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Glossary




















































a

acculturation: prolonged contact between two cultures, during which time they interchange symbols, beliefs, and customs.
accumulation: the belief that social change results from the growth of human knowledge from generation to generation.
advocacy research: research that assumes that the reseracher will retain complete control over the reserach, and then become an advocate for the group being studied.
alienation: a feeling that one does not share in the major values and goals of society.
anarchists: people who try to destory the society in which they live thourhg armed stuggle, hoping to build a purer society on the ruins of the old one.
anomie: Emile Durkheim's term to descrive the condition of the industrial workers who seemed to be without any roots or norms as the struggled daily to survive.
anthropology: the social science discipline that examines the development of the human species and human cultures throughout the world.
anti-social personality disorder: a category of mental disorder, characterized by a habitual pattern of rule breaking and harming others.
attitudes:what people think and believe.

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b

baby boom: a demographic phase marked by an increase in the birth rate of a conuntry, and a corresponding population increase
baby bust: the period of declining birth rates between 1966-1979, immediately after the post-World War II baby boom
bargaining for reality: the struggle for power by groups and organization who try to convince others that their view of the situation is the correct one
barreness: the inability to have children
behaviour: measurable actions, thoughts or feelings displayed by humans
behaviour modification: theories of psychologists attempting to determine the methods that can successfully change or modify problem human behaviour
binary oppisates: Bronislaw Malinowski's principle that humans tend to see things in terms of two forces that are opposite to each other, such as night and day, good and evil, female and male
birth rate: the average numbe of births per thosand people (both sexes, all ages) in a country during a particular year
burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment caused largely by work-related stress

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c

Canada Pension Plan: federal earnings-realted social insurance program, which provides income upon retirement, disability or death
capitalism, capitalist: an economic system dependant on private investment and profit-making
caregiver burden: problems and stress due to caregiving
cash crops: crops grown specifically for sale, not for consumption
charisma, charismatic: Weber's term to describe a leader characterized by large vision, magnetic style, having stong popular support and aspects of extraordinary, superhuman, and supernatural character
classical conditioning: a term used to refer to stimulus-response training pioneered bu Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov
clinical psychology: is the branch of the discipline that develips programs for treating indiciduals suffereing from mental illnesses and behavioural disorders and focuses on health and wellness issues
clone: to create a living mammal, including humans, through asexual reproducation
cognition: the act of knowing or learning something
cognitive consistency: the desire to aviod attitudes that conflict with each other, which generally results in the ability to living more satisfying lives
cognitive dissonance theory: the theory that people try to avoid conflicts between what they think and do
cohort: the term which refers to a population age group, such as children less then five years old
confederates: people who are members of an experimental team although not everyone in the experiment may know about it
conscious: the term used by psychologists for the part of our mind of which we are aware
constancy: our perceptual world tends to remain the same despite information which is contrary to our beliefs
convergence: the belief, popular in the 1950's, that all or most countires would be come capitalist and industrial, so eliminating many of the differences that existed among these countries
core: Wallerstein's term for rich countries at the centre of international trade
counterculture: a large group of people in a society who express values and behaviours that conflict with society's norms
crimes against humanity: identified by the United nations as the murder, torture, enslavement or deportation of innocent civilian nationals
cultural behaviour: human behaviour which is learned as a member of society, rather then being innate or in-born
cultural evolution: the belief that cultures evolve in common patterns, moving from hunter gathering cultures to industrialized states in predictable stages
cultural materialism: the principle, now disproved, that all human societies and cultures develop in a regular series of of predictable stages
cultures: the ways of living of a group of people, including their traditions, inventions and conventions

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d

demography: the study of human populations
dependancy load: a measure of the portion of the national population that is not actively employed. Frequently this includes children, youth and seniors.
dependancy ratio: a numerical comparison that indentifies the average number of dependants in a country for every one hundred adults of working age
dependancy theory: explains the lack of economical development in many developing countries as stemming from the treatment that they received under colonialism
desegregate: a term referring to the intergration of students from different racial backgrounds into American schools, as required by the U.S. Supreme Court
determinism: the belief that types of technology and economic methods that are adopted always determine the type of society that develops
determinist: a person who believes that a specific factor will determine the entire outcome of the social change that takes place
developed countries: the roughly 30 industrialized nations of the world
developed world: countries that are industrialized, modern, and wealthy - specifically nations in North America, Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand
developing countries: the roughly 180 nations that have little or no industry, where most of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood
developing world: countries that are non-industrialized and where citizens practice more traditional lifestyles
developmental stake: the difference between the amount of support older people feel they recieve from their children, and the amount of help their children report giving
developmental trend: any life cycle process through which individuals journey
deviance: any behaviour that is different from the societal norm
diffusion of innovations: the sociological theory that social change is caused by the emergence of innovations in society
diffusion: the spread of ideas, methods, symbols and tools from one culture to another
directed change: accultural through dominance of one culture over another, forcing the defeated to change aspects of it's culture, or it's entire culture
discipline: and individual branch of study within the social sciences, such as anthropology
discourses: the set of topics and the way of describing them that is used by a group of people with a common interest
discovery: finding something that was previously unknown to a culture
discrimination: inequitable treatment of people based on their race, gender, nationality, language, faith, or sexual orientation
disincentive: anything that discourages people from doing
disposable income: income that does not need to be applied to the necessities of life; it can be spent on luxuries such as travel and hobbies
domestication: the taming of plants and animals in order to control their availability for human use
dominant paradigm: a belief that humans have a duty to create material wealth to make this and future generations richer, and a right to dominate, change, or even corrupt the natural world in order to do so
dysfunctional: unable to perform an intended purpose and having a destructive effect

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e

echo boom: the demographic phase in which a population increase is created as people born during the post-World War II baby boom have their own children
ecotourism: a type of travel based upon the enjoyment of nature
ego: Freud's term for the part of the unconscious mind that referees between the id and the superego
elite groups: skilled and educated people with the access to developement funds, and who are in a position of influence
embryos: fertilized human eggs
enculturation: the process by which the memvers of a culture learn and internalize shared ideas, values and beliefs
endogenous: coming from within the society being studied
equal pay for work of equal value: an employment systme in which job classifications must be compared for the skills they require, the responsibilities involved, their working conditions, and the effort required. All jobs scoring equally according to these catergoires must be paid at the same rates.
estrogen: the female sex hormone
ethical issues: situations where there are important moral principles to consider, and competing arguements over the most appropriate course of action
ethicists: people who research and write about which medical techniques should be morally permisable
ethnocentrism: the learned belief held by people who feel that their cultural group is superior to other cultural groups
ethnography: the scientific study of human races and cultures
everyday forms of peasant resistance: Scott's Term to describe such things as desertion, sabotage, theft, and slow working, for the purpose of undermining the power of landowners
exogenous: foriegn; coming from a society other than the one being studied
experimental psychology: is the branch of psychology that sets up experiments to see how individuals act in particular situations; deals with measuring and explaining human behaviour
extroverts: Jung's term for people who use thier psychological power to draw close to other people, and rely on them for much of their sense of well being

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f

fertility rates: the actual number of children had by women
fertility: refers to actual reproduction. A woman is fertile is she has born, or is bearing, offspring
fictive kinship: the practice of acknowledging as kind people who are not biologically related
field observation: a mehtod by which social scientist observe one of more subjects in their own environment, for the purpose of gathering data about their behaviour in groups
folkways: behaviours that a typical member of society would usually practice, but are not particularly significant
functional repercussion: the logical and predictable outcome of a given situation

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g

gender indentity: one's concept of maleness or femaleness
generation X: a term used for people born between 1946 and 1966, during the post-World War II baby boom
generation Y: a term used for the group born between 1980 and 1995, most of them the children of parents born during the post-World War II baby boom
generation Z: a term used for children born after the mid-1990s, some of them the off-spring of so-called Twentysomethings demographic group
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita: the total wealth produced by a country's economy divided by total population
group norms: the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours that people learn from social groups with whom they have close personal contact

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h

hallucinations: a perceptual "error" the results in a person believing they see, hear, or feel something which is not there
hate group: a term referring to organizations whoe purpose is t dreate hatred toward target groups, usually racial or cultural minorities
hatred: a very strong dislike, directed either at individuals ore members of a group of people
hierarchy: a ranking of authority and power
Holocaust: the gencidal murder of at least six million European Jews planned, organized and fully documented by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis
horticulture: the domestication of plants
hunter-gatherer: people who travel across a given territory, collecting plants and hunting animals; also called forgers

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i

id: Freud's term for the part of the unconcious mind the encourages us to seek phsyical (sexual, nutritional, etc.) satisfaction
identity achievement: one of the possible outcomes of identity crisis. The identity-achieved person is one who has a firm sense of self.
identity crisis: a term coined by psychologist Erik Erikson to explain the central conflict of the adolescent stage of development
identity diffusion: one of the possible outcomes of an identity crisis. A person with identity diffusion has not been able to achieve a sense of identity.
ideology: a structured philosophy against which all actions and events are judged
inclusiveness: the belief that all law-abiding citizens, regardless of their background or cirumstances, should be able to play a constructive role in the life of the nation
income inequalities: the gap between what the rich and poor earn in a society
incorporation: accumulation through free borrowing of ideas and symbols from one culture to another
informal support: unpaid help given by friends, neighbours and family caring for the elderly
infomational influence: a psychology term used to describe the human desire to accept that the information another, admired person tells us is valid
informed consent: the subject of an experiemtn or medical procedure must be able to understand the risks involved and give permission for it to proceed, knowing these risks
initiation rituals: elaborate cermonies that mark the passage of children to adulthood
institutional barriers: practices within public organizations and private corporatins that stand in the way of equal oppurtunity for peopel from all different backgrounds
institutions: established laws, practices and customs within a society AND those organizations withing a society that act to mould us into individuals/
interaction: contact with other cultures
intergroup cooperation: refers to cooperative activity between members of different reference groups- the social groups with whom people have close contact
introverts: Jung's term for people who use their psychological power to look inward, becoming emotionally self-sufficient
intuition: believing something to be true because a person's emotions and logic support it
invention: new products, ideas, and social patterns that affect the way people live

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j

just society: the term used by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in the 1970's to refer to a Canadian society in which individual freedoms are very important

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k

kinship: a family relationship based on what a culture considers to be a family

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l

liberation theology: Christian teaching which combine spirituality with political activism to obtain better conditions for the poor
life cycle: the different stages that an individual may pass through from birth to death
life expectancy: the average number of years which a person can expect to live. It is calculated seperately for femals and males, and is a strong indicator of the living standards in a country or among a group of people.
longitudinal studies: studies in which a group of people is tracked over a long period of time, sometimes even incorporating the group's children into the study as they come along
lumpenproletariat: Marx's term for unemployed people

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o

operant conditioning: the psychological theory the learnign can be programmed by whatever consequence follows a particular behaviour

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u

unconcious inference: a term coined by German social scientist Hermann von Helmholtz for the phenomenon of constancy
unconcious: the term used by psychologists for the part of our mind of which we are not aware

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v

value-free: free of the bias of the author
values: the beliefs of a group that provide standards for members' behaviour
variable: a factor tha has an influence on the outcome of an experiment or study

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w

war bride: a term for the European wives of Canadian soldiers who camne to Canada with their husbands after World War II
work-realted stress: distress caused by work pressures
world-system theory: Wallerstein's theory that the basic relationship between the developed and developing countries was established in colonial times, and that this relationship is a small one

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y

young offenders act: the act that deals with criminals between that ages of 13 and 18

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m

macro-level: focussing on large-scale examination, such as the state
mass culture: when a large prportion of the population participates in cultural activities
materialism: the belief that technological and economic factors are the most important ones in moulding society AND a way of life with personal or societal values preoccupied with obtaining material possesions
matrilineal: a method of tracing and organizion families through the mother's line
memory modification: the process whereby humans their memories to fit any numbert of internal or external variables
menarche: a woman's first menstral period
micro-level: focusing on small-scale examination, such as the family
millenium kids: a term used for children born after the mid-1990s some of them the offspring of the so-called Twentysomethings demographic group
modernity: the notion that all social change is inevitable and of benefit because it lead to and improved society
modernization theory: Spencer's idea, now disproved, that "backward" regions of the world benefited from colonialism because it made them more "modern"
modernizing elites: Eisenstadt's term for groups of people who created significant social change and influence the direction in which it goes
morbidity: illness or physical harm
mulitculturalism: a policy developed by the government of Canada, which encouraged people to preserve theri ancestral cultures while living under Canadian laws and institutions

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n

nation (also known as state): an antrhopology term for a human organization ruled by a centralized form of government
national debt: money borrowed from a country to finance government spending. The debt to be repaid incldudes the accumulated interest on these loans.
national indentity: a country's unique values, beliefs, and programs that sets it apart from other nations
natural decrease: in demography, a negative population balance where a country's death rate exceeds it's birth rate
natural increase: in demography, a positive population balance where a country's birth rate exceeds it's death rate
negative reinforcement: punishment of people who do something of which society disapproves
neomarxian: a theory, based on Marx's original observtions, that sees globalization as a negative force, because capitalism places humans in direct competition with one another
net migration: in demography, the rate at which a country's population is increasing or decreasing when four factors are considered: birth rate, death rate, immigration, and emigration
neurosis (plural, neuroses): a category of mental disorder in which the patient has feelings of high levels of anxiety or tension in managing their daily lives
neurotic: abnormal, usually connected with anxiety or obsessiveness
nomadic: moving from region to region
normative influence:a psychology term todescribe the pressure to conform to the positive expectaions of others
norms: customary types of behaviour; specific rules that outline what is considered to be standard behaviour for a role
nuclear family: a family group consisting only of a mother and father living with their children
Nuremberg Code: an ethical guideline established after World War II, outlining rules and procedures for future experiments carried out on humans

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p

paradigm: the set of rules and conditions stored in the brain, and used to interpret and understand sensory experience
paradigm shift: a dramatic shift in the set of rules and conditions stored in the brain to interpret and understand sensory experience OR a fundamental change in approach
paranoia: a category of mental disorder in which the patient suffers from irrational thoughts of persecution or foreboding
participant observation: a method of study in which anthropologists live with their subjects for a long time, participate as a group or community member, and record their observations
participation rates: the percentage of the population, or a group within it, 16-24 years of age, available for paid work who are actively employed in the economy at any given time
pastoralism: the domestication of animals, pastoralists are also called herders
patriarchy: a place historically designed for the convenience of men, and stuctured according to rules that men find comfortable: a term used b frminist sociologists to decribe a society in which men dominate most institutions and use this position to oppress women
patrilineal: a method of tracing and organizing families through the father's line
peer group: a group of people with the same age, status, and interests
peer pressure: the influence from the members of our peer groups that encourages us to behave in prescribed ways
pension fund: a type of group savings plan by which people save money to draw out almost like a pay cheque after they retire
perception: in psychology, the process by which objects, people, events, and other aspects of our surroundings become known to us OR the process by which our brain tries to make sense of incoming messages
perceptual set: each person has their own assumptions about the world. A person with a fixed perceptual set interprets new or contrary information in a way that makes in fit with his or her existing beliefs.
periphery: Wallerstein's term for poor countries, far from the centre of international trade
pluaralism: the belief that there should be wide-spread acceptance of differences in culture, religion, values, and lifestyle within a society
pluarlistic societies: societies in which minorities maintain their cultural traditions
political activism: movements for political change that focus on public activities such as marches, demonstrations, and petitions
population pyramid: a type of multiple bar graph used to show the proportions of males and females of different ages in the populations of a country
positive reinforcement: rewarding of people who display what society considers good behaviour
prejudice: a set of opinions, attitudes and feelings unfairly cast a group and its members in a negative light without legitimate reasons
private sphere: the parts of our lives that are generally private
production: the methods by which people extract a resource from our habitat and the exploit that resource
proletariat: Marx's term to describe working people
psychology: the social science discipline the examines people feelings, thoughts, and personality development
psychosis (plural, psychoses): a category of mental disorder in which the patient has lost touch with the real world, and may suffer from delusions or hallucinations

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r

race: a culturally-learned concept which attempts to categorize people on the basis of physical characteristics, particularly skin colour, facial features and hair texture. It has no biological basis.
racism: negative attitudes and accompanying behaviour based on the assumption that one race is inherently superior to another
recidivism rate: the percentage of criminal offenders later convicted for further offences
reductionist: believing that a single factor causes social change
reference group: term used by American psychologist Gordon Allport referring to social groups with whom we have close contact, such as family and friends
rehabilitation: the re-eduction and resocialization of inmates so that they grow to accept society's values and norms
relativization: Robertson's belief that the relationship between self and society is vital to our identity. As the world system changes, the out-looks of both our societyand ourselves change aswell
replacement level: a population term referring to the number of births required to maintain a stable population
retribution: forceful punishment of criminals in the belief that this will reduce the crime rate
role: a particular set of behaviours that we must follow in order to be recognized as an actor
role conflict: the conflict that occurs when individuals try to play two roles that are in conflict

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s

schizophrenia: a complex metnal disorder that leads to feelings of distress and social isolation
school of thought: a certain way of interpreting a discipline's subject matter that has gained widespread credibility
selective attention: the ability to focus on certain physical stimuli and exclude others
self-actualization: Maslow's term for the final stage of human needs, in which a person intergrates the self, making the personality whole
semi-perphery: Wallerstein's term for medium wealth countries that are between the centre and the edges of international trade
sexual revolution: a time during the late 1960's and early 1970's when sexual behaviour and morals in North America and Europe changed drastically
singularity: a belief that everyone in society should act and think the same way
social change: changes in the way society is organized, and the beliefs in the practices of the people who live in it
social change theory: theories that examine the factors that contribute to the change in the structure of scoiety
social mores: the behaviours regarded as essential to the welfare and survival of the group
social practices: the activities and behaviours of people in groups
social sciences: those subjects that use research and analysis to explain human behaviour
socialization agent: a group or institution which has a significant impact on the values and beliefs of a culture. Primary socialization agents include, family, peers and the media
socialization: the process by which children are shaped into responsible members of society
sociology: the social science discipline that looks at the development and structure of human society and how it works
sphere of influence: the area over which a society has economic and cultural influence
state (also known as nation): an antrhopology term for a human organization ruled by a centralized form of government
status: the term used to describe our position in an institution
stereotype: false or generalized beliefs about a group of people that result in categorizing members without regard for individual difference
stimulus-response effect: the principle that if the subject is correctly stimulated it will give the appropriate response
subjective validity: social psychologists' term for the virtuall universal belief that our attitudes are right and proper
subordinate cultures: a term used by psychologist John Ogbu referring to American minority groups, such as immigrants, Afircan-Americans, and other racial groups
suburbia: new residential areas built beyond the existing built-up area of a city
superego: Freud's term for the part of the unconcious mind the encourages us to do the moral thing
systemic discrimination: describes a system that favours one or some groups over others in terms of hiring, benefits, promotions, and pay increases
systemic racism: discrimination based on a sense of racial superiotiy is part of the philosophy and practices of a company, institution, or a whole society
systemic sexism: discrimination based on a sense of male superiority is part of the philosophy and practices of a company, institution, or a whole society

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t

tension and adaptation: the structural-functionalists' belief that social change results from a process of tension between one aspect of society and the rest
textural discourse: communication through symbols such as the written word, movie roles, paintings, and photographs, as opposed to face-to-face communication
the pill: oral birth control contraceptives first developed during the 1960's
traditional worldview: the view that society should adhere to old practices, particularly those of charity and consideration for the poor
tribe: an anthropology term used to describe a human organization ruled by a decentralized form of government
twentysomethings: a term referring to the relatively small group of people born between 1966 and 1979, during the so-called baby bust

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