A
human being in standing position with palms facing forward
This
is an imaginary line which divides the body into two equal left and right
parts.
Any
line which is parallel to median saggital plane and which divide the body into
two parts.
This
is an imaginary line which divides the body into two anterior and posterior
parts.
Two
structures present on one side of median siggatal plane, the one close to the
line is medial and the one away is lateral.
Two
structures present in our body and the one which is forward is as anterior
while the second one as posterior.
In
hand the surface of palm is called palmer surface while the other surface is
called dorsal surface.
The
sole of foot is known as planter surface while the other one is dorsal surface.
In
the limbs that structure which is near to the root of the limb is known as
proximal while the other is distal
Between
two structures the one which is at the top is superior and the other is
inferior.
A
structure close to the surface of the body is known as superficial while the
deep structures are known as deep.
When
two structures are present on the same side of median siggital plane they are
called ipsilateral, and when one is present on the one side and other on the
opposite side we call it contra lateral.
In
supine position the human body is lying straight, while in prone position body
is lying on apposite side so that abdomen and chest is lying bed.
When
two or more then two bones combine with each other, they form joint.
In
limbs, flexion is that movement in which angle of joint decreases.
In
limbs, extension is that movement in which the angle of joint increase.
This
movement occurs at the vertebral column and the body tied towards a side
In
this movement the structure in moved away from the midline.
In
this movement the structure is brought toward the midline.
In
this movement the structure moves around its long axis.
In
pronation the forearm is moved away in which the palmer surface is rotated to
the position of dorsal surface and vice versa.
This
is the reverse movement of pronation.
This
is the combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
This
is slight forward movement of the lower jaw.
This
is the slight backward movement of the lower jaw.
This
is the rotation of foot towards medial side
This
is rotation of foot towards lateral side.
Opposition
of little finger and thumb:
When
little finger and thumb are brought towards each other.
These
are connective tissues. Regarding histology bones are composed of
Function
of bones:
The
functions of bones are:
Types
of bones:
These
are solid bones like shaft of long bones.
Trabeculi
are present in these bones. Ends of long bones are examples of cancellous or
spongy bone.
1. According to shape of bones:
·
Long
bones
·
Short
bones
·
Flat
bones
·
Irregular
bones
·
Sesamoid
bones
Long bones:
These
are present in the limbs. Their length is more then width and it has two parts
Note:
Epiphysial
cartilage:
It’s present at the junction of epiphysis and
diaphysis. Bone Growth takes place here.
Marrow
cavity:
It’s
present in long bones which contain bone marrow.
Short bones:
These
bones are present in hands and feet these bones are cubiodal in shape short
bones are covered by periosteum.
Flat bones:
These
bones are flat in shape. Flat bones have two layers of compact bone with inner
spongy bones. These inner and outer layers are known as tables while the inside
spongy bone is known as diploe. Skull bones are examples.
Irregular bones:
These
bones are irregular in shape. Examples are vertebral and pelvic bones.
Sesamoid bones:
These
bones are small module like, patella is the largest sesamoid bone in our body
2. Regional classification of bones
Axial Skeleton:
Vertebra 26 bones
Ribs 24 bones
Shoulder Girdle
Upper limbs
Lower limbs
It
occurs by two methods:
Endochandreal
method:
In this method first cartilage is formed which is then
converted to bone, or one is formed form this cartilage.
E.g. limbs bone formation.
Membranous
method:
In this method bone is directly formed.
e.g. Skull
bones.
These are tow in number left and right. These bones
form inferior and lateral walls of pelvic girdle. Hip bone is an irregular
bone. It has 3 parts which are:
All these 3 bones unite at acetabulum
It forms the upper expended part of hipbone. And its
lower end form 2/5 of acetabulum
Parts of ileum:
It has the following parts:
o
Upper
end
o
Lower
end
o
Surfaces
o
Borders
Its also known as iliac crest. It’s convex in upper
direction while concave in the anterior part and convex in the posterior part
from medial side. Its anterior end form anterior superior iliac spine and its
posterior end form posterior superior iliac spine.
Its lower end is fused with acetabulum and it form 2/5
of acetabulum.
o
Anterior
border
o
Posterior
border
o
Medial
border
Anterior inferior iliac spine is present on anterior
border while posterior inferior iliac spine is present on posterior border.
Ileum has three surfaces:
o
Gluteal
surface
o
Iliac
surface
o
Sacropelvic
surface
It forms the anterioinferior part of the hip bone. It’s
fused in acetabulum with ischium and ileum.
o
Body
o
Superior
ramus
o
Inferior
ramus
Its superior part s known as superior crest, the
medial end of pubic crest is known as pubic tubercle it has three surfaces:
o
Medial
surface or symphsal surface
o
Anterior
surface
o
Posterior
surface
It has 3 borders and three surfaces these are
o
Inferior
border
o
Superior
border
o
Anterior
border
Surfaces:
o
Pelvis
surface
o
Pectineal
surface
o
Obturator
surface
This part of hip bone is located at posterioinferior
part. It forms 2/5 of acetabulum. It has the following parts:
o
Body
o
Ramus
Body of ischium has 2 ends and 3 borders and 3
surfaces
Ischium body has upper and lower ends.
Ischium body has 3 borders which are anterior,
posterior and lateral
Ischium body has 3 surfaces which are pelvic, femoral
and dorsal surfaces. Dorsal surface is also known as ischial tubrosity.
Inferior ramus of pubis and ramus of ischium are
comboinely known as conjoined ramus
It has two borders
o
Upper
border
o
Lower
border
And two surfaces
o
Outer
o
Inner
This
is a cup shaped cavity present on lateral surface of hip bone. Margins of
acetabulum are deficient inferiorly and this gap is known as acetabular notch.
This notch is over bridged by transverse ligament.
Acetabular
surface is divided into two parts:
2/5
of acetabulum is formed by ileum. 2/5 is formed by ischium and 1/5 is formed by
Pubis. Acetabular margins are deepened by a fibrocartilagenous Rim which is
known as acetabular labrum.
This
is a large gap in hip bone. It’s covered by obturator membrane except at
Obturator groove.
This
is the longest and strongest bone of human.
Upper
end has the following parts:
Head:
It
form more then a half of a sphere
Head
articulate with acetabulum and form hip joint. There is a central depression
known as fovea.
Neck:
It
connects Head with the shaft. Its length is 1.5 inches. Neck shaft angel is 125
Degrees. Neck has two borders which are upper and lower and two surfaces which
are anterior and posterior.
Greater
trochanter:
This
is a quadrangular elevation at the upper end.
It
has three surfaces, anterior lateral and medial. On medial surface there is a
depression known as trochanteric fossa.
Lesser
Trochanter:
This
is a conical prominence at the upper end.
Inter trochanteric line:
Anteriorly
greater and lesser trochanters are connected by a line known as inter
trochanteric line.
Inter
trochanteric crest:
This
is a crest present between two trochanters posteriorly.
This
is cylindrical on cross section for anatomical study we divided it into:
Middle
1/3:
In
the middle 1/3 it has 3 borders which are lateral, medial, and posterior.
Posterior border is also known as linea aspera. It has 3 surfaces which are
anterior, lateral, and medial.
Upper
1/3:
In
the upper 1/3 the linea aspera is divided into two lines and an extra posterior
surface is formed.
Lower
1/3:
In
the lower 1/3 again the linea aspera is divided into two lines and an extra
posterior surface is formed which is known as popliteal fossa.
Lower
end of femur:
Lower
end of femur is divided into two condyles:
·
Lateral
condyle
·
Medial
condyle
Lateral condyle:
This
is in more alignment with the shaft. It has a prominence known as lateral
epicondyle.
Medial condyle:
It’s
on medial side and has a prominence on medial surface known as medial
epicondyle
Articular
surface:
This
surface is divided into patellar and tibial parts:
Inter condyler fossa/ notch:
This
is a deeper notch present posteriorly and separate lateral and medial condyles.
This
is discontinuity in the cortical part of bone. It is presented by (#) sign.
They
are small vessels that provide nutrients for other vessels of the body.
They are small vessels that provide nutrients for the
Nerves in our body.
This
is the largest sesamoid bone of our body, present beneath the tendon of quadriceps
muscle. It alters the direction of force for movements and decreases the friction
It
is located in front of lower end of femur 1cm above the knee joint.
It’s
triangular in shape.
It
has 3 borders and 2 surfaces.
Anterior surface:
It’s
rough and non articular.
Posterior surface:
Lower
¼ of posterior surface is non articualr while upper ¾ are articular, articular
surface is divided into larger lateral part and smaller medial part.
In
the leg we have two bones, larger one is tibia which is laying medially.
This
is the expanded part it has following parts:
Medial
condyle:
It
is larger than lateral condyle and it has 4 surfaces, which are medial,
anterior, posterior and superior. Superior surface is articular.
Lateral
condyle:
It
has an articular surface for articulation with lateral condyle of femur.
Lateral condyle has a surface on its lateral aspect for articulation with
fibula.
Intercondyler
Area:
It’s
a small area between superior surfaces of medial and lateral condyles. It is
narrow in its middle part. It has an eminence known as intercondyler eminence.
Tibial
Tubrosity:
This
is an elevated part on anterior aspect of upper end of tibia. It has an upper
smooth part and lower rough part. In the junction between these two parts, epiphyseal
line passes.
Shaft
of tibia has 3 borders and 3 surfaces
Borders:
Surfaces:
Anterior
border:
It
extends form tibial tubrosity to anterior aspect of medial malleolus. It form
shin.
Lateral
border:
It’s
also known as interosseos border.
Lateral
surface:
It’s
present between anterior and lateral borders.
Medial
surface:
This
is present between anterior and medial borders. It forms the subcutaneous part.
Posterior
surface:
Its
present between lateral and medial borders, wide in upper part, it has an oblique
line in the upper part known as soleal line. Soleal line divides the posterior
part into a triangular upper part and an elongated lower part.
Its
smaller then the upper end. It has five surfaces:
Medial
Malleolus:
This
is a strong small process which extends from medial side of lower end of tibia.
This
is the smaller bone of leg. It lies laterally.
It
is expended in all directions. It has a circular facet for articulation with
the tibia. It has an apex known as styliod process.
It
form lateral malleolus
It
has four surfaces which are:
Shaft
of fibula has 3 borders and 3 surfaces:
Borders:
Surfaces:
Medial
surface:
Its
present between anterior and medial borders it’s narrow in the upper half.
Lateral
surface:
It’s
present between anterior and posterior borders.
Posterior
surface:
It’s
present between posterior and medial borders. It’s divided into tow parts by a
medial crest.
These
bones are located in the ankle region. These bones are seven in number. These are
as follows:
These
bones connect tarsal bones with phalanges.
Phalanges
are bones of toes. These bones are small in size they are 14 in number. Big toe
has tow phalanges while the rest toes have three phalanges for each toe.
The
joint formed between metatarsal bone and phalanges is known as
Clavicle
is a long bone. It connects upper limbs with the trunk.
This
is also known as acromial end. It’s flattened from the above downward. It form
acromiclavicular joint with the acromion process.
Its
also known as sternal end. It’s rounded and it form sternoclavicular joint with
the sternum. It has an articular facet for articulation with the first rib.
Anatomically
its divided into two parts:
Lateral
1/3 of the shaft:
This
part is flat. It has two borders and two surfaces. The two borders are anterior
and posterior and two surfaces are superior and inferior.
Medial
2/3 of shaft:
Medial
2/3 is round. It has 4 surfaces which are:
Scapula
is flat bone of shoulder girdle
It
has two surfaces, 3 borders, 3 angles and 3 processes
There
are two surfaces of scapula they are:
Costal
surface:
It’s
concave and there are ridges on this surface.
Dorsal
surface:
Spine
of scapula divided it into two parts:
Both
these parts are connected with each other by spinoglenoid notch.
Scapula
has 3 borders which are:
Superior
border:
This
border is thin and has suprascapular notch.
Lateral
border:
This
border is thick and there is infraglenoid tubercle present at upper end.
Medial
border:
Medial
borer is thin
Scapula
has 3 angles these are:
Scapula
has 3 processes they are:
Spine
of scapula:
This
is a triangular process, it has 3 borders, and 2 surfaces. Its posterior border
is thick and form crest of spine.
Acromion
process:
This
is an elongated process.
It
has two borders, lateral and medial, and has two surfaces which are superior
and inferior.
Coracoid
process:
This
process is present superior to glenoid fossa and is directed laterally and
forward.
Humerus
is the only bone of arm. It has the following parts:
Upper
end has the following parts:
Head:
It
forms less then a half of a sphere. It articulates with scapula to form
shoulder joint.
Anatomical
Neck:
This
is a line which separate head from rest of upper end.
Surgical
neck:
This
is a line which separate upper end from shaft.
Lesser
tubercle:
It’s
an elevation present on anterior aspect of upper end.
Greater
Tubercle:
This
is another elevation on lateral side.
Inter
tubercular sulcus or bicipatal groove:
This
is a groove present between lesser and greater tubercle on anterior side.
Shaft
has 3 borders and 3 surfaces:
Borders:
Surfaces:
Anteriomedial
surface:
This
surface is present between medial and anterior borders. Its upper part is
formed by bicipatal groove.
Anteriolateral
surface:
This
surface is present between anterior and lateral borders in the middle part this
surface has a tubrosity known as deltoid tubrosity. Radial groove is present
for radial nerve.
Posterior
surface:
This
surface is present between medial and lateral borders. Radial nerve also passes
through this surface.
This
end is divided into two parts:
Lower
end has two types of surfaces:
Articular
part:
This
part is divided into two parts:
Capitulum:
It’s
rounded and articulate with radial head
Trochlea:
Its
pulley shaped and articulate with ulna.
Non
articular part:
It
has the following parts:
Lateral epicondyle:
It’s
present on the lateral aspect of lateral condyle.
Medial condyle:
It’s
present on the medial surface of the medial condyle.
Coronoid fossa:
It’s
present on anterior aspect of lower end in front of Trochlea.
Radial fossa:
It’s
present in front of capitulum on anterior aspect.
Olecranon fossa:
It’s
present on posterior aspect in front of trochlea.
This
is one of the forearm bones. It’s the lateral bone. It form elbow joint with
humerus superiorly and wrist joint inferiorly with the carpal bones.
·
Upper
end
·
Shaft
·
Lower
end
Upper
end of radius has the following parts:
Head:
Its
disk shaped, it articulate with the capitulum of humerus to participate in
elbow joint formation, and also form the upper end fo ulna. It’s covered by
hyaline cartilage.
Neck:
This
is the constricted part below the head, its covered by annular ligament.
Tubrosity:
Tubrosity
is present on the medial side of upper end, it has two parts, posterior which
is rough and anterior which is smooth
It
has three borders and three surfaces:
Anterior
border:
Its
upper half is oblique and lower half is vertical, upper oblique half is known
as anterior oblique line.
Posterior
border:
This
border is mirror image of anterior border. The upper oblique line is known as
the posterior oblique line.
Medial
border:
This
is the sharpest border. This border is also known as the introsseus border
because interosseus membrane is attached with this border.
There
are three surfaces on the shaft of radius. They are:
Lower
end is comparatively expanded. It form wrist joint with the carpal bones. It
has five surfaces they are:
The
lateral surface extends inferiorly and forms Styloid Process.
Ulna
is a long bone of forearm. It form elbow joint superiorly and wrist joint
inferiorly.
This
end form elbow joint with humerus and superior radioulnar joint with head of
radius. Upper end has the following parts:
Olecranon
process:
This
process project upward and it has five surfaces they are:
Coronoid
process:
This
process project anteriorly. It has four surfaces they are:
Trochlear
notch:
This
is an articular surface for articulation with trochlea of humerus to form elbow
joint.
Radial
notch:
This
notch is another articular surface for articulation with radial head to form
superior radioulnar joint. Its present on lateral aspect of upper end.
Ulnar
Tubrosity:
This
tubrosity is a roughened area present on anterior aspect of upper end just
inferior to coronoid process.
Shaft
of ulna has 3 surfaces and 3 borders:
Borders
of ulna:
Anterior
surface:
This
surface is present between anterior and interossous borders. Nutrient foramina
are present in the upper part of this surface.
Posterior
surface:
This
surface is present between posterior and interossous borders.
Medial
surface:
This
surface is present between anterior and posterior borders.
Lower
end of ulna form the wrist joint with the carpal bones. It has an articular
facet which articulates with radius and form inferior radioulnar joint.
Posteriomedial side of the lower end extends downward and form styloid process.
These
bone form wrist in the upper limb. These bones are 8 in number they form wrist
joint with radius and ulna proximally and carpometacarpal joint with metacarpal
bones distally they are arranged in two rows proximal and distal.
Proximal
row contain 4 bones which are:
Distal
row contain 4 bones which are:
These
bones are 5 in number. They form carpometacarpal joint proximally with carpal
bones and metacarpophalyngeal distally with phalanges. Metacarpal bones have 3
parts:
·
Head
·
Shaft.
·
Base.
These bones form skeleton of fingers, they are 14 in
number 2 bones are present for thumb where rest of fingers contain 3 phalanges
each. Phalanges form metacarpophalangeal joint proximally and interphalangeal
joints distally. Thumb has a single interphalangeal joint while the remaining
fingers have two interphalangeal joints which are proximal and distal
interphalangeal joint.
General
information about ribs:
There
are 12 pairs of ribs.
The
space between ribs is known as intercostals spaces
Increases
up to 9th rib and from 9th rib to 12th rib it
decrease.
Length
of ribs:
It
Decrease from above downward.
Ribs
are divided into 2 groups
Typical
ribs:
Ribs
from 3rd to 9th are typical
Atypical
ribs:
1st,
2nd, 10th, 11th, and 12th ribs are
atypical ribs.
True
ribs:
First
seven ribs are known as true ribs, these ribs are also known as vertebrosternal
ribs.
False
ribs:
8th,
9th, and 10th ribs are known as false ribs or vertebrocondral
ribs.
Floating
ribs:
11th
and 12th ribs are known as floating ribs.
Form
third to ninth ribs are known as typical ribs.
Parts:
Anterior
end:
Its
oval in shape, its concave and articulate with their respective cartilages.
Posterior
end:
Posterior
end has 3 parts they are:
Head:
It
has two facets, one larger and one smaller there is a crest between these two
facets. Head articulate with the vertebrae.
Neck:
This
is the constricted part between head and tubercle. It has two surfaces anterior
and posterior and two borders superior and inferior.
Tubercle:
This
is present at the junction of neck and shaft it has a medial articular part and
a lateral non articular part.
Shaft:
Shaft
has 2 surfaces and two borders
Surfaces:
Borders:
Outer
surface:
It’s
directed downward and laterally
Inner
Surface:
This
surface is smooth. It’s covered by pleura. Inferior part of this surface has a
groove known as costal groove.
Upper
or superior border:
Its
thick and it has tow lips which are inner and outer lips
Lower
or inferior border:
This
border form anterior part of costal groove.
This
rib has the following differences with typical ribs:
This
rib has the following differences with typical rib:
These
ribs have the following differences with the typical rib:
This
is flat bone. It forms anterior part of rib cage.
Its
length is 17 Cm. Its length is more in males then females.
It’s
the strongest part. It’s quadrangular in shape.
It
has two surfaces which are Anterior and posterior and has 4 borders which are
superior, inferior, right lateral and left lateral.
Anterior
surface:
This
surface is convex from sides.
Posterior
surface:
This
surface is concave.
Superior
border:
This
border is thick. It has a notch which is known as jugular notch or
interclavicular notch. On each side there is another notch known as clavicular
notch.
Inferior
border:
This
border form joint with the body of sternum. On anterior side there is a
prominence at this junction which is known as sternal angle or angle of Louis.
Lateral
borders:
Lateral
border form joint with 1st costal cartilage.
This
part is lying between manobrium and xiphisternum. This part has two surfaces
which are anterior and posterior, two borders which are right lateral and left
lateral, and two ends which are upper and lower.
Anterior
surface of body:
This
surface is flat and has ill defined ridges.
Posterior
surface of body:
This
surface is concave and has transverse lines.
Borders
of body:
Body
of sternum has two borders left and right lateral, these borders have joint
with costal cartilages.
Upper
end of body:
This
end form joint with manubrium.
Lower
end of body:
This
end form joint with xiphisternum
This
is the lowest part of sternum. It’s the smallest part. In the early life its
fibrocartilagenous and latter on it become ossified.
General
features of vertebral column:
Vertebral
column is formed of 33 vertebrae, out of these vertebrae 7 are Cervical, 12 are
thoracic, 5 are Lumber, 5 are Sacral, and 4 are Coccygeal.
Spinal
nerves arise from this column; first 7 cervical nerves arise above their
corresponding vertebrae while 8th and the remaining nerves arise
below their corresponding vertebrae.
They
are divided into two types they are:
Cervical,
Thoracic, and Lumber vertebrae are grouped into true vertebrae, while Sacral
and Coccygeal vertebrae into false vertebrae.
These
are cartilaginous discs present between vertebrae.
Intervertebral
disc formed 1/5 of the total length of vertebral column.
In
siggital plain two curvatures are present
Primary:
It’s
present in thoracic and sacral region.
Secondary:
It
develops later in life at cervical and lumber region.
In
coronal plain:
There is a curvature at thoracic region it’s convex towards
right side.
Note
This
is a convex deformity posteriorly of vertebral column.
This
is a convex deformity anteriorly of vertebral column.
This is a convex deformity accruing laterally.
A
typical vertebrae has the following parts:
This
part lies anteriorly. It’s cylindrical with flat superior and inferior surfaces
These
are short bars extending posteriorly from body of vertebrae. Pedicals are two
in number which are left and right.
Laminae
are extension from pedicals in the posteriomedial directions. Both laminae
united posteriorly in the midline.
Pedicals
and laminae combinedly form vertebral or neural arch.
This
is a foramina bounded by vertebral body and vertebral arches. Vertebral foramina
of all vertebrae form a vertical canal known as vertebral canal. Spinal cord
passes through this canal.
This
is a process extending posteriorly form the junction of two laminae.
These
are two processes extending laterally and slightly backward from the junction
of pedicale and laminae.
This
process extend upward from the junction of pedicale and laminae
This
process extends inferiorly from the junction of pedical with laminae.
At
the junction of vertebral body with the pedical there is a narrowing of pedical
which give rise to a notch known as superior vertebral notch.
Al
the junction of vertebral body with the pedical inferiorly there is another
notch known as inferior vertebral notch.
Superior
vertebral notch and inferior vertebral notch form foramina known as
intervertebral foramina and spinal nerves passes through these foramina.
Thoracic
vertebrae are 12 in numbers from 2nd to 8th are typical
thoracic vertebrae while 1st, 9th, 10th, 11th,
and 12th are A-typical thoracic vertebrae.
These
vertebrae have the following parts:
Body:
Body
is heart shaped and there are two costal facets for ribs articulation.
Vertebral
foramina:
It
is small and circular in this case.
Pedicle:
These
are straight.
Vertebral
notch:
Superior
vertebral notches are shallow and inferior vertebral notches are deep.
Laminae:
Overlap
each other from above.
Superior
articular process:
This
process is directed upward from the junction of pedicle and laminae.
Inferior
articular process:
This
process is fused with the laminae.
Transverse
process:
These
processes are large. Articular surface has articular facets which articulate
with the tubercle of the rib.
Spine:
Is
long, it is directed downward and backward.
It
has the following difference with thoracic vertebrae:
These
vertebrae have the following differences with the typical thoracic vertebrae:
These
two vertebrae have the following difference with the typical thoracic
vertebrae:
Lumber
vertebrae are 5 in number. First 4 are typical lumber vertebrae while last one
is atypical lumber vertebrae.
Typical
lumber vertebrae:
These
vertebrae have the following features:
L5
is atypical vertebrae. This vertebra has the following features:
·
Transverse
process: are short, thick and strong. Transverse process is pyramidal in shape.
·
Inferior
articular processes and superior articular processes: the distance between
these two processes is equal.
·
Spine:
it’s shorter, smaller and round at the tip.
·
Body:
body of L5 vertebrae is largest vertebral body of the whole vertebral column.
·
Pedicle:
they are directed backward and laterally.
These
vertebrae are seven in number. They are divided into two groups which are
typical and atypical.
They
are C3, C4, C4, and C6.
They
are C1, C2, and C7.
Cervicle
vertebra 1 is also known as ATLAS, Cervicle vertebrae two is also known as AXIS,
and cervicle vertebrae 7 is also known as vertebral prominence.
First
Cervicle vertebrae (Atlas):
Second
Cervicle process or Axis:
There
is a process at superior aspect of body and this process usually represents the
whole body. This process is known as odentoid process.
7th Cervicle Vertebrae or vertebral prominence:
This is a large triangular
bone formed by fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae.
This is a small triangular
bone. It’s formed by fusion of coccygeal vertebrae
