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Niccoló Machiavelli (1469-1527)
ALSO: Niccoló Macchiavelli

"Men are always wicked at bottom unless they are made good by some compulsion."


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Italian political thinker and historical figure in the turning point from Middle Ages to Modern World. Machiavelli stated in The Price, his famous contribution to modern political though, the then revolutionary and prophetic idea, that theological and moral imperatives have no place in the political arena.

Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy. Little is known of his early life, but he might have been involved in overthrowing the Savonarolist government in 1498. He was appointed head of the new government's Second Chancery, and secretary of an agency concerned with warfare and diplomacy (1498-1512). During there years he travelled on several missions in Europe for the Republic of Florence visiting Cesare Borgia (1502), Rome (1503, 1506), France (1504) and Germany (1507-08). Among his achievement was helping to set up a standing army, which reconquered Pisa in 1509.

As a thinker Machiavelli belonged to an entire school of Florentine intellectuals concerned with an examination of political and historical problems. His important writing, however, were composed after 1512 when he was accused of of conspiracy in 1513. Medici family had returned to power and had ended a year before the Florentine Republic. Lorenzo de' Medici fired Machiavelli, the Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Signoria. He was suspected of plotting against the Medici, jailed and exiled to Sant'Andrea in Percussina. Macciavelli found himself out of job after 14 years of patriotic service, and spent on a small estate most of his remaining years produced his major writings.

In 1519 Machiavelli partly reconciled with the Medici and he was given various duties, including writing a history of Florence. When the Medici was deposed in 1527 Machiavelli hoped for a new government post. However, now he was distrusted by the republican government for previous association with the Medici.

Machiavelli died in Florence on June 21, 1527. His political writings became more widely known in the second half of the 16th century. When Considered dangerous, they were placed in 1564 on the Church Index of officially banned books.

Machiavelli's best known works are DISCORSI SOPRA LA PRIMA DECA DI TITO LIVIO (1531) and IL PRINCIPE (1532), whose the main theme is that all means may be used in order to maintain authority, and that the worst acts of the ruler are justified by the treachery of the government. Many of Machiavelli's toughts, as "it is much more secure to be feared, than to be loved" have lived centuries as slogans. Il Principe was condemned by the pope, but its viewpoints gave rise to the well-known adjective machiavellian, synonym for political maneuvers marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith. Machiavelli draws upon examples from both ancient and more recent history and also uses his own experiences. What distinguishes Machiavelli's manual from other such works, is the originality and practicality of his thinking. Neither the attempts to interpret Machiavelli's ideas as first steps to democratic thoughs or examples of evil reflect a balanced view of his writing.

The interest in Machiavelli has continued, although contemporary scholarship may have its reservations about transforming his writings in a prophecy or manual of modern politics.

For further reading: Machiavelli by J.H. Whitfield (1947); Machiavelli and the Renaissance by Federico Chabod (1958); Machiavelli: A Dissection by Sidney Anglo (1970); Machiavelli and the Nature of Political Thought by Martin Fleischer (1972); Machiavelli by Quentin Skinner (1981); Niccolo Machiavelli, compiled by Silvia Fiore (1990); The Discourses of Niccolo Machiavelli (1991); Niccolo Machiavelli's the Price, ed. by Martin Coyle (1995); Machiavelli's Three Romes by Vickie B. Sullivan (1996); Machiavelli's Virtue by Harvey C. Mansfield (1996); Machiavelli, Leonardo, and the Science of Power by Roger D. Masters (1996); Machiavelli, ed. by John Dunn and Ian Harris (1997); Machiavelli and Us by Luis Althusser et al (1999)