American History: Foreign Policy Review Sheet

 

1607 to 1776: Colonial Period

            This period was marked by “salutory neglect”, a policy that was followed by the

British toward the colonies. Basically, the British let the colonies develop their own local governments and a limited amount of economic freedom. When the British began changing this policy after the French and Indian War (1763), colonists began questioning their relationship with the mother country.

 

1776 to 1787: Revolutionary and Critical Periods

            The most notable of the foreign policies of this period was the Declaration of Independence which was a letter to King George III explaining why the colonies felt they had the right to be a free, independent nation. Based on enlightenment thought and on John Locke’s work, it is a masterpiece of enlightenment thought and of early American political ideas. The Revolutionary War  resulted in Americans signing their first alliance (with France in 1778: The Franco-American Alliance) and their first treaty (with Britain: The Treaty of Paris of 1783 which ended the war) as an independent nation. from 1783 to 1787, America hobbled along with its weak form of government called The Articles of Confederation which was ineffective in foreign policy matters.

 

1787 to 1800: The Federalist Era

             Under the Federalists, foreign policy tended to be supportive of the British and less friendly toward the French. Some important events of this period were Jay’s Treaty with England (reaffirming the terms of the Treaty of Paris) Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain (giving America the right of navigation and deposit on the Mississippi River). Foreign policy problems included the XYZ Affair and an undeclared naval war with France. Also notable was Washington’s “Proclamation of Neutrality” which became a cornerstone of American foreign policy.

 

1800 to 1830’s: The Republican Era

            Problems with Europe continued to plague the United States under the Jeffersonian Republican presidents. Impressment on the high seas and problems with the Barbary pirates led Jefferson to enact an embargo which was unsuccessful and damaged America as much as it did the Europeans. Madison was ultimately drawn into the War of 1812 with Britain because of violations of American rights on the high seas and the desire of western states for expansion. While theoretically a draw, the war spurred a new feeling of nationalism in America as the US (thanks to Jackson’s victory at the Battle of New Orleans) considered themselves to be the victors in the war. Notable territorial gains included the purchase of Florida in 1819 and the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. President Monroe issued his famous “Monroe Doctrine” in 1823 in an attempt to keep European colonizers out of the western hemisphere, which they ultimately did. Finally, under President Andrew Jackson, the policy of “Indian Removal” was enacted to move Indians from areas that whites wished to settle and to relocate them to the western side of the Mississippi River.

 

1840’s: Manifest Destiny

            The United States in the 1840’s believed it was their “divine mission” or “Manifest Destiny” to spread democracy across the North American continent and to expand the boundaries of the United States to the Pacific ocean. The US annexed Texas in 1845 touching off a war with Mexico in 1846. Ultimately America defeated Mexico and through the Mexican Cession gained territories that would eventually become California, New Mexico, and Arizona. America negotiated a settlement in the Oregon dispute with Britain and added the southern half of that territory to America. Finally in 1853, America purchased the Gadsden purchase from Mexico to build a transcontinental railroad in the southern part of the United States.

 

1850’s to 1870’s: Civil War and Reconstruction

            During this period, America was basically coming apart - literally- at the seams. The 1850’s focused on differences between the sections, the 1860’s were largely characterized by the American Civil War, and the 1870’s was a period of Reconstruction. Little of foreign policy relevance occurred during this time as America focused on its own internal divisions.

1880’s and 1890’s: America Becomes an Imperialist Power

            In this time period, America began looking into the Caribbean and beyond its Pacific coastline for new markets, sources of raw materials, and strategic naval bases. During this time, Hawaii and was acquired, and the Open Door Policy was pursued with China. Also, the United States engaged in a brief war with Spain which began over Spanish actions in their colony of Cuba, including the explosion of the USS Maine which was blamed on the Spanish by America’s “yellow journalists”. Eventually the United States defeated Spain and gained new territories from the war including the Philippines in the Pacific, Puerto Rico, and a strong new role in Cuban affairs through the Platt Amendment which was included in the Cuban Constitution.

 

1900 to 1914: American Interventionism

            America began intervening more actively in the affairs of Latin America during this period, thanks in part to the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine which asserted that the US had the right to intervene to keep peace, to settle debts and to prevent European intervention in Latin America. Roosevelt intervened in the Panamanian revolt against Colombia, after which the Panamanians granted the US the right to build a canal across the isthmus of Panama, thus carrying out his “Big Stick” policy. President Taft used the policy of Dollar Diplomacy (use economic power to manipulate and control other nations and then the military if necessary) to intervene in the affairs of nations such as the Honduras, Nicaragua, and Haiti. President Wilson followed a policy of “Moral Diplomacy” (attempt to carry out policy that is morally right) yet intervened in the Dominican Republic and Haiti, as well as influencing events in the Mexican revolutions. The Mexico problem led Wilson to order the US army to chase Pancho Villa into Mexico which they did, and ultimately they were pulled out of Mexico as World War One broke out in Europe.

 

1914-1919: World War One:

            World War One broke out in Europe in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, yet the US was committed to remaining neutral in the war. Meanwhile, the US traded with the Europeans which indirectly led them into the war because of the German submarine attacks on American shipping. Also, the Zimmerman note enraged Americans against Germany because of its promise to return territory to Mexico in exchange for Mexico attacking America. Finally in 1917, the US declared war, sent troops to Europe, and helped win the final battles of the war. President Wilson went to the Paris Peace Conference in an attempt to persuade the Europeans to adopt his program for peace called the Fourteen Points. Many of his ideas (including a League of Nations) were incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles, yet Wilson ran into headstrong opposition at home from Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge in the Senate. Ultimately, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty on the grounds that it would obligate America to intervene in future European problems and thus lessen American sovereignty.

 

The 1920’s:

            This decade’s foreign policy was largely marked by a return to isolationism. The US raised tariff barriers, limited immigration, and remained isolated throughout the decade in an attempt to remove itself from the problems of the world, Notable exceptions to this included the Washington Naval Conference (which attempted to limit  the size of the world’s largest navies), the Dawes Plan (a debt repayment plan) and the Kellogg-Briand Pact (an attempt to legislate an end to war).

 

The 1930’s and Early 40’s:

            The 30’s were in many ways a continuation of the 20’s, and as problems began arising in Europe such as the rise of aggressive, imperialistic dictators, America retreated into its “Storm Cellar Diplomacy” mode. The Good Neighbor Policy attempted to repair America’s relationship with Latin America in case they might be needed as allies. Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts to keep America out of European wars, yet by the end of the decade, the US had slowly moved toward helping the British through actions such as the Destroyers for Bases Deal and the Lend-Lease Act.

 

 

 

America in World War Two:

            America’s hope of remaining neutral was shattered when Japanese bombs rained down at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In the Pacific, America stopped and then reversed Japanese gains at the Battle of Midway. Engaging in a strategy of island hopping, the US slowly forced the Japanese back toward their home island. After staggering losses at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, the US began preparations for an invasion of Japan which became unnecessary after the Atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused the Japanese to surrender. In Europe, the US aided in defeating the Axis in North Africa, invading Italy, and ultimately the invasion of Normandy (D-Day). After the last gasp effort of the Germans at the Battle of the Bulge, the Allies defeated Germany and Hitler committed suicide. The celebration was short-lived though as the Concentration camps were found and the cold war began.

 

The Early Cold War: 1940’s and 50’s

             The world settled into the Cold War: a period of tensions between the communist and democratic nations led by their respective superpowers (USSR and US). The United Nations was formed, the western nations formed NATO, and the US invested money in the rebuilding of Europe (Marshall Plan) and in the third world (Point Four Program). American policy was centered around the Truman Doctrine: designed to “contain” the communists. Tensions increased around the issue of Berlin during the Berlin Blockade and the subsequent airlift. The Korean War erupted between communist North Korea and non-communist South Korea in 1950 and represented the first shooting war of the cold war. The United Nations stepped in and ultimately brought the war to a conclusion in 1953. Yet the communists seemed to be gaining during this period (a perennial fear of the western democracies) as they gained power in China (1949), in Cuba (1959), they launched the first space satellite Sputnik, and appeared to be threatening the Middle East. At home, America experienced the McCarthy witch hunt of communists in the state department, the federal government, and finally the US army before the Senator was finally discredited. An American spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union which derailed a summit meeting at Geneva in 1960.

 

The 1960’s and 70’s:

            The Cold War continued in the 60’s as communist powers gained ground in Vietnam which ultimately led the United States to send its military into action there in what would become America’s longest and arguably most painful war as it divided the American people. President Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in Latin America, yet mishandled the Bay of Pigs invasion early in his presidency. The Cuban Missile Crisis followed with a showdown between the two superpowers over missile sites that were being constructed in Cuba, fortunately this was solved peacefully. Eventually though, the two nations began to “peacefully co-exist” and agreements between the two (Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, SALT) were arranged. Wars in the Middle East between Israel and her Arab neighbors continued to influence cold war politics until an initial agreement was reached at Camp David thanks in part to the efforts of President Carter. Yet the communist threat was still evident in events such as the building of the Berlin Wall, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and the victory of the communists in Vietnam.

 

1980’s:

            The 1980’s initially appeared to be a continuation of the previous two decades with America supporting non-communist forces (the Contras in Nicaragua, anti-communists in Grenada, Christians in Lebanon) and the communists strengthening their hold over their own nations (Tiennamen Square Massacre, Martial Law in Poland against Solidarity). Yet by the middle of the decade it appeared that tensions were again easing because of Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost and Perestroika and President Reagan’s approach of negotiating from a position of undeniable strength (Star Wars program). By the end of the decade the superpowers had held a series of summit meetings, signed numerous weapons reduction pacts, and in 1989 the communist bloc in Eastern Europe threw off the shackles of communism and became free nations.

 

1990’s:

            Since the end of the Cold War, the US has intervened in the “hot spots” of the world in an attempt to preserve peace (Persian Gulf War, Somalia, Bosnia,  Haiti negotiating peace in the Middle East). Also, democracy appeared to be on the rise as Germany reunified and South Africa abandoned apartheid. America also became more willing to negotiate with and live with communist powers such as China and Vietnam yet still had to deal with problems such as nuclear proliferation and terrorism.