Japanese Occupation: The Root of Nationalism

Throughout Southeast Asian history, the one event to have had a drastic effect on its nations and its course is the Second World War, namely that of the actions of Axis member, Japan. Between 1941-1945, Japan would embark on conquering all of East Asia, overthrowing European dominance in the region. Prior to 1941, however, Japan was able to gain the confidence of Southeast Asia with relative ease, as their propaganda machine would spurt out an ¡§Asia for Asiatics¡¨ sentiment, coupled with the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere of which Japan served as the managerial and industrial nucleus. With the onslaught of the Japanese occupation in Southeast Asia, nationalist movements gained momentum as they witnessed their European masters toppled from privileged positions in those societies. One by one, the end of foreign rule by the Dutch, the British, the French, and the Americans was toppled and dreams of independence were not far off. However, its citizens would soon lament, as their new champions would surpass the harshness of the former European rule. Japanese brutalities and atrocities, systematic pillaging of everything that could be carried away, drug trafficking by the Japanese army and its gambling and prostitution rackets, forced labor expected from the peasantry, and the general reduction of the workers to slavery would become rampant in their dealings throughout Southeast Asia. In time, as the networks created by the Japanese progressed, the true intent of exploiting Southeast Asia for its raw materials to the last drop became apparent. As a result, these lands developed a renewed sense of nationalism, as the Japanese occupation and its harsh measures would forge a common hatred and drive to repel the enemy, all the while uniting its people together towards independence.


The Sweeping War

Initially the Europeans viewed the Japanese to be of no consequence, confidently asserting in the 1930s the Japanese were weak when compared to their elitist views of superiority. They believed them to have a national predisposition to poor eyesight, thus enabling them from being adequate air pilots. (Osborne, 124) They believed them to be meek, possessing no training or skill, all the while equipped with weapons that would cause no concern. However, as time would tell, the Japanese would dispel those presuppositions. In 1941, it came as a monumental shock to the senses as the Japanese struck, causing defeat after another, as it was impossible for politicians in Europe, like Sir Winston Churchill and Charles de Gaul, to accept that European colonial dominance in the region had ended. (Osborne, 123) It would be grudgingly admitted that indeed their reports on the Japanese were wrong. For the people of Southeast Asia, the myth of European superiority had been demolished overnight, more remarkable to them was that it was at the hands of an Asian country. To the Japanese, Southeast Asia was a region they had the most obvious right to share. If the pattern of the United States traditionally concentrating its attention on mainly the Caribbean and Latin-American tropics were to be followed, then the Europeans should limit their efforts to Africa and the respected regions near it. Like a ¡§Monroe Doctrine for East Asia¡¨, Japan felt that colonization by Europeans in the region should cease and its holdings delegated under the authority of Japan. (Fisher, 194) Hence, the rationale for a so-called ¡§Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere¡¨ plan and the ¡§Asia for Asiatics¡¨ slogan. Also of note, was the emphasis to Buddhist countries that Japan too was a Buddhist country as well (although the differences between Japanese Zen Buddhism of the Northern School and Southeast Asian Theravada Buddhism are quite distinct). (Hall, 860) As a prelude to the war, this slogan and plan, which was initiated during the late 30s, served to spark dissent against their European colonizers while seeking to eradicate its influence and culture in the region. (Fisher, 194) Coupled with their ability to supply consumer goods that the local populations wanted at prices lower than that of their European colonizers, while also, its Japanese firms willingness to provide training and employment as assistants for indigenes, the Japanese were able to gain an extremely favorable impression throughout Southeast Asia. (Fisher, 195) Already seen as the champion of Asia against the west due to its victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, Japan would begin to enforce its ¡§Monroe Doctrine for East Asia¡¨ on December 7th, 1941, the attack on Pearl Harbor.

In Southeast Asia, the two major military bases in the area prior to the Japanese attack were in Singapore and the Philippines. Confident that the Japanese could not carry off a two-pronged attack, the British Commonwealth and the United States felt relatively secure in their defensive power, as they treated the region as a unit that would inevitably stand or fall together. (Fisher, 195) If any power were to strike at one or the other, it could be expected that a flank or lateral attack would result in response. Only a strong aggressor could stave off both. In the case of Japan, they possessed sufficient enough strength, and with the absence of any Allied forces to reinforce their armies, Southeast Asia would pass into the hands of the Japanese in a matter of months.

Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Germany had defeated France and Holland, leaving their colonies in Southeast Asia with inadequate defences against an attack. In the same month, June 1940, Japan signed a friendship treaty with P¡¦ibun Songgram¡¦s government in Thailand by playing upon P¡¦ibun¡¦s revisionist ambitions. However, the true goal of the Japanese was to attain the rights to the naval base Thailand was building in Singora. (Hall, 856) With the agreement signed, Japan then turned to deal with French Indo-China.

In August 1940, under pressure from Berlin, the Vichy regime signed an agreement granting Japan permission to use Indo-China¡¦s ports, cities, and airports for troop deployments. All in all, the agreement would allow for Japanese forces to occupy the northern part of Indo-China and down to as far south as Hanoi. As well, with its alliance with Thailand, Japan would mastermind a mock offensive by Pi¡¦bun¡¦s troops into Cambodian and Laotian frontiers. Later, these lands were ¡§mediated¡¨ upon by Japan and would see the Vichy government forced to hand over the Cambodian provinces of Battambang and Siemreap and the Laos territory located on the west bank of the Mekong. (Hall, 856) By July 1941, the Japanese had occupied the whole of French Indo-China and was poised to strike.

Japan had planned a short and decisive war, for it needed to achieve its objectives before the United States could revive its power in the Pacific. Being the only base with a naval fleet, Japan would launch a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941, as diplomatic missions by the Japanese would lull the suspicions of the Americans. For an hour and a half, Japanese fighter planes, the Zero, would attack Pearl Harbor beginning at 7:55 am, Sunday morning. (Browne, 127) The last Zero would soar off just after 9:30 in the morning, leaving behind the chaos of five battleships, two cruisers, three destroyers, and two other naval vessels sunk. One cruiser and four other destroyers badly damaged and one hundred and seventy-five planes wrecked or burnt out. Two and a half thousand lay dead at Pearl Harbor. (Browne, 127) According the Japan Times, the United States had been reduced in one morning to a third-class naval power and was ¡§trembling in her shoes¡¨. (Browne, 133)

¡§We by the grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on the throne
of unbroken for ages eternal, enjoin upon our loyal and brave subjects:
We hereby declare war on the United States of America and the British
Empire¡K. Eager for the realization of their inordinate ambition to
dominate the Orient¡K. Both America and Britain¡K. obstructed by
every means our peaceful commerce and finally resorted to direct
severance¡K. The situation being such as it is, Our Empire for its
existence and self-defence has no other recourse by to appeal to arms.¡¨


Imperial Rescript of Emperor Hirohito

With the naval power of the Pacific now out of its way, Japanese offensive went ahead according to plan and with breathless speed, as it would deploy troops throughout Southeast Asia. On the same day it attacked Pearl Harbor, Japan dropped bombs upon Singapore while launching an attack upon the Philippines. The following day, Japanese troops landed in Southern Thailand and northern Malaya. After meeting a token resistance by Thai forces, Pi¡¦bun¡¦s government would capitulate and agreed to declare war on the Allies. (Hall, 857) Before the end of December, the American bases of Guam and Wake and the British settlement of Hong Kong had fallen. Malaya and Singapore would fall on the 15th of Feburary 1942, as the British would see their claims of ¡§an unconquerable Malay Peninsula due to their control of the main roads and an unpassable jungle¡¨ be smashed to bits. To this day, the remains of the pathetically inadequate pill boxes placed beside the roads and facing the jungle still exists and lay further proof of earlier presuppositions about the Japanese. In Indonesia, the Dutch would face defeat and surrender its lands by the end of March 1942. Six months after Pearl Harbor, the Japanese would conquer most of their ¡§Greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere¡¨. However, this feat was not achieved easily, as Japan would meet its most bitter fighting by American forces in the Philippines whom tried to delay the inevitable, and by British, Indian, and Chinese in Burma, whom fought not to hold ground, but to escape. (Hall, 858) By the wars end, Japan had indeed accomplished their goal of ¡§liberating¡¨ this sphere, however, for the inhabitants for these lands they would soon become disillusioned, as experience with Japanese high-handedness and brutality would far exceed anything dealt by the West.


Resurgence of Nationalism

During the years of colonization of Southeast Asia at the hands of the West, nationalist groups were still in its infancy due to the non-existent stratification of social classes. However, as Western technology and thought began to be introduced, small groups of indigenes would develop an awareness of nationalism. Mainly consisting of elites whom have been exposed to foreign thought through overseas schooling (usually that of their colonizers), and with increased communication that connected one another from across the land, the development of this infrastructure to facilitate trade and transport would, in turn, ironically develop a greater nationalistic sense. However, nationalism would not spread like wildfire, as most Southeast Asians would accept their colonizers for they believed that the ¡§myth of European superiority could (never) be demolished¡¨. (Osborne, 123). As a result, although nationalist groups would begin to develop over the years of colonization, there lacked the essential ingredient of nationalistic thought¡K a center to focus it towards. With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War, nationalist movements would gain inspiration, as Japan would defeat a great Western power. When Japan would defeat the colonizers, seemingly overnight, the world of Southeast Asia would never be the same.

As Japan attacked the Western powers, it expoused a sentiment that had never been heard in Southeast Asia, an ¡§Asia for Asiatics¡¨. Although the slogan would fail to spur uprisings throughout the region against their colonizers, Southeast Asians would secretly root for their ¡§liberators¡¨ in its war against the West. (Hall, 858) In only one of the countries was there an effort on the part of nationalists to associate themselves with the Japanese military. The Burmese Independence Movement (B.I.A.), numbering barely a thousand at the beginning of the invasion in January 1942, would gain in numbers, as they would claim a membership approaching 30,000 near the end of the Burmese campaign. (Osborne, 125) However, as the Burmese would learn, the Japanese, victorious throughout Southeast Asia, would soon prove to be no better than their former colonizers. In Burma, as elsewhere, Japan saw its own interest¡¦s supreme and would rapidly display the hollowness in their propaganda of an ¡§Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere¡¨.

From the onset, Japan would promote the indigenes own cultural identity while occupying Southeast Asia. In most of the regions, their respective flags replaced that of their colonizers, while cultural artifacts, songs, and religions that emphasized its unique identity became symbolic to the people. (Osborne, 127) Such was the case of Indonesia, as the Japanese military would try to develop support for their war effort (and throughout the rest of Southeast Asia) by encouraging such ideals.


The Japanese Legacy: Indonesia, Burma & Philippines

For the Japanese, Indonesia, was the most coveted due to its economic resources, namely that of its oil industry. (Hall, 858) Being the largest of all Southeast Asian states, both in terms of national territory and population, it is no surprise that it had led in wide interest in the country¡¦s battle for independence. With the overthrow of the Dutch colonial regime, there was the release of the Indonesian nationalists whom were imprisoned up to a decade or more for their views. (Osborne, 126) For Sukarno and Hatta, this put the Japanese in a favorable light and would strive to work with them towards independence. Although the Japanese would soon prove to be another alien power¡Xexcept Asian this time, the Indonesians were able to involve themselves in a far greater degree of political organization then had ever been under Dutch rule. Nationalist leaders could organize, establish chains of command, and, through the permission of some Japanese commanders, advance nationalist ideals through broadcasts aimed towards independence. (Osborne, 127) With the coupling of symbolic changes like flying their own flag, songs of independence, and pride in their past brought about a sense of an Indonesian identity that transcended all local, social, and religious classes. By 1943, a Central Advisory Council headed by Sukarno, with Mohammed Satta as his deputy, had been created as a promise from the Japanese in their share of the government. (Hall, 863) Although hollow in name due to Japanese own self-interests, the creation of this council would nonetheless be a step closer towards independence. Also of note, the Japanese would provide a new perception in society, especially that for the youths of Indonesia. Throughout Indonesian history prior to the war, the people have had a cultural emphasis towards difference, preferring non-demonstrative and non-aggressive behavior. (Osborne, 127) However, the Japanese would change that, as their victorious ways would provide a radically different model where admiration for force and violence was not only needed, but desirable as well. (Osborne, 127) For the youths, this model would prove to question the values of their elders whom had acquiesced earlier to the Dutch during the 1920¡¦s and 30¡¦s, and as a result, a new generation based on military organization would rise in the future. Ultimately, this would culminate in the Indonesian revolutions against Dutch attempts to reimpose colonial rule in 1945 and 1949. (Osborne, 139)

By contrast, Burma proved to be a problematic acquisition on July 1942 to the Japanese. Like all other Southeast Asian countries Japan had ¡§liberated¡¨, the policy of instilling local politicians into the administrative structure was continued. However, unlike other Southeast Asian countries, many thousands of young Burmese laid claims to the right to participate in the newly purposed administration. As a result, these claimants rushed to seek control of areas throughout the country based on ¡§the strength of their adherence to nationalist ideas¡¨. (Osborne, 128) In some areas, the nationalist fervor would case confrontations and even bloodshed, as minority groups would be the focus of its release. Due to these circumstances, the Japanese would instill a well-known nationalist, Ba Maw, as the head of a civilian Burmese administration. Initially the relationship between the newly formed administration and Japanese interests, however, from late 1942 to the end of the war in 1945, there became a progressive growth of distrust between the two. Like in other Southeast Asia-Japan relations, Japanese interest remained paramount and despite the vaunted talks about independence, power remained in hands of the Japanese military. (Osborne, 129) Even the play on Japan¡¦s Buddhist similarities with each country was thrown in disregard, as they would dispel their mocked profession to spirituality as the demands of war increased. Such was the case in Burma, as Japan¡¦s true intention of using the Buddhist church as a vehicle to further their war effort became all the more apparent as the promise of the ¡§co-prosperity sphere¡¨ would never develop. (Fisher, 198) Instead, like in other areas throughout Southeast Asia, the Burmese had severe demands placed upon its population. Provision of food and other resources, and more notably, coolie labor for the creation of strategic rail and road building projects. (Hall, 861) Although consisting mostly of prisoners of war, the infamous ¡§death railway¡¨ connecting southern Burma with Bangkok through Kanburi would be one such a project. Thousands of lives were lost on the construction of this railway, as they were forced to work at break-neck speed with little or no nourishment. (Hall, 870) Eventually, as the war progressed, heavier and heavier demands on the Burmese were made. Cattle were requisitioned by the military and inflation was uncontrollable, as the inability to export rice and import consumer goods increased. Malaria control measures ceased and the people suffered heavily from disease. Such epidemics as bubonic plague, cholera, and small pox became uncontrollable. (Hall, 864) Because of this frenzy, this chaos, in 1944 extremists whom had assisted the Japanese in their invasion and were in political control, now secretly engaged in the organizing of a nation-wide Anti-Fascist People¡¦s Freedom League and awaited for a favorable opportunity to face their oppressor. (Hall, 864)

In case of the Philippines there is an interesting contrast, as out of all Southeast Asian countries, it has had the longest history of colonization at the hands of Spain and the United States. Early in its history, Filipino independence had been proclaimed by Emilio Aguinaldo on the 12th of June, 1898. Prior to the Filipino declaration, although slow in coming because of the hindrance to communication due to geography, their colonizers would lay down the foundation for nationalistic thought. (Hall, 761) Education for the illustrado class, a common language (Spanish), the spread of Christianity, and a centralized government would produce the awareness that the Filipinos shared a common interest in the hatred of Spanish yoke. (Hall, 761) With a common racial origin and common heritage, little did the Spanish know that their policy and their Spanish pride and intolerance would unite Filipino commonalties together and be focused upon them. However, the destruction of an American battleship, the Maine, in Havana Bay on the 15th of February 1898 would lead to the defeat of the Spaniards in the Pacific and ultimately the cession of Philippines to the United States. (Hall, 807)

Under the American rule, the claim to independence by the Filipinos was rejected and Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901 after a bitter and determined resistance against the United States. (Hall, 808) Prior to the Japanese invasion, American colonization would see the improvement of living standards, however, despite the approval by the U.S. congress of the Tydings-McDuffie Act on March 24 1934, true independence would never be attained as long as their economy was tied with them, and American bases on their lands. (Hall, 812) On January 2nd 1942, the Philippines would fall to the Japanese

Under Japanese rule, there was less disruption of the social system as there was in Burma and Indonesia. (Hall, 818) A large number of Filipino administrators continued to serve, believing that by collaborating they could better protect the people from Japanese brutality. On October 1943, as it was the pattern for other Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines would inaugurate the new republic with Jose P. Laurel as president. (Hall, 819) Of course, this new republic and leader would be completely under Japanese control. Like other Southeast Asian countries occupied by the Japanese, harsh demands were made by them upon the Filipinos. They would also witness the brutalities and atrocities that became a trademark of Japan¡¦s ¡§Holy War for Asian Liberation¡¨ (Bresnan, 13)


By nature nationalism is an unnatural act for humans, for it requires the sacrifice of one¡¦s life for an abstract ideal. In Southeast Asia, their oppressive lives were just a way of life. Acceptance of their conditions without complaint seemed to permeate the societies, as long periods of history would attest to the manipulation of it soul source of power, human labor. However, with the advent of colonization by the Europeans, an infrastructure for their societies was laid down. An important ingredient for nationalism is the communication with others across the land. As people become aware that their sentiments are shared with those, say across the mountains, a common ground is struck--- an awareness that they weren¡¦t alone in their plight. Another aspect of nationalism is that it requires the rise of an educated elite. From them, formations of groups against oppression are formed and push for salvation, as they posses the ideals to the proper apparatus of implementation of nationalistic thought. The one final ingredient in order for nationalism to flourish is the common enemy. Prior to the Japanese Occupation, Southeast Asians had already began nationalist movements against their European colonizers. However, nationalism would be hindered due to its inability to reach out across the land, as most Southeast Asians believed in the permanence of European dominance. Although the Japanese Occupation, by all means, was a horrific event in which many lives were lost, the hopes for independence were unchained as their perceptions was smashed. The ¡§Asia for Asiatics¡¨ movement would light a spark that had otherwise been unlit. The Japanese Occupation would further develop nationalism due to their harsh measures. The "East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere¡¨, in which Japan was the industrial hub, and the rest of Asia as the supplier of raw goods and market, would develop into, as bitter Filipino¡¦s would joke ¡§Ako-Prosperity¡¨; or Me-First-Prosperity¡¨. (Bresnan, 13) As a result, independence was not far off, for they felt the injustice inflicted upon their land and its people. Coupled with the newly gained knowledge that indeed their colonizers could be overthrown with that of their cultural awareness, nationalist movements would surely succeed, as their pride in their own identity and heritage would carry them towards true independence.