History of Native peoples in Canada Here is brief outline of the history and events that marked the development of Native peoples in Quebec, and to a larger extent in Canada and North America. This is not an exhaustive chronological listing, but rather a general history, including mention of important treaties, that was designed to provide some background to the present-day situation of the First Nations and Inuit in Quebec. North American Aboriginal peoples probably came from northeastern Asia via Siberia and the Bering Strait. The first wave came between 40,000 and 70,000 years B.C. The second wave, 25,000 years B.C., and Inuit migrations some 15,000 years ago. The last wave, Inuit maritime migration, 5,500 years B.C. 8,000 B.C. Arrival of Native peoples in the St. Lawrence Lowlands. 4,000 B.C. Occupation by the Inuit of northern Quebec and Labrador. 1440 Beginning of the Confederacy of the (5) Huron-Wendat tribes. The Attignawantan and the Attigneenongnahac are followed by the Arendarhonon in 1590 and the Tahontaenrat in 1610. They will be joined by the Ataronchronon at some later date. 1492 Voyage of Christopher Columbus, following which the coasts of North America and Newfoundland are visited by Basque, Breton, Norman, Spanish, Portuguese, English and Irish seamen fishing for cod, hunting seals, and bartering with the Native peoples. Between 1500 and 1875 The first contacts are made with the Inuit in the far north of Canada. Frobisher, Mackenzie, Ross, Parry, Franklin, Richardson, Back, Beechey, Simpson and Rae search for the Northwest Passage to Asia. 1502 Cortereal's expedition into the Gulf of St. Lawrence; members of the Beothuk Nation are captured and brought to Europe. 1534 First visit by Jacques Cartier, who is welcomed by the Micmac in the Maritimes and the Iroquois (probably the Huron-Wendat) in Gaspé. He meets the Montagnais at Tadoussac and goes as far as Stadacona and Hochelaga. Members of the First Nations are captured and brought to France. Cartier's last voyage takes place in 1542. 1542 Roberval's attempt at colonizing the St. Lawrence. 1570 Foundation of the League of the Five Iroquois Nations by Deganewidah and Hiawatha. The Tuscarora join in about 1720. 1581 The fur trade delivers its first shipments to markets in the capitals of Europe. 1600 settlement by Chauvin in Tadoussac, at the mouth of the Saguenay River, the long-established center for exchanges between the Hurons-Wendat, Montagnais, Micmacs and other Native peoples. 1603 Champlain sails up the St. Lawrence and meets the Montagnais, Algonquins and Malecites. First treaty, sealing a military and commercial alliance, signed at Pointe-aux-Alouettes. General authorization to settle the country in return for military assistance against the Iroquois. 1608 Champlain establishes a colony in what will become Quebec City. 1609 Champlain concludes a military alliance with the Hurons-Wendat against the Iroquois; they allow Champlain to push further into their territory. He attacks the lands of the Iroquois. 1615 Arrival of the Recollect missionaries to "convert the Indians." 1624 Champlain concludes a general alliance of peace and trade with the Iroquois, the Hurons-Wendat and other allies. 1625 Arrival of the Jesuits in New France. 1626 Purchase of Manhattan Island from the Manhattan Nation by the West Indias Company (Holland) for 60 florins, the equivalent value of ten beaver pelts. This is the first agreement recognizing the territorial rights of Native Peoples in North America. 1627 Establishment by Richelieu of the Compagnie des Cent Associés, to which the French monarch grants commercial rights for New France and Acadia. It operates until 1645. 1629 The Kirke brothers (English) occupy Quebec City. 1635, A Jesuit mission in Sillery creates the first Indian reserve in Canada, based on a model used by the Jesuits in Paraguay, where they have tried for more than forty years "to confine and reduce" the Aboriginal populations (quoted from the writings of Father Le Jeune). 167 Native people live there until 1649, when it is deserted because of a famine. 1640 Epidemics wipe out more than half of the Huron-Wendat Nation. 1645 Conclusion of a peace treaty at Trois-Rivières between the French, the Iroquois, the Hurons-Wendat, the Atikameks and the Montagnais. 1647 Beginning of the Iroquois Wars. 1649 The Iroquois destroy Wendake (Huronia, located in present-day Ontario) and decimate the Petun tribe(1650), the Neutral tribe (1651), and the Erie tribe (1656). 1650 A group of 300 Hurons-Wendat settle in Quebec City. 1651-1655 The Iroquois wage war in Atikamek territory (1651-55) and in the lands of the Montagnais (1655-66). 1660 The Iroquois are undisputed masters of northeastern America. 1660 Charles II of Great Britain grants Rupert's Land to the Hudson Bay Company. 1660 Beginning of the Huron-Wendat reserve in Ancienne-Lorette. 1666-1667 Temporary peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois. 1666 The West Indian Company begins fur trading activities in New France. 1670 Smallpox causes thousands of deaths among Native Peoples in Canada. 1670 The representatives of the British colonies receive an order from London to sign "treaties of peace and friendship with the Indians" of North America. 1675-1684 Continuation of the Iroquois Wars. 1677 Treaties of the "silver chain" at Albany, on the Hudson River, between the Dutch, the British and the Iroquois of the League of Five Nations. The first treaty is between the Iroquois and the colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts, the second between the Iroquois and the Delaware and representatives of Maryland and Virginia; these treaties create peace for the Iroquois in the British colonies from 1677 to 1755. 1680 The French Crown grants land to the Jesuits for the benefit of the Iroquois (Mohawks) in the Seigneurie of Sault-Saint-Louis (today's Kahnawake). 1684 Another peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois. 1689 The Iroquois attack Lachine, and the Wars continue. 1700 Establishment of the Abenaki village of Odanac, at the mouth of the St. Francis River, with the creation of a Jesuit mission. 1701 A definitive peace treaty is signed in Montreal between the Iroquois, the allied Huron-Wendat, Montagnais, Ottawa, and Abenaki Nations and the French. End of the Iroquois Wars. 1705 Founding of the Abenaki community at Wôlinak. 1713 Treaty of Utrecht: the peninsula of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Hudson Bay are ceded to the British by the French. 1718 Settlement of Mohawks at Oka; lands reserved for the community and administered in trust by the Sulpician Order. 1722 A treaty with the Six Nations establishes borders on the basis of which the Iroquois must confine themselves to the area west of the Blue Ridge Mountains and north of the Potomac River. 1725 A treaty of "peace and friendship" signed in Boston between the British Crown and the Micmacs of the Penobscott, Naridgwack, St. John's and Cape Sable tribes. 1728 More treaties between the British and the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, designed to neutralize and obtain assistance from Native peoples in the colonial wars between Britain and France. These treaties outline relations concerning trade, lands, and "traditional hunting and fishing practices." 1726 Treaties of "peace and friendship" between the Micmacs, the Abenaki of New England, and the British. 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1752 A treaty between the Micmacs and the British Crown recognizing and confirming the Micmacs' hunting and fishing rights (enshrines the treaty of 1725). 1754 Conference at Albany between the British and the Iroquois. An alliance results in return for a promise that Native peoples lands will be protected. 1755 Creation by London of the "Department of British Indian Affairs", reporting to military authorities. 1759 The British take Quebec City. 1760 First Nations in the Maritimes renew the terms of treaties with the British. 1760 Before the Act of Capitulation of Montreal, Sir William Johnson, the official representative of the British army and government, signs the Treaty of Swegatchy (a native village located half-way between Lake Ontario and Montreal) with representatives of several nations. This agreement calls for First Nations' allies of the French to withdraw from the war of conquest, and guarantee their neutrality, in return for British recognition and compliance with all treaties previously concluded with the French. This confirmation that the British will respect all treaty issues of freedom of movement, of territory, and of traditional and religious practices, through the transfer of treaty obligations, has an important impact on the conclusion of the war of conquest. 1760 General Murray signs the same kind of treaty with the Huron-Wendat (Sioui decision). 1763 Treaty of Paris, by which France surrenders all its possessions in North America to Great Britain. Articles protecting property, religion, and treaty rights of "the French and others" are included. 1763 Royal Proclamation by King George III of Great Britain. In Canada, this proclamation lays the ground rules for the "future colonization of Indian and Crown lands." It establishes the right of Native peoples to use and occupy "Crown" lands. It presents the First Nations in terms of allies, rather than as British subjects. It requires the colonies to clear by law the "Indian title" to any land required for colonization. It does not allow for settlement on these lands as long as Native peoples have not conveyed their rights in negotiations with the Crown. 1763 24 treaties are signed with various Native groups, most relating to the fertile northern shore of Lake Ontario. The Native peoples in question do not initiate these treaties and play no role in their wording. The purpose is to free the lands from "Indian title" to ownership, the existence of which is presumed in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. At first, these conveyances are paid for in final "cash" payments. Later, the Crown sets up reserves, and pays annuities and other benefits to Native peoples who convey their title to the land. 1766 Treaty of Oswego enshrines the defeat of the coalition of Pontiac. 1774 Adoption of the Quebec Act, in which, amongst other details, the territory of Quebec is extended as far north as Labrador and as far south as the Ohio River. 1779 The Micmacs, from Cap Tourmentin to the Baie des Chaleurs, adopt all previously signed treaties. 1781 The Chippewa (Ojibway) Nation signs a treaty with the colonial government, by which they cede all rights to the Michillimakinac Island. 1775-1783 During the American Revolution, Native peoples in Quebec support the British. Montgomery and Arnold invade Quebec. The Loyalists emigrate to Quebec. 1783, The Treaty of Versailles recognizes the independence of the United States. The border between Canada and the United States is defined from the Atlantic to Lake of the Woods. 1783 The United States government proclaims that no "Indian lands" may be colonized without congressional approval. 1784-1850 Continuous negotiations between governments and Native groups resulting in acts transferring "Indian lands." 1791 With the Constitutional Act, creation of Upper and Lower Canada. 1794 Signature of Jay's Treaty, sealing the terms of peace between British North America and the United States. It is not promulgated until 1796. It removes British traders and troops from American territory and from southwest of the Great Lakes. Troops had remained there despite the border drawn by the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. Some Iroquois remain in the Ohio Valley to trade furs with the Americans under the protection of Jay's Treaty. 1794 concession by the Jesuits of land which will later become part of the Lorette (Huron-Wendat) reserve. 1809 Labrador Act: the coast of Labrador and Anticosti Island are allocated to the Newfoundland government. 1812 War breaks out between the United States and Britain. The Mohawks and the Abenakis fight for the British, while the Iroquois fight with the Americans. 1812 The modern system of administering "Indian affairs" is introduced. The military administration becomes a civilian administration. The new administration favors a policy of assimilation and confinement to reserves. After the War of 1812, the British no longer fear an American invasion. 1817 The Saulteux and the Cree negotiate a treaty with the Earl of Selkirk to extinguish "Indian property rights" for the entire region of the Red River Colony. 1818 An agreement between Canada and the United States confirms the 49th Parallel as the border between the two countries, as far west as the Rocky Mountains. 1821 The Hudson Bay Company is given the exclusive right to trade with Native peoples throughout the "uninhabited areas of North America"(sic). 1825 The Labrador Act transfers Anticosti Island and the Lower North Shore back to Quebec. 1820-40 In the United States, Native peoples are "deported" to the west of the Mississippi River, to live on newly created "Indian reserves." 1840 The Act of Union, joining Upper and Lower Canada into a unified province. 1850 Signature of the Robinson Treaties, concerning the conveyance of land north of Lakes Huron and Superior in order to permit mining development, and by which the Saulteux tribes were displaced onto 20 small reserves. 1850 Adoption of the Act for the better protection of the lands and property of the Savages in Lower Canada. The Act recognizes two kinds of "Indian lands": Indian hunting lands and lands granted to Native peoples directly or through missionaries. It also provides the first legal (and "white") definition of "Indian." The Act requires compensation of 1,000 pounds annually to be distributed among the First Nations whose lands have been taken by Canadians or ruined by their development. 1851 In Upper Canada, a Land Commissioner is appointed and 93,150 hectares are set aside for future "Indian Reserves." Another law is passed banning trade with Native peoples, entry onto reserve lands, and the taking or settling on such lands "for any reason whatsoever." During the 1850's, eleven new reserves are created in Lower Canada: Timiskaming and Maniwaki for the Algonquins; Corelaine (Bécancour) for the Abenakis; Doncaster for the Mohawks of Kanawake and Oka; Coucoucache and Weymontachie for the Atikameks; Roquemont for the Huron of Loretteville (sold in 1904 and recently disputed); Viger for the Malecite of Rivière Verte (abandoned in 1869 and sold); Restigouche for the Micmac; Pointe-Bleue (1856) for the Montagnais of Lac-St-Jean (Péribonca and Métabetchouan, in 1851); and Bersimis for the Montagnais of the Manicouagan region in 1851 (Betsiamites in 1861). 1857 Adoption of the Act to encourage the gradual civilization of the tribes of Savages in this Province and to amend the law relating to Savages. Beginning of the principle of legal emancipation. 1860 Transfer of responsibility for Indian Affairs from the Colonial Office to the legislative assemblies in each of the colonies. In Quebec, Indian affairs are the responsibility of the Department of Crown Lands. This situation remains in effect until 1867. 1867 Adoption of the British North America Act. In section 91, jurisdiction over "Indians and lands reserved for Indians" is conferred to the federal government. 1868 A treaty between the American government and the Navajos allows for the recovery of part of their ancestral lands, and creates the largest Indian reserve in the USA , including 64,745 km2 straddling the three states of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. 1868 Adoption of the Act to provide for the organization of the Department of the Secretary of State of Canada and for the Administration of the Affairs of the Indians and of the Ordinance, consolidates all earlier laws and treaties concerning Native peoples. 1869 The Métis and Louis Riel expel a team of surveyors sent by the Canadian government to survey land routes for incoming settlers. 1869 Adoption of An Act providing for the gradual emancipation of the Indians, the better administration of the affairs of the Indians and the extension of the provisions of Act thirty-one, gives more power to the Superintendent of Indian affairs. 1870 Adoption of the Manitoba Act: 600,000 hectares of land are to be reserved for the Métis. 1870 Purchase of Rupert's Land by the Dominion of Canada from the Hudson Bay Company. A clause in the ministerial order integrating this land provides that Canada must satisfy Native peoples' claims in respect of colonization. 1871 Beginning of a major series of Canadian treaties with the First Nations; includes setting aside of reserve land, payment of compensation, grants for clothing, annual payments for ammunition and rope, allowances for education, medical assistance and food aid in case of famine. 1871 American congress puts through an order to stop the signing of treaties with Native Peoples in the United States. 1873 Treaty No. 3 is signed with the Saulteux, in order to open the way for immigrants traveling from Ontario to Manitoba; it opens the door to the west for the transcontinental railway. 1874 Signature of Treaty No. 4, the "Qu'appelle Treaty," with the Saulteux and the Cree, in which they concede their rights to 194,000 km2 of land in southern Saskatchewan. 1875 Signature of Treaty No. 5, called the "Lake Winnipeg Treaty," concerning the lands of the Muskegan Cree and the Saulteux. 260,000 km2 of land around Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba are transferred. This opens the way toward the Saskatchewan River. 1876 Signature of Treaty No. 6 with the Woods Cree and the Assiniboine (Stoney). Title to 310,000 km2 of land in central Alberta is transferred. The Saulteux Chief Big Bear refuses to sign. 1876 Passage of the Indian Act or "Acte des Sauvages" by the Canadian Parliamant. Includes compulsory "emancipation" of Native women who marry non-Indians, and trusteeship over "Indians and their lands." 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn in the USA, where the Cheyenne and Sitting Bull's Sioux wipe out Colonel Custer's 7th cavalry regiment. The Sioux later escape to Canada. This ends the nomadic existence of the Plains Indians in the USA, who henceforth live on reserves. 1877 Signature of Treaty No. 7 with the Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, Sarcee and Assiniboine Nations, which covers the remaining lands in southern Alberta. 1879 The bison practically disappear from the Canadian plains. 1880 The Indian Act is amended to "allow for the emancipation" of any Native person obtaining a university degree. 1884 The Indian Act is amended to ban potlatches (in effect until 1951; several people are imprisoned). 1885 Northwest Rebellion, Louis Riel and eight other Native people are hanged. 1889 The Indian Act is amended to enable the federal government to disregard the opposition of Indian bands to leases of their lands. 1898 et 1912 Adoption of acts to extend the borders of Quebec and Ontario. Annexation of the James Bay and Hudson Bay watersheds. 1899 Signature of Treaty No. 8 with the Athapaskans and certain tribes in British Columbia following the discovery of gold in the Klondike, Yukon Territory. 812,000 km2 in northern Alberta, the southern part of the Mackenzie District, northwestern Saskatchewan and northeastern British Columbia is transferred. 1905 Signature of Treaty No. 9 with the Saulteux and the Marshy Cree; 500,000 km2 in northern Ontario is transferred. 1906 Signature of Treaty No. 10 with the Chippewayan and the Marshy Cree relating to northern Saskatchewan. 1916 Signature of the Convention on Migratory Birds by Canada and the United States. The Canadian Act of 1917 implements this agreement. 1921 Signature of Treaty No. 11 with the Dene (Athapaskan) in the Northwest Territories (Slavey, Dogrib, Hare and Loucheux). In 1920, oil is discovered at Fort Norman. 930,000 km2 of land is transferred. Objective: to free title to land where there are potential oil discoveries 1923 Treaty with the Chippewyan and Mississauga Indians in central and southern Ontario. The result of disputes concerning pre-Confederation transfers of land 1927 The Indian Act is amended to ban Indians from raising funds for claim purposes without the written consent of the Superintendent of Indian Affairs. 1929-1930 Agreements on the transfer of natural resources between Canada, Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan. Introduces the application of provincial game laws on Native territories; however, Native peoples are entitled to hunt, fish and trap in any season for their livelihood on any "unoccupied Crown lands" and on private land to which they are granted access. The provinces will convey the federal reserve lands referred to in the treaties. 1929 Adhesion of Native groups to Treaty No. 9 in northern Ontario. 1931 The Statute of Westminster makes Canada fully sovereign, except for issues of constitutional amendment. 1933 The Indian Act is amended to make mandatory the "emancipation" of any Native person who obtains a university degree. 1939 A decision of the Supreme Court of Canada rules that an Inuit is an "Indian within the definition in the Act." The federal government did not actually began to apply Indian Act programs to the Inuit, such as social assistance, until 1950. 1951 The Indian Act is amended to remove the ban on potlatches and other traditional ceremonies, and to allow Native people to legally to enter bars and other drinking establishments; a Joint Senate-House of Commons Committee recommends the creation of a commission to consider claims in connection with the application of treaties. 1968 Mary Two-Axes Early, a Mohawk, begins her fight to combat discrimination against women under the Indian Act (which she will win in 1985). 1968 Creation of the American Indian Movement in Minneapolis by three Chippewa tribes. 1969 A federal government White Paper (presented by Minister of Indian Affairs Jean Chrétien) proposes the repeal of the Indian Act, suppression of "special status" for Native peoples and the abolition of all treaties. Indian Affairs officials are withdrawn from reserves. 1970 The federal government authorizes the funding of Native organizations for research into treaty and ancestral rights. 1971 The Alaska Agreement in the USA , concerning the Inuit and the Dene and Aleut Nations, creates village and regional corporations. Provides compensation and recognition of clear "Indian title" to 18 million acres of territory (cat 12.a), and allows for the practice of traditional activities in an another area of over 4 million acres (cat 12.b). The agreement eliminates reserves and accords royalties for Native peoples from mining and forestry operations. 16 million acres of land are granted to the regional corporations. 1972 The National Indian Brotherhood, later to become the Assembly of First Nations, initiates demands for communities to have the right to administer education with the creation of their own school boards. They win this right in 1973. 1973 Creation of a federal government policy for comprehensive land claims (based on ancestral rights) and specific claims ( based on treaty rights and also concerning the administration of "Indian moneys and lands"). Comprehensive claims must be based on traditional occupation and use of lands, and title must not have been subject to a treaty or legal deed of assignment or extinction. The lands in question are located in Quebec, the Yukon, British Columbia, Labrador and the Northwest Territories. 1974 Creation of the federal Office of Native Land Claims in the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. 1975 The Cree, the Inuit, and the Quebec and Canadian governments sign the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (a modern treaty). It was initiated by projects for hydro-electric developments in the territory. The Cree and Inuit transfer rights and title to 981,610 km2 in return for $225 million in compensation, ownership of category 1 lands, hunting, fishing and trapping rights in category 2 lands, and regional administrations in education, social and health services, social and economic development, etc. 1976 The Quebec and Canadian governments sign the Northeastern Quebec Agreement with the Naskapis and Inuit of Port Burwell. 1981 Federal government introduces changes its claims policy, broadening in scope the requirements for the acceptance to hear claims, and increasing funds available to groups initiating claims. 1982 Adoption of the Constitution Act by the Canadian Parliament; section 35 recognizes ancestral and treaty rights of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis. 1983 The Quebec government develops a Native affairs policy based on fifteen principles, including recognition that the Aboriginal peoples in Quebec form distinct nations who have the right to their culture, to their language, to their customs and traditions, as well as the right to determine, as they see fit, the orientation of the development of their identity. The report of the Special Committee on Indian Self-Government is published (the Penner commission). This committee met with more than 567 witnesses, making 215 presentations, and held 60 public meetings. Its first recommendation is that the federal government should establish a new kind of relationship with the First Nations, with Native self-government as an essential component of this relationship. The report recommends the constitutional recognition of Native autonomy, with a transfer of powers to bands and tribal councils. First constitutional conference on Indian autonomy. There is agreement on four additions to the Constitution: constitutional recognition of rights acquired under agreements to settle land claims, a guarantee of equal recognition for men and women of rights arising from the treaties, an undertaking to consult the Natives on any future constitutional amendment relating to them and an undertaking to hold three further conferences. 1985 Third constitutional conference on native rights; stalemate. December 1985, report of the Task Force on the Comprehensive Land Claims policy (Coolican). Concerns the history of the treaties and claims and a framework for a new policy on comprehensive claims. 1985, the Indian Act is amended where it concerns the status of Native women; an end to discrimination and recovery of status by certain Indian women. March 1985, adoption by the Quebec National Assembly of a motion recognizing the autonomy of Natives in principle, their right to their customs and to direct their development, own land and practice their traditional activities, within the framework of Quebec laws of general application. 1986 Federal land claims policy is changed; review of the negotiation process; there is no longer a comprehensive extinction of ancestral rights but only a transfer of land; self-government agreements are possible, without constitutional entrenchment and agreements on property rights, pre-property rights and natural resources. 1987 Fourth and last conference of first ministers on constitutional autonomy for Natives, in Ottawa; stalemate. 1988 Signature of a framework agreement with the Atikameks and Montagnais of Quebec. Negotiations were accepted in 1979 by the federal government and in 1980 by the Quebec government. 1990 Signature of an agreement in principle with the Inuit of the Nunavut region covering the northern part of Hudson Bay. 1990 Kanesatake was the theater of the spectacular events known as the "Oka Crisis". As in most conflicts between Native and non-Native peoples, unresolved land-claims issues were at the source of the crisis. The Mohawks erected barricades and the federal government, as a result of a request by the Quebec government, sent in the army. The crisis resulted in the death of one man, a corporal in the Sûreté du Québec, many millions of dollars deployed in the maneuvers, and the worst episode in the history of relations between aboriginal peoples and the three levels of government: federal, provincial and munic Text by Native Trail, please visite their site for much more information!

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