming his call from the LORD and the gospel he preached. He accused them of fearing persecution (6:12) and desiring to return to elementary aspects of religion, the Old Testament legal code (Gal. 4:9).

The opponents were not Paul's converts as is clearly seen in the interchange of third-person address for the opponents and second-person address for the church. The opponents at Galatia, therefore, seem to have been Hellenized Jews from outside the church. They called Paul's converts to what they considered a full gospel, mixing elements of Judaism and popular Greek religion. It included a return to the legalism of the law. Paul had concluded that their message was not the gospel (Gal. 1:6-7).

Corinthians. Paul also faced severe attack at Corinth. The Corinthian Epistles reveal a general church disorder, a questioning of Paul's integrity, and an organized opposition from outside the church. In I Corinthians, however, the problems encountered arose from within the congregation. Groups within differed about how best to build the church, and they appealed to various leaders who had left their mark on the congregation (I Cor. 1-3). Although this situation demanded a strong word, the proponents of this division did not attack Paul and the church as severely as outsiders did.

In II Corinthians the opponents resembled those who opposed Paul elsewhere. Second Corinthians is the primary source for understanding the opponents at Corinth. The issues in II Corinthians involve Paul's character and calling.

The opponents used several avenues of approach in undermining Paul's authority. They said he had no credentials (II Cor. 3; 11). Paul responded by saying that the Corinthian Christians stood as his credentials. They said he had no confidence (II Cor. 10). Paul responded with a theology of personal weakness that allowed the power of Christ to appear. They said he had no character (II Cor. 1:17; 11:7). He responded by informing them that he followed the will of GOD for his life. Neither did he wish to burden them financially when he preached. They said he had no charisma (II Cor. 11:5-6), to which he responded that he would not use the wisdom of the world to manipulate conversions. Finally, they claimed Paul had no calling (II Cor. 3:12; 12:11). The apostle replied that his ministry was from GOD Himself (II Cor. 5:20).

Additional attacks came from those concerned about Paul's seeming carelessness about the law. Some have interpreted Paul's opponents to have been Gnostic. The immediate issues, however, focused on the place of the law in the believer's life. These include the relationship of law and grace (II Cor. 3:1-18).

Further, Paul defended himself against an attack on his true Jewishness by a comparison to other Jewish apostles (II Cor. 11:22). The concern for the law was mixed with a concern for some of the finer points of oratory that were practiced so well at Corinth.

Paul defended himself because the purity of the gospel was at stake. He would not allow anyone to capture his converts and bring them under a legal code. The gospel would not be trivialized by using rhetorical devices of manipulation. At Corinth, therefore, Paul's opposition came from both Jewish and Gentile sources. The primary opposition, however, came from Jews with some exposure to Christianity intent on reaffirming the law as a vital part of Christian faith.

Philippians. The Letter to the Philippians contains some of the most directed attacks against Paul's opponents.

The profile of the opponents must be developed from 1:12-30 and 3:1-21. Historically, scholars have determined that the passages reflect two different groups of people. In 1:12-30 Christian preachers opposed Paul. They hoped that by their preaching they would bring an unfavorable court verdict against Paul. Although they had insincere motives (Phil. 1:15-17), they preached a gospel that Paul affirmed. These opponents were motivated by (1) jealousy of Paul, (2) opposition to Paul's calling as the apostle to the Gentiles, or (3) opposition to Paul's message of freedom from law. Perhaps more than one motivation characterized them.

In contrast to chapter 1, the opponents mentioned in chapter 3 came from outside the Christian community and preached a different message. Paul's attitude changed as he characterized them as unethical scavengers (Phil. 3:2) who were preoccupied with dietary laws and circumcision (Phil. 3:19). They failed to realize that Christ delivers from such earthly concerns (Phil. 3:19-20). In their place He offered an eternal perspective for living. Paul countered them by recalling his experience as one under law but who disavowed personal achievements in order to gain Christ (Phil. 3:7-11).

These people, like the opponents of Galatians, feared Paul's apparent disregard of the legal code and sought to educate the Philippians in this area.

It is possible that these opponents believed they had already reached the ultimate spiritual experience, perhaps by already experiencing the spiritual resurrection. Some even may have denied a physical resurrection, arguing GOD only promised a spiritual resurrection. Since Paul acknowledged his need to mature and develop in the Christian life (see 3:12-16), the opponents argued that his apparent immaturity made him inferior to them.

Colossians. This letter has produced the most discussion of the opponents of Paul. In 2:6-19 the issues raised by the opponents were the law and circumcision. Paul argued that in Christ believers already experience spiritual circumcision and that the law's demands have been satisfied. Christians are not to focus on such earthly matters as the elements associated with the law (Col. 2:20).

The specific doctrines of the opponents, however, cannot be easily and clearly identified with the same issues as those at Philippi and Galatia. In the last 150 years many scholars have argued for a Gnostic or pre-Gnostic environment.

Gnosticism was a philosophy that emphasized spiritual deliverance through an experience of insight or knowledge. The name of the movement comes from the Greek word for knowledge (gnosis).

Both Gnosticism and the Colossians Letter share similar vocabularies. Paul's teaching may certainly be understood to counter that movement if Colossians is understood as a response to Gnosticism. One problem with this, however, is that there is no concrete evidence that Gnosticism existed in the first century AD. Some have therefore suggested a pre-Gnostic environment in Colosse.

On the other hand, others have offered the Jewish Essenes as possible identification of the opponents in Colosse. This group of Jewish teachers promoted a Christian gospel mixed with ascetic tendencies. Their community and worship patterns resembled the Essenes of Palestine. Understood this way, these Jewish opponents advocated an inferior Christianity. They taught that Jesus was less than GOD and that all persons must adhere strictly to the law and its demands. Paul countered them by teaching that Jesus was indeed GOD in the flesh (2:9-10) and that His sacrifice on the cross provided for a total and complete salvation (2:11-19).

First Timothy. In I Timothy Paul countered a similar heresy as that in Colosse, but it came in a slightly different form. He combatted a preoccupation with "myths and geneologies" (I Tim. 1:2-4) and the law (I Tim. 1:8-11). The advocates had a quarrelsome temperament that involved the minutia of words and controversies (I Tim. 6:4). These were Jewish concerns, and controversies (I Tim. 6:4). These were Jewish concerns, and the general tenor of the letter reinforces that idea. Paul stated that these teachers were motivated by greed (I Tim. 6:5) and pride (I Tim. 1:7). The language Paul used to counter them differed from the earlier writings. However, similar themes such as the law, spiritual maturity, and asceticism were present.

Since Timothy served in Ephesus, probably in the mid-60s, the same opponents had access to him as they did to the church at Colosse. Again, some have looked to Gnosticism and Greek philosophy to describe the opponents.

The issues, however, are clearly suited to Jewish interests. Since the other letters give evidence of similar problems from those outside the Pauline churches, it seems Paul countered a mature form of those issues in I Timothy. These opponents appear to have been Jews with an interest in the legalistic type arguments of the Old Testament law and its application to Jewish congregations.

Summary

Some general conclusions provide direction. First, historically, scholars have reached different conclusions regarding Paul's opponents. Until the eighteenth century the consensus was that Paul opposed Jewish teachers called Judaizers who sought to bring his liberated Christians back under the law. In the eighteenth century, however, some scholars advanced the theory that Paul opposed many Gentile philosophers. This theory grew into an assumption by many that Paul countered the Gnostics. Later, however, it was demonstrated that Gnosticism did not exist until the second century, so people began to think of what is called incipient Gnosticism. That view still prevails in many circles.

Others hold to the predominantly Jewish identity of the opponents. Few hold to the earlier view that they were pure Judaizers. More likely they were Jews who held a theology containing a mixture of Essene, Jewish, and Christian ideas. Throughout his ministry Paul, the champion of Gentile Christianity, faced opposition from Jews who shared his background, but not his theological insights.

Second, Paul's opponents attacked him, his credentials, and his message. The attacks were vicious and varied (see II Cor. 10-13; Gal. 1-2; Phil. 3). Equally, the attempts to undermine his theology were systematic and well conceived. In defending himself Paul first defended the gospel and then himself only as an apostolic proponent of that gospel. Personal attacks mattered only if they hindered the message. The gospel mattered supremely; it was Paul's very life.

Third, although at times the identification of Paul's opponents depended on wild speculation, the study brings many benefits. Biblical readers must look for a textual context to bring the text to life. The opponents provided an occasion for some of the loftiest theology, especially Christology.

Further, as is true in many other disciplines, history repeats itself. Many heresies encountered throughout Christian history share doctrinal tenets with these early heresies. The better we know them, the more effectively we can counter others.

Finally, knowing Paul's opponents provides insights into how to defend the gospel and its representatives today. Since Paul faced constant theological controversy, his life models a Christian response. Each generation of Christians bears the same responsibility.

Gal. 4:1,2 Under the law we were like an underaged heir, subject to tutors until reaching the required age.

Gal. 4:3 Rudiments is the translation of a Greek word that originally referred to a triangle situated on a sun dial, to determine the hour by the shadow that's projected. Thus it began to apply to going orderly, advancing little by little, beginning with the basics, learning the letters of the alphabet. It's used in the New Testament to allude to the elemental truths of the Old Testament (Heb. 5:12), the rudiments of the Jewish and Gentile religions (here and in Col. 2:8,20), and the material elements of the universe (II Pet. 3:10,12).

Paul uses the same word in verse 9 ("the weak and poor rudiments"), that along with the use that's made of it in Colossians 2, confers a more amplified meaning to "rudiments". The apostle teaches that spirits of the Animist creeds or demoniacs (v.8), mix easily with the rituals and philosophies of human religions and customs. Thus the rudiments of the world can be identified with the evil spirits that use the rituals of the Law (v.10) to enslave and condemn people.

Gal. 4:4-7 In contrast to the hindrances of the Law, the life in Christ brings liberty to GOD's sons and daughters.

Gal. 4:4 The fulfillment of time alludes to the moment chosen by GOD for the coming of Christ, when the worldly conditions will favor his appearance. Paul emphasizes the deity of Jesus (his Son), his humanity (born of a woman), and his subjection to the law.

ADOPTION (HBH)

References to adoption in the OT and NT occur primarily where personal relationship between GOD and persons is described. Sonship or the family of GOD is in view here.

The identity of "GOD's son" may be the king of Israel or the descendants of Israel who have been called into this relationship with Him. Of course, Jesus Christ Himself is supremely "Son of GOD". This title most probably is drawn from Jewish intertestamental literature. Son of GOD is carried on as a special title for Christ in the epistles (see Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:15; Rev. 3:4).

The biblical theological backdrop to the concept of adoption by GOD is clearly that of human sin and estrangement from GOD. The nations of the earth have "adopted" to themselves, as it were, "strange gods" and have become strangers to the only true and living GOD. Out of all the nations of the earth GOD has very particularly chosen and adopted Israel as His "son" and people.

When we move into the NT, adoption with reference to Israel is used only one time (Rom. 9:4). Otherwise, it is term used exclusively by Paul to refer to everyone whom GOD draws into permanent saving relation with Himself.

Christ had promised in the Upper Room discourse (John 13-17) that He would not leave His disciples orphaned but by His spiritual indwelling would make them offspring of GOD. In view of Christ's unique sonship, He is the elder brother, as it were, of all those who have been adopted by GOD.

In Galatians this theme is set forth poignantly when the confirmation by the "Spirit of his Son" sent into the heart which cries out, "Abba! Father!" (Gal. 4:4-7); see Rom. 8:16,23). To belong to Christ is to belong to the offspring of Abraham (Gal. 3:29). And so, all of those whom GOD saves, Jew and Gentiles, become one family composed of His sons of every kind of humanity.

In addition, the idea of inheritance as a metaphor for salvation enters in here. Christ, who is and will be LORD over all, will have believers as his "co-heirs" in the glory of GOD. The vital faith that appropriates this truth now, however, must also stand in readiness to accept the suffering that faithfulness to him always entails. ("We share in his sufferings in order that we also may share in his glory," Rom. 8:12-17.)

Thus the concept of adoption includes a forward-looking, eschatological dimension. Believers will be raised in the likeness of Christ's bodily resurrection on the last day. And until that time the efforts of believers to live out the sanctification to which they are called are supported by the constant reassuring testimony of the Holy Spirit within the heart.

Gal. 5:1-6:10 Christian Living (HBH) Having secured the argument for freedom in Christ through justifying faith alone, Paul examined the nature of that liberty. While again rebuking the tendency to turn back to legalism, he also deplored the opposite extreme of license. Paul expertly showed that freedom in Christ is a Spirit-guided life-style within the limits of a new "law" given by Christ: the law of love.

Paul quickly warned against circumcision, which has no spiritual value in Christ. He reminded them that they could not keep part of the law and ignore the rest. And to attempt to be justified by keeping the law of Moses is to turn completely away from GOD's grace. The route of spiritual freedom in Christ is faith, faith that shows love (5:13-14,22) in the short run and that waits eagerly but patiently for the Christian's eternal hope.

The apostle next laments how the false teachers had confused the Galatians, halting their forward progress in Christ. He longed for an end to the leaven of false teaching spreading among them, wishing that the agitators would do away with themselves. Still, he displayed confidence that the Galatian churches would return to a proper viewpoint.

The danger of misunderstanding freedom in Christ is a tendency toward self-indulgence, which can express itself in destructive words and actions toward other believers. True spiritual freedom manifests itself in love, both for GOD and for one another. Such loving behavior is against the grain of the flesh. Thus it is necessary to live in the power of the Holy Spirit and thus be guided by the Spirit in our attitudes, decisions, and actions. To fail to follow the lead of the Spirit as a Christian is to manifest a sinful life-style that is unworthy of the kingdom of GOD. On the other hand, the believer who is controlled by the Spirit shows forth qualities that reflect supernatural godliness beyond the requirements of the law.

Such a life of Spirit-prompted love does not go on automatically however. It is necessary to remain consciously in step with the Holy Spirit, and it is easy to do otherwise. Even though the flesh was, in a very real sense, crucified with Christ, the tendency to pride, and even to gross sin, still exists. Mature Christians must, in the power of the Spirit, restore such errant believers. Also they must be available to support Christians overloaded with cares or responsibilities. It is right for every person to work up to their capacity, but not go beyond it. Nor is it proper for a person to boast because someone else has fallen under a load within that person's capacity.

The life of love even includes support of biblical teachers who have financial needs. These are the kinds of good works that bring about a long-term harvest of eternal worth. The opposite route of sowing to the flesh only eventuates in corrupt fruit. The difference in the two final outcomes is whether we choose to do what is right in all situation, especially toward fellow believers, here and now.

Gal. 4:5 GOD's purpose in sending Christ was to rescue us from slavery (to redeem) and convert us from slaves into sons (adoption).

Gal. 4:6 GOD makes us his children through Christ and confirms us through the Spirit. Abba is the Aramaic affectionate diminutive for Father, using Jesus himself to direct us to GOD (See Rom. 8:15,16).

Gal. 4:8-11 Paul declares that returning to legalism would be no better than returning to pagan worship.

Gal. 4:12-20 Paul appeals to the Galatians on the basis of their affection for him (verses 12-18) and his love for them (verses 19,20).

Gal. 4:12 Paul doesn't claim superiority as a Jew, but identifies totally with the Gentiles (see I Cor. 9:20-22). Now the apostle wishes the Galatians to identify with his Christian liberty.

Gal. 4:13-15 Paul's casual stay in Galatia during his first missionary journey was the result of an infirmity. His aspect was so repugnant that the Galatians could have rejected his message because of the weakness he exhibited and the unattractiveness of his physical presence. Instead, they paid homage to him (see Acts 14:8-18). Discarded (from the Greek ekptue) means literally "to spit out", which some commentators take as a reference to the custom of spitting in the direction of an epileptic, in order to evade the influence of the evil spirit that supposedly possessed him. On this basis they suggest that Paul's infirmity was epilepsy. But in fact the word carries a metaphorical, ironic sense. Others speculate that Paul suffered some kind of visual problem (see v.15; 6:11), but the evidences are not conclusive.

Gal. 4:17,18 Paul denounces the insincerity of the Judaizers.

Gal. 4:19,20 See section 1 of "Truth in Action" at the end of Galatians.

Gal. 4:19 Paul compares his anxiety for the Galatians with a mother's labor.

LITERARY RICHES
Gal. 4:19 formed, morphoo; Strong #3445: To form. Schema and morphoo are in open contradiction. Schema (English "diagram") means external form or outer appearance. Morphoo and morphe, the related substantive, refer to internal reality. Galatians 4:19 speaks of an essential change of character, not merely a likeness of Christ.