"Arthashastra", the Handbook of Kings

Throughout history, totalitarian governments have ruled by instilling fear unto their subjects. With a closed and gauntletted fist, people were held tightly in rein and punished severely for non-conformity. Oftentimes, these periods of rule were both brutal and harsh, and represents perhaps some of the most darkest periods in history. Fortunately, these governments were only brief in time, although not before taking a costly toll on human lives. Ivan "the Terrible" IV, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, and Charles I, are just some examples of heavy-handed governments that kept their peoples regimented through fear and paranoia.

For most totalitarian and dictatorship type governments, schools of thought were found in the background propounding the ways in which their governments ruled. Statecraft, politics, administration, and the manipulation of power are just some of the issues that concerned these schools. As a result, doctrines were created, as thinkers of this genre began to exspouse their ideas. Aristotle's "Politics", Plato's "Republic and Laws", and Machiavelli's "The Prince", are just some examples of classic thinkers and their views on such issues. Most notable of totalistic, dictator-type doctrines are Adolf Hilter's "Mien Kampf" and Ivan IV's "Oprichnina". In Asia, where organized governments have had a long and rich history, the key to power was not over the control of land, but for its vast resource of manpower. In the case of India, Kautilya's "Arthashastra" would be instrumental in unifying a land that had never been so before. By using such measures, as treachery and venality, coupled with a balance of checks and measures, the "Arthrashastra" would be the handbook on polity for both the Mauryan and Guptan empires. (Wolpert, 35)


Hindu India: The Beginning of the Maurya Dynasty
Centuries before India had been unified by Chandragupta in 322 B.C.E., the Persian empire established by Cyrus the Great (500-529 B.C.E.), and continued by Darius I (521-486 B.C.E.), had smashed all known ancient kingdoms spanning from the Black Sea and Caucasus in the north, southward to the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates at the tip of Egypt, westward to Syria, and eastward through the Indus Valley to India proper. (Zimmer, 1969) Uniting these lands through force and regulated by a vast network of "eyes and ears", a single, interrelated system of might and brutality was knit into such that had never been seen before, setting a model for future empires to come.

"When he had gained the victory and ascended the throne,
he transformed nominal liberty into slavery, inasmuch as
he oppressed with servitude the people whom he had
rescued from foreign rule."
(Justin, A Roman Historian referring to Chandragupta, the First Emperor of India)

The advent of the Maurya dynasty marks a period in which chronology becomes definite and almost precise. Through the unification of innumerable, fragmented states which blossomed from the Indus civilization around 500 B.C.E., a huge empire had sprung through conquest, ushering a new period of ruthless politics. (Murphey, 31) Prior to Chandragupta's unification of India, Alexander the Great, fresh from his victories over the Persian Empire, invaded Northwestern India and was able to establish Hellanistic kingdoms in 326 B.C.E.. (Murhpey, 31) As a result, the invasions provided scholars with the first certain dates in Indian history, as well as, much of our knowledge about the Maurya age.

Chandragupta, rumored to be the son of the last Nanda king of a low-born woman, achieved the unification of India by (with the aid of northern nations) defeating the remnants of the Macedonian garrisons in the Indus basin after Alexander's death in 323 B.C.E. After the garrison's defeat, Chandragupta, under the guidance of his Brahman mentor, Kautilya, successfully sparked a revolution in Pataliputra (Patna), the capital of Magadhan monarchy and the Nanda family. (Spear, 1967) After successfully exterminating the Nanda family line, thus securing his position against all enemies and contenders to his ascendancy to the throne in 322 B.C.E., Chandragupta was able to form a gigantic empire, becoming the first Emperor of India.

Chandragupta reigned over unified India for twenty-four years, of which he was in constant fear for his life. (Spear, 1967) As a result, he enforced strict order through a highly organized autocracy that was managed by his Brahman minister. Economic, social, and political life of Maurya India was tightly controlled and maintained by a vast and costly military machine and by a large secret service whom spied on potential dissidents, suspected criminals, and corrupt or ineffective officials, oh whom, without the hampering of moral scruples, were severely punished. (Murphey, 1996) For the citizens, their lives endured through hardships, tragedies, and the absence of basic human rights that we cherish today. (Zimmer, 1969) This totalitarianism would continue under the rein of Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, due to Kautalya's guidance in state matters. Eventually, under the rein of Ashoka, whom ascended the throne in 269 B.C.E., did life for the people of India improve due to his policy of "conquest by righteousness", a product of his conversion to Buddhism. (Spear, 1967)


"Arthashastra" by Kautilya, the First Legalist Thought
Most of what we know about the Maurya age depends mainly on three sources: the accounts of Greeks who visited India either with Alexander the Great (e.g. "Indika" by Megasthenes) or a generation later (e.g. Selectus Nictor), inscriptions found on rocks and pillars throughout India by King Ashoka, and through a treatise on statecraft by Kautilya. (Wolpert, 35) The latter source, although there has been debate as to whether or not it was an official manual of the Mauryan emperor, is nonetheless a philosophy reflecting the period prior to the Guptan Empire (320 to 550A.C.E.).(Spear, 1967)

"The Authoritative Handbook (sastra) of the Science of Wealth (or material gain-artha)", by Vishnugupta Kautilya (or Chanakya, his patronymic name), Chandragupta's Brahman minister, is where we draw most of our knowledge about state policy of the Maurya age. Though it was written at the end of the fourth century B.C.E., it appears to have been rediscovered only in 1905, of which, in its present form may have been a summation of a series of arthashastra's written by scholars prior to, and after, Kautilya's time due to its numerous stylistic and linguistic variations and translations. (Spear, 1967)

The books, totaling fifteen in all and written in Sanskrit, discuss theories and principles of governing a state, as well as, resolutions to problems of a practical nature. According to Kautilya, the ruler should use any means to attain his goals and required no moral sanctions in doing so. (Basham, 141) He was allowed free rein, whereas the citizen was subjected to a rigid set of rules. One of the more notorious features of the Arthashastra is its obsession with spying on the king's subjects. Kautilya goes to extreme lengths in Book 2, Chapter 11, on the various types of spies, in which, espionage and the liberal use of provocative agents is recommended on a large scale. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) For these spies, Kautilya proposes murder and false accusations as tools to be used without any inhibitions as to morals or ethics. One such example of the extreme lengths Kautilya proposes is the use of fake holy men in which he describes as:

"A man with a shaven head or braided head and desirous to earn
livelihood is a spy under the guise of an ascetic practicing austerities.
Such a spy surround by a host of disciples with shaven head or braided
hair may take his abode in the suburbs of the city, and pretend as a
person barely living on a handful of vegetables or meadow grass taken
once in the interval of a month or two, but he may take in secret his
favorite food stuffs."

The holy men/spy is then supported by worshipper-agents whom "assertations by the ascetic his disciples shall corroborate". (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Even the king's minister is proposed to direct his affairs in conformity to the forecast made by the ascetic, thus establishing his legitimacy as a supernatural ascetic through this network. However, despite all these harsh measures, Kautilya advocated the happiness and security of the citizens, espeically for the poor, for slaves and for women.


The Management of the Praja
"Raga Svadharmah Svargaay Praja Dharma Rakshutah"
(Raja who carries out his Dharma of protecting the people goes to heaven.)

Kautilya firmly believed that the well being, prosperity, and happiness of the people was the primary duty of the king and the state. The king was responsible to protect its citizens from invaders, forces of nature, deceitful traders and artisans, thieves and dacoits , natural calamities, etc. As a result, the happiness of the people is the happiness of the Raja, the people's welfare-his welfare. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Kautilya rationalized that the well-being of the citizen is paramount due to "Arthasya Mulmutathaanamanarthasya Vipryah" ("if the Raja does not ensure the well-being of the Praja, they can and will kill him and make someone as Raja.") Thus, the relationship is a reciprocal one in which The People maintain the King, and the King for its people. Kautilya also believed that it was the right of the Praja to revolt since 1/6 of their produce goes to the Raja in order to ensure their well being. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) As a result, the maintenance of well being was left in the hands of departments of the state that were responsible for carrying out all-round activities. These activities included the provision of jobs, protection from oppressive and excessive tax, and the building and maintenance of irrigation and works. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) These department heads were not only responsible for the happiness of the people, which meant efficient management and supervision of the palace, the country, mines, irrigation, forests, cattle, and trade routes, but that they had to do so within the confines of the law (which the secret service made sure they did). (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)


Economics
One of the most imporant features of the Arthashastra, which was a philosophical guide to the administration of government, is the management of its resources. According to Kautilya, "Kashpurvah Sarvaarambhaha Tasmaatpurvam Koshamet" ("full treasury is the basis of all enterprises, therefore he should pay attention to the treasury first"). (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Thus, he preposed an infrastructure that involved mines, factories, elephant forests, trade routes, water routes, land routes and ports, in which the protection of is essential for growth and maintenance of revenue . From revenue, Kautilya proposed that it be used to build buildings for treasury, warehouse, magazine, forest productions, armory, and prisoners.


The Poor and Land Reforms
One of the most interesting features of the Arthashastra is the compassion it contains for the people, of which, no other philosophy of this genre contains. This was due to Kautilya's firm belief that prosperity ultimately lay in the hands of the peasants.

According to Kautilya, production on land was one of the main revenue earners for the treasury, which is essential for a government. He proposed a system that would benefit productive cultivators, while punishing those that were not. This land reform system involved land confiscation for those whom possessed inactive fields or by those whom produced poor yields. These confiscated lands were then, in turn, give to others, whether they were village laborers or traders. (Spear, 1967) As for productive cultivators, whom were gauged as to their success by the ease in which they paid taxes, were favorably supplied with grains, cattle, and money from the treasury. Kautilya did however make exemptions for the aged, the infirm, the afflicted, and the helpless by providing a form of social security in which the king provided to their needs. This system was also extended to helpless women whom were pregnant and carrying, the children they gave birth to, and, as well to the parentless children (whom were considered the property of the gods until the became of age). (Spear, 1967) One stipulation, however, is that social assistance could only be provided if they have no capable person (i.e. village elders, apostates, and relatives), for if there is one and is neglectful in his or her duties, a punishment is levied against that guardian or caretaker. (Spear, 1967) Providing for the needy was such an issue for Kautilya that he even prohibited mothers and fathers from asceticism until the age of copulation was passed and property properly distributed amongst offspring. As a result, the embracing of asceticism before passing copulation, one that converts a woman to asceticism prior to her passing copulation, and the failure to distribute property when embracing asceticism resulted in a punishment as well. (Spear, 1967)


Slaves and Women
Although slaves were not as common in ancient India as it was in other civilization due to the lower castes being forced to deal with castes being forced to deal with unsavory tasks that would have been performed by slaves elsewhere, they were still nonetheless present. In what may be the most liberal regulations regarding slaves in history, the Arthashastra protected the chastity of women slaves, as well as, preventing slaves from degrading work which only lower castes, or untouchables (whom are considered beneath even the slaves), dealt with.
For Kautilya, such duties as:

"employing a slave to carry the dead or to sweep ordure,
urine, or the leaings of food; or a female slave to attend
on her master while he is bathing naked; or hurting or
abusing the him or her, or violating (the chastity of) a slave"
(Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

caused the forfeiture of the value paid for the slave. This was further extended in the case of rape in which,

"When a man commits or helps another to commit rape
with a female slave pleged to him, he shall not only forfeit
the purchase-value, but also pay a certain amount of money
to her and a fine twice the amount to the government."
(Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Slaves and other working-type servants were also able to earn their freedom if the violation of chastity "of nurses, female cooks, or female servants of the cultivator class or of any other servant class regarding cultivation" occurred, in which case instant liberty is at once earned for them. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Even violence towards an attendant of high birth shall entitle him to run away "when a master has connection with a nurse or pledged female slave under his power against her will, he shall be punished with the first amercement ; for doing the same when she is under the power of another, he shall be punished with the middlemost amercement . (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Capture of the Enemy by Means of Secret Contrivances
Unlike most political treatises, the Arthashastra makes a highly entertaining reading which is partly due to the mini-narratives in which Kautilya describes how a king may retain his power or preserve his life after he is overthrown.

Kautilya proposes building "mechanical contrivances" that release walls, stones, rods, door panels and weapons on the head of the enemy when he has entered a building in which the enemy frequents. Kautilya particularly emphasizes such buildings as places of worship in which "the enemy, under the influence of faith, frequents on occasions of worshipping gods and of pilgramage". (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Even the bodies of idols may be used to contain weapons or bored as a place of concealment for ambush. Kautilya goes even further by proposing that the ground in which the enemy usually stands or sits be 'sprinkled with poison mixed with cow dung or pure water", or "by removing the fastenings made under a cot or a seat, he may be made to fall into a pit containing pointed spears." (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) Disguises were even proposed by him, as priests, corpses, and even a woman in bereavement were to be guises used for deception. Even in sleep is the enemy in danger, for the room would be "besmeared with poisonous and explosive substances, or which is made of lac" and to be set on fire. If asleep in a confined place, a snake, a poison, fire, or poisonous smoke was to be used. No matter where the enemy is, even in his harem, Kautilya proposes a variety of means to attack and kill, or alternatively, the means to escape such (i.e. hidden chambers, underground tunnels, etc.) (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Highlights of the Arthashastra
The Arthashastra by Kautilya is a compendium of almost all the Arthashastras composed by ancient teachers and scholars of which a variety of topics is covered.

Book 1: Concerning Discipline
Book 1 of the Arthashastra deals with a variety of subjects which include the creation of government agents, namely those of councilors, ministers, and spies, and the criteria (ascertation of the purity or impurity of candidates) used to select these agents; the creation of priests, and the association with the aged. Also included are theories in winning over the factions for or against an enemy's cause in an enemy's state; the mission of envoys; the business of council meetings; the duties of a king, his duty to his harem, and his duty to personal safety. Of the most interesting theories in Book 1 concerns the protection of princes, the conduct of princes kept under restraint, and the treatment of a prince under restraint.

Book 2: The Duties of Government Superintendents In Book 2 of the Arthashastra, the formation and division of land and villages is discussed, as well as the formation of forts and the buildings within. However, most of Book 2 deals with the duties of government officials such as: the business of keeping accounts in the office of accountants, the detection of what is embezzled by government servants, procedure of forming royal writs, examination of gems and gold to be entered into the treasury, and the measurement of space and time. The Arthashastra further stipulates the duties of superintendents in charge of various subjects such as: prostitution, liquor, cows, horses, spies, etc.

Book 3: Concerning Law
In Book 3 of the Arthashastra, laws regarding contract or agreements, marriage, inheritance, non-performance of agreements, recovery of debts, and the ownership and buildings is discussed. As well, criminal acts such as sale of property without ownership, robbery, defamation, assault, and betting is outlined. As well, the rules regarding slaves and laborers are located here. What's significant in Book 3 is the elevation of the Four Legs of Law (the sacred law, evidence, history, and edicts of kings) which reflect the philosophies of this era. "Dharma is the eternal truth holding its sway over the world. Vyavahara, evidence is attained through witnesses. Carita, history which is to be found in the tradition of the people (i.e. precedents and customs). Sasana, the order or proclamations of the kings." (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973) At the head of law, the ultimate adjudicator is the king whom is sworn to protect his subjects with justice. If he rules with vain and partiality, the social order of the world is disrupted, accordance with the Four Legs will allow the king "to conquer and bind the whole world". (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Book 4: Removal of Thorns
In Book 4, the heading "Removal of Thorns" refers to the theories used to detect and remove criminal agents in society. Such things as the detection of youths of criminal tendency by ascetic spies, seizure of criminals on suspicion or in the very act and the trial and torture used to elicit confession. There is also theories on the examination of sudden death, death with or without torture, protection of merchants, artisans, and government buildings, remedies against national calamities, and the atonement for violating justice. Most interesting in Book 4 is the already prohibition of sexual intercourse with young girls.

Book 5: Conduct of Courtiers
Book 5 is concerned about awards and punishments, the replenishment of the treasury, and the time served and conduct of a courtier. As well, there is mention on the consolidation of the kingdom and the creation of an absolute sovereignty.

Book 6: The Source of Sovereign States In Book 6 of the Arthashastra, the elements of sovereignty, as well as, the state during peace is discussed.

Book 7: The End of the Six-fold Policy
The Six-fold policy is a theory concerning the interaction between the "Mandala (Circle) of States". Such interaction deals with how to detect deterioration, stagnation, and progress of a nation. Also, attention is paid on how to deal with states of lesser, equal, and superior in power. There are also theories that further regard the actions during peacetime, neutrality, and in war and the associated attitude of kings for each. (Wolpert, 35)

Book 8: Concerning Vices and Calamities
Book 8 is concerned with mainly the calamities of the elements and of the king. As well, solutions are provided to the troubles of men, of groups, obstructions, of finance, of the army, and the troubles of a friend.

Book 9: The Work of an Invader
Book 9 deals with the knowledge of place, time, strength, and weakness of an invasion. Equipment, time for recruitment, remedies for internal and external troubles, and the consideration about the loss of men is also discussed in regards to an army for defending against the arrival of a rival force.

Book10: Relating to War
In Book 10, Kautilya discusses the ways to increase morale, the protection of the army in times of distress and attack, how to ascertain the distinction between strong and weak, as well as the arrangement of troops in respect of wings, flanks, and front. These arrays were to be formed according to shapes (i.e. a staff, a snake, a circle, or detached order). He also discusses the duties of calvalry, chariots, and elephants.

Book 11: The Conduct of Corporations
Book 11 discusses the calamities and causes of dissention and its remedy by secret punishment.

Book 12: Concerning a Powerful Enemy
Kautilya theorizes about how to defeat a stronger enemy. He proposes that in order to achieve victory, such endeavors as, "slaying the commander-in-chief, the inciting of the Circle of States (alliances, etc.), spies of weapons, fire, poison, the destruction of stores, and granaries", is discussed. (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Book 13: Strategic Means to Capture a Fortress
In Book 13, Kautilya proposes theories on how to capture an enemy fortress. Such means as, " sowing the seeds of dissention amongst the enemy forces, the work of spies, and the operation of a siege". After victory is achieved, Kautilya proposes theories on how to restore peace in a conquered country.

Book 14: Secret Means
In Book 14, the means to injure an enemy is found. As well, the remedies against the injuries of one's own army is discussed. Such disguises worn by the Mleccha, or spy caste, may put on disguises appropriate to different countries. He/She may put on the appearance of a "hump-backed, dwarfish, or short-sized person, or of a dumb, deaf idiot, or blind person". (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1973)

Book 15: The Plan of Treatise
In Book 15, Kautilya discusses the term artha and the science of polity. He continues to discuss how his treatise can be used and what can be achieved through it (the Arthashastra)



The Arthashastra by Chandragupta's wise old Brahman minister, Kautilya, is a king's handbook in polity. Remaining as the standard texts for several Indian empires, Guptan as well as Mauryan, the textbook is almost a timeless tribute to the darker side of human nature. Treachery, greed, and the evils of power are addressed throughout the book. Wolpert, the author of "India" even states that,

"it should come as no surprise to anyone familiar with
Kipling's "Kim" to learn that India may have invented
the instution of spying, or at least developed it into a fine art."

Such praise can be attributed to Kautilya's work, as it would stress the distrusting of all while advising his army of spies to "check on the loyalty of his wives and closest ministers as well as generals and lesser bureacrats" early in history. (Wolpert, 35) In a time where a newly formed empire was on its first legs and the control of manpower essential for survival, the Arthashastra would provide the king the philosophy and guidance to deal with the people, while also outlining guidelines of proper behavior for all.