The Buddhist and Confucian Influence on Korea

Throughout Korean history, religion has played a major role in shaping the social, ethical, and administrative fabric of its society. Although much of Korea's culture was adopted from China, it was able to remain distinct by adding its own innovations to sinocized inventions. With a strong nationalistic sense, Korea actively pursued its separate identity, while also fiercely preserving its own political independence. Such innovations as Chinese law, form of government, literature, and art was adopted from China. As for religion, two of Korea's most ancient schools of thought were also transmitted through China: Buddhism and Confucianism. Although technically both Buddhism and Confucianism are not religions due to an absence of a God, nor did it promote belief of such, Korea, through shamanism, its other oldest religion, began to appoint deities to which worship would be made, and thus, making it uniquely and distinctively Korean. Through these two schools of thought, Korea was to be shaped and molded, tracing from as far back as the Three Kingdoms Period (220-669) and continuing up to now where strong followings (e.g. Buddhism 45.6%, 1995) and values (e.g. Confucian reverence to elders and education) are still present. (Korean Overseas Information Service, 1997)

Buddhism: Mahayana and Hinayana
The original teachings of Buddhism is a highly philosophical religion preaching the renunciation of worldly desires in order to break the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, of which suffering plagues continuously. Founded by Gautama Siddartha (563-485 B.C.), a son of a minor king of the Sakya clan found in present day Nepal, India, preached that the cause of all suffering is desire. (Murphey, 1996) Overwhelmed with this suffering which he witnessed around him, Sakyamuni (another name for Siddharta meaning "Sage of Sakyas") sought enlightenment under a great bodhi tree, of which he discovered the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path of "right conduct". The Four Noble Truths was a declaration of what caused worldly suffering and its subsequent remedy, of which the Eightfold Path is instrumental in. The Eightfold Path of "right conduct", as preached by Sakyamuni, was the path to be followed in order to attain that state of desirelessness. This path stressed "kindness to all living things, purity of heart, truthfulness, charity, and avoidance of fault finding, envy, hatred, and violence." (Murphey, 1996). Other commandments were also added to this list and are comparable to the Ten Commandments of the Christian faith (e.g. Shall not steal, lie, etc.). Through the Eightfold Path and its successive commandments, the cultivation of the soul or karma could be achieved since nirvana, or release from suffering and into bliss, must be achieved through successive incarnations, each higher or lower depending upon the acculturement attained. Over time, Buddhism's original teachings, found in a collection of texts called the Tripitaka ("three baskets"), were lessened in order to attract more followers, eventually gaining in popularity and spreading throughout Asia in two forms: Mahayana and Theravada. (Murphey, 1996)

Around 232 B.C., Buddhism divided into two major schools and is gauged upon adherence to Sakyamuni's original teachings. Theravada Buddhism ("the lesser vehicle"), the closer of the two to the original teachings, spread mostly to Southeast Asia and can be characterized by its monastaries of shaven headed monks in yellow robes and begging bowls of which donators can offset bad karma through donations. (Murphey, 1996) The Theravada or Hinayana ("the greater vehicle") school of Buddhism, the more popular of the two, advocated the worship of relics and images, while also turning Sakyamuni into a God, while others whom were able to attain enlightenment, or buddhahood, into deities. (Murphey, 1996) From the Theravada school, the term bodhisattva was coined for such individuals. Theravada Buddhism was able to spread throughout Asia, gaining in popularity due to its ability to adapt and assimilate to its environment, while also presenting to the masses a religion that was easy to comprehend and access. With its rich artifacts and relics, Buddhism was also able to appeal to the aristocratic classes, thus also adding to its popularity, eventually leading to it reaching as far as Japan. The Theravada school is the form of Buddhism that reached Korea through China in 372. (Nahm, 1988)

Buddhism In Korea
With its close proximity to China, Buddhism was able to spread throughout Korea via travelling monks and merchants. Starting with Koguryo, in which Buddhism was officially introduced in 372 by the monk Sundo, although little impact was made except for a few monks and temples created, Buddhism was then able to spread southward and become a major religion in both Paekche in 384, and later in Shilla in 527. (Lee, 1993) Throughout this period of Buddhist inception, Korea was in a process of transforming from tribal federations into ancient states.

With the arrival of Buddhism, new forms of music and musical instruments, painting, and architecture developed as artisans embraced the religion. As well, intellectual and religions studies grew rapidly. Such eminent monks as Anhong, Won-gwang, Wonhyo and Uisang, all of which had studied Buddhism in China, produced many books and provided for its rapid growth. (Nahm, 1988) With the assimilation of shamanism, which was the major faith before Buddhism, the forging of a more systemized religion and philosophy was created, while also providing the social and spiritual foundation for unifying the people, and ultimately, for Korea to develop. (Lee, 1993)

Over time, Buddhist schools began to blossom after a century of its inception. Based on translated scriptures from India and China, new schools of thought developed unique to their kingdoms due to political and ideological factors. In Koguryo, doctrines of the Three Treatise school was emphasized, while in Paekche, the T'ien-t'ai school was dominant. In Silla, through the efforts of a monk named Wongwang (d. 640), Buddhism which was geared towards the Prajna scriptures and its ke-yi ("matching the meaning") translations, grew to understand and incorporate the tenets of the Compendium of Mahayana of the Conscious-Only school and, as well, the metaphysics of the Flower Garland school. (Lee, 1993) While this was all developing, in the background Shilla's government used Buddhism to enhance the privilege and status of the ruling class by assuming Indo-Buddhist titles, while also promoting the unification of all three kingdoms. Through conquest, this would ultimately be accomplished in 669 with the help of T'ang China. (Murphey, 1996)

With the unification of all three kingdoms, five schools or sects existed. Supported mostly by members of the aristocratic and royal classes, out of the five sects, the Popsong sect (also known as Haedong) founded by Monk Wonhyo, and the Hwaom sect founded by Monk Uisang emerged. (Nahm , 1988) For the common people, Chongt'o, or Pure Land Buddhism, which placed an emphasis in chanting the name of Amitabha, the Buddha-superior of the Western Paradise (otherwise known as Pure Land), and, as well, Buddhist texts in order to secure salvation in this paradise after death. (Murphey, 1996) For the commoners, Chongt'o was found appealing due to its easily accessible and comprehensible nature which was non-intellectual and rather superstitious. Another reason why commoners found Chongt'o appealing may have been due to anti-establishment feelings, of which, other forms of Buddhism was associated as "a religion for only kings and queens". (Nahm, 1988) As for the intellectuals, Son Buddhism (Zen in Japanese) which was introduced from China, appealed to them due to its mystical and contemplative approach to seek the eternal truth and self-cultivation through disciplined meditation. (Murphey, 1996) Most notable of Son monks was Wonhyo whom attempted to unify the various Buddhist sects and, as well, made a pilgrimage to China and India during the eight century, of which he kept records of his journey which was later printed into texts. (Nahm, 1988)

Shilla control over Korea lasted from 669 to 935. During this golden age, Korea made bold steps towards new splendor and cultural innovations. The predecessor of the han'gul syllabary was developed during this period in an attempt to write vernacular korean. Renowned temples, such as Hwangnyong, was constructed, and a growing sense of nationalism developed due to Korea's attempts to remain distinct from China. (Murphey, 1996) Ultimately, Buddhism was able to prosper and unite the people under one religion. However, with the increasing corruption and mismanagement of the government, coupled with mass unrest within society due to being overworked and overtaxed, as well as clan fighting between Kim and Pak, Shilla control eventually collapsed. (Nahm, 1988) Under Wang Kon, whom overthrew his master, Kungye, for leadership, Korea was to be unified once again in 936 under the banner of Koryo, ushering a new era and, as well, an anti-Buddhism sentiment led by Confucianism.

Confucianism: Ethical And Moral Philosophy
Of all the great religions, Confucianism could arguably be the most influential on belief and behavior in the world. With its distinctive set of values, norms, sociopolitical and ethical-moral system intended to govern relationships within the family and the state, as well as its emphasis on scholarly pursuits and self cultivation, Confucianism was able to spread throughout Asia in one form or another, covering over one-third of the world. (Murphey, 1996)

Born to a minor official in one of the smaller states of eastern China, Confucius (551-c. 479 B.C.), lived most of his life as a wandering scholar-teacher unable to find an official post to which his talents could be effectively used. Although Confucius never had the opportunity to test his theories in a government atmosphere, he was able to find a following of students whom would later became his disciples, ultimately expanding his teachings, promoted its growth, and ultimately its application in the imperial government of China.

For Confucius and his teachings, human nature was at the center of his philosophy, in which he believed humans were born naturally good and strove towards good morality. In order to prevent chaos or evil, Confucius believed in a hierarchical system in which the higher tiers (e.g. rulers, officials, scholars, etc.) had authority, as well as the responsibility of setting a good example for those below them to follow. Superiors would lead through diligence in education, cultivation of the arts, filial loyalty, and respect for piers and authorities. Confucius believed deeply that in order for society to be harmonious, people had to want to do right. All in all, it was the essence of "human-heartedness", not laws and punishment that would guide the masses. (Murphey, 1996)

As Confucianism spread throughout Asia, many people, especially by the government, embraced the philosophy mainly due to its comprehensible "this-worldly", positive perception of human nature, as well as its emphasis on the enjoyment of life. (Murphey, 1996) With the cultivation of internal virtues that everybody had innate, Confucianism, along with its lack of metaphysical, supernatural, and abstract content, was able to blend with the local religions, since Confucianism itself had no supernatural god.

Confucianism In Korea
Like Buddhism, Confucianism entered to Koguryo through China via Confucian classics, of which Confucius reputedly wrote himself. Although private Confucian academies called kyongdang were found scattered across the states, like Buddhism, Confucianism had little impact initially in Koguryo except for a government school for Confucian learning being established in 372, unlike Paekcha and Shilla, which had a Confucianized bureaucracy. (Nahm, 1988) Although Confucianism had little impact in early Koguryo, its influence could be found, however, in the historical records of the state: Yugi (100 volumes) and Shinjip (5 volumes). (Nahm, 1988) In Paekche, historical records appeared in the 4th century and 6th century.

For the Three Kingdoms which had no written language system of their own, Confucianism was one of the main vehicles in which the Chinese writing system was transmitted. As Korean scholars versed in Confucianism grew, intellectual growth was stimulated, eventually leading to one of the main Confucian innovations, the civil service exams.

Prior to unification of the Three Kingdoms, Shilla had been slow to import the foreign influence of the Chinese and Confucianism. After the successful absorption of Paekcha and Koguryo in the 7th century, interest increased rapidly. Delegations were sent to China to observe first hand the workings of Confucian institutions, ultimately forming the philosophical and structural backbone of the state more devout than China's, despite Buddhism being the state religion of Unified Shilla. (Howe, 1988) Such establishments as a Confucian school built in 682, and the National Learning (Kuk'ak) in 682, produced many prominent scholars, many of which traveled to Ch'ang-an, China, to take, and pass, the T'ang civil service exam which stressed knowledge in Confucian classics, poetry, essays, and caligraphy. (Nahm, 1988) In Korea, only after the collapse of the Shilla government and the subsequent establishment of Koryo dominance did kwago, or civil service exam, become established. Although in theory, the kwago would be a meritocratic system held throughout the nation and open for all to participate in order select scholars with the best exam scores to serve in the government, the kwago would be defiled by the heriditary nobility, or yangban, whom because of their wealth and influence could gain official posts without actually taking the exams. (Howe, 1988) Further collapse of the kwago system would ensue due to official posts being underpaid, resulting in the acceptance of bribes and other endeavors to exploit the poor. (Howe, 1988)

Over time, Confucianism reached its renaissance, which began in the Koryo Dynasty, which was promulgated by Korea's surrender to the Mongols in 1218. The defeat was blamed on Buddhism, and as a result, it was banished after the Yi restored political dominance due to the collapse of Mongol occupation in 1350's. (Murphey, 1996) As a result, Confucianism produced a new crop of philosophers and scholars, of which many of the Yi rulers during the 15th and 16th centuries consulted or learned from. (Howe, 1988) In the 17th century, Sirhak, or the Practical Learning school, blossomed and preached utilitarian, rather than academic, Confucianism. Such issues as national productivity and defense, agriculture, trade, and the welfare of the people, were stressed. (Howe, 1988) However, a couple of centuries later, with the invasion of the Japanese and their usurpation of power in 1910, the Confucian influence disappeared, a process that would repeat two years later in China, while subsequently ending the royal dynasty there.

Buddhism and Confucianism in Modern Korea
After 36 years of imposed harsh militarist rule by the Japanese, a nationalistic feeling arose as disenfranchised Koreans began to cherish their identity resulting from their exploitation. With the strengthening of their resolve towards independence, Korea was able persevere through Japanese occupation and, later, through the Korean War which saw its land split at the thirty-eight parallel in 1945, separating Korea into north and south. Throughout all this turmoil, Korea was able to endure and discover its unique identity. However, with modernization sweeping throughout Korea, a search for a new identity needed as it struggles to join industrialized countries.

With modernization sweeping the land, impending changes in ethics and morals due to new commercial endeavors and consumption patterns were being created. For Buddhism, despite being suppressed by the Yi dynasty, used as the instrument for colonization by the Japanese, and later in 1954 the cause of conflicts and clashes between celibate and non-celibate monks regarding ownership of temple estates, had found itself undergoing a kind of renaissance during the 20th century. (Shim, 1997) Of Korea's population in 1995, 45.6 % believed in Buddhism, and of the eleven million followers, a majority of them were females. (Korean Overseas Information Service, 1997) One of the main reasons for the popularity, and longevity, of Buddhism is in its ability to absorb another religions' other-worldly, distinctive characteristics. In monastic compounds, shrines to shamanistic mountain spirits and to the Taoist god of the Seven Stars could be found. (Shim, 1997) Thus, we find the combination of the Buddhist Amitabha with Shamanism and Taoism in tandem. As well, as industrialization continues, intellectuals and radicals activists concerned with the eradication of human suffering tried to rejuvenate the Buddhist movement.(Shim, 1997) However, it was only in the 1980's did the Buddhist movement gain momentum. This was due to Mingjung Buddhism, which vigorously underwent modernization efforts, all the while criticizing and changing their orthodox doctrines and rituals. (Shim, 1997) As a result, Buddhist orders have set up urban centers, leaving their long secluded temples and hermitages in the mountainside, as a clear attempt to modernize with the rest of society.

For Confucianism, even today it can hardly be said to have discarded the customs, habits, and thought patterns derived from Confucius' teachings, despite its suppression by the Japanese during their occupation in 1910. Although the Confucian model for government and administration may have disappeared, most of the customs, habits, and throught patterns are still present. The most apparent of Confucist values present in Korean society today is the "zeal for education" which is often associated with prestige and success. (Duncan, 1997) The ethics governing social and family relations, of which Confucianism stresses, is also apparent in Korean society. The five relations: (oryun) between father and son, (so) between elder and younger, (sin) trust between friends, and (ui) righteousness between a ruler and ministers, are still fundamental in Korean relationships and is reflected when addressing another (e.g. oppa, etc.) Other Confucian values still present may include the reverence for age, maleness, and for social stability via relationship model. (Howe, 1988)

Although there is no organized Confucian church, there are Confucian organizations. Sungkyunkwan University in Soeol is the country's center for Confucianism and also the site of a shrine to Confucius, of which, ancestral rites and memorial ceremonies in honor of outstanding Confucians are held annually in spring and autumn either at the site, in their homes, or in monastic temples. (Howe, 1988) Still present today, due to the Confucian emphasis on self-cultivation and education, over 200 hyanggyo, or Confucian academies with shrines, teach young people traditional values and manners. However, with modernization and industrialization, many of Confucius' teachings are no long applicable, many of which were rejected due to its incompatibility with sweeping changes. (Shim, 1997)

As Korea steps into, and is changed by, modernization and industrialization, Buddhism and Confucianism both strive to adapt. While commecialization and "conspicuous consumption" change the values of the Koreans, so too must the religions change in order to maintain its following. Buddhism, which has had over a thousand and a half years of history in Korea, has been plagued with troubles resulting from both external and internal strife. Now with the Minjung Buddhism movement, an attempt at a more modern approach via progressive thinkers and intellectuals, has been made to solve the modern problems in a modern Korea. As for Confucianism, Confucius' ethics and morals has been so ingrained in the Asian psyche that its influence could never fully disappear despite modernization. Although some may see Confucianism as an obstacle to progress, especially since most of his teachings are no longer valid (e.g. reverence to monarch) its social and ethical aspects are still important, and practiced, today. However, despite the growth of Buddhism and the longevity of Confucianism, the true test is yet to come. As world boundries begin blur due to increased sophistication in communicative technologies, especially with the advent of internet use, western-styled philosophies and religions will seap across borders and find new foot-holdings and followings around the world, replacing old religions. The only cure to prevent this wave of influence is nationalism, although even that someday may be supplanted in favor of a united world identity.



Bibliography

Duncan, John. "Confucian Social Values in Contemporary South Korea" Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea. Eds. Lewis R. Lancaster and Richard K. Payne. California: Library of Congress. 1997. 49-74.

Howe, Russell Warren. "The Koreans: Passion and Grace". Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1988.

Korean Overseas Information Service. "Facts About Korea: Condensed Version" Soeul: Samhwa Printing. 1997.

Lee, Peter H. "Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 1". New York: Columbia University Press. 1993. Murphey, Rhodes. "A History of Asia: Second Edition" Michigan: HarperCollins. 1996.

Nahm, Andrew C. "Korea: Tradition and Transformation". New Jersey: HollyM. 1988. Shim, Jae-ryong. "Buddhist Responses to the Modern Transformation of Society in Korea" Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea. Eds. Lewis R. Lancaster and Richard K. Payne. California: Library of Congress. 1997. 75-86.