A.P. U.S. History Notes
Chapter 12: “The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism”
~
1815 – 1824 ~
I.
On
to Canada over Land and Lakes
1.
Due
to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst
fought wars.
2.
There
was not burning national anger, like there was after the Chesapeake outrage;
the regular army was very bad and scattered and had old, senile generals, and
the offensive strategy against Canada was especially poorly conceived.
a.
Had
the Americans captured Montreal, everything west would have wilted like a tree
after its trunk has been severed, but the Americans instead focused a
three-pronged attack that set out from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain,
all of which were beaten back.
b.
In
contrast, the British and Canadians displayed enthusiasm early on in the war
and captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, which commanded the upper
Great Lakes area (the battle was led by British General Isaac Brock).
3.
After
more land invasions were hurled back in 1813, the Americans, led by Oliver
Hazard Perry, built a fleet of green-timbered ships manned by inexperienced
men, but still managed to capture a British fleet; his victory, coupled with General
William H. Harrison’s defeat of the British during the Battle of the
Thames, helped bring more enthusiasm and increased morale for the war.
4.
In
1814, 10,000 British troops prepared for a crushing blow to the Americans along
the Lake Champlain route, but on September 11, 1814, Thomas Macdonough
challenged the British and snatched victory from the fangs of defeat and forced
the British to retreat.
II.
Washington
Burned and New Orleans Defended.
1.
In
August 1814, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area, dispersed 6000
panicked Americans at Bladensburg, and proceeded to enter Washington D.C. and
burn most of the buildings there.
2.
At
Baltimore, another British fleet arrived but was beaten back by the privateer
defenders of Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star Spangled
Banner.”
3.
Another
British army menaced the entire Mississippi Valley and threatened New Orleans,
and Andrew Jackson, fresh off his slaughter of the Creek Indians, led a
hodgepodge force of 7000 sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, entrenching
them and helping them defeat 8000 overconfident British that had launched a
frontal attack.
4.
The
news of this British defeat reached Washington early in February 1815, and two
weeks later came news of peace from Britain.
a.
Ignorant
citizens simply assumed that the British, having been beaten by Jackson, finally
wanted peace, lest they get beaten again by the “awesome” Americans.
5. During the war, the American navy had done much better than the army, since the sailors were angry at British impressments.
6.
However,
Britain responded with a naval blockade, raiding ships and ruining American
economic life such as fishing.
III.
The
Treaty of Ghent
1.
At
first, the confident British made sweeping demands for a neutralized Indian
buffer state in the Great Lakes region, control of the Great Lakes, and a
substantial part of conquered Maine, but the Americans, led by John Quincy
Adams, refused. As American
victories piled up, though, the British reconsidered.
2.
The
Treat of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, was an armistice,
acknowledging the draw in the war and ignoring any other demands of either
side.
IV.
Federalist
Grievances and the Hartford Convention
1.
As
the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island secretly met in Hartford from December 15
1814 to January 5, 1815, to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for
their wrongs.
a.
While
a few talked about secession, most wanted financial assistance form Washington
to compensate for lost trade, and an amendment requiring 2/3
majority for all declarations of embargos, except during invasion.
b.
Three
special envoys from Mass. went to D.C., where they were greeted with the news
from New Orleans; their mission failed, they sank away in disgrace and into
obscurity.
2.
The
Hartford Convention proved to be the death of the Federalist Party, as
their last presidential nomination was trounced by James Monroe in 1816.
V.
The
Second War for American Independence
1.
The
War of 1812 was a small war involving some 6000 Americans killed or wounded,
and when Napoleon invaded Russian in 1812 with 500,000 men, Madison tried to
invade Canada with about 5000 men.
2.
Yet,
the Americans proved that they could stand up for what they felt was right, and
naval officers like Perry and Macdonough gained new respect; American diplomats
were treated with more respect than before.
3.
The
Federalist Party died out forever, and new war heroes, like Andrew Jackson and
William Henry Harrison, emerged.
4.
Manufacturing
also prospered during the British blockade, since there was nothing else to do.
5.
Incidents
like the burning of Washington added fuel to the bitter conflict with Britain,
and led to hatred of the nation years after the war, though few would have
guessed that the War of 1812 would be the last war America fought against
Britain.
6.
Many
Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent, since not even an Indian buffer
state had been achieved, and the Indians, left by the British, were forced to
make treaties where they could.
7.
In
1817, though, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes, the Rush-Bagot
Treaty between the U.S. and Britain provided the world’s longest
unfortified boundary (5527 mi.).
8.
After
Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo, Europe sank into an exhaustion of peace,
and America looked west to further expand.
VI.
Nascent
Nationalism
1.
After
the war, American nationalism really took off, and authors like Washington
Irving and James Fenimore Cooper gained international recognition.
2.
The
North American Review debuted in 1815, and American painters painted
landscape of America on their canvases, while history books were now being
written by Americans for Americans.
3.
Washington
D.C. rose from the ashes to be better than ever, and the navy and army
strengthened themselves.
4.
Stephen Decatur, naval hero of the War of 1812 and the Barbary Coast expeditions, was
famous for his American toast after his return from the Mediterranean: “Out
country! In her intercourse with
foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or
wrong!”
VII.
“The
American System”
1.
After
the war, British competitors dumped their goods onto America at cheap prices,
so America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the first in U.S. history
designed for protection, which put a 20-25% tariff on dutiable imports.
a.
It
was not high enough, but is was a great start, and in 1824, Henry Clay established
a program called the American System.
b.
The
system began with a strong banking system, advocated a protective tariff behind
which eastern manufacturing would flourish, and also included a network of
roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley, to be funded for by
the tariffs, and through which would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the
South and West to the North and East.
2.
Lack
of effective transportation had been one of the problems of the War of 1812,
especially in the West, and in 1817, Congress sought to distribute $1.5 million
to the states for internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it, saying it was
unconstitutional, thus making the states look for their own money to build the
badly needed roads.
VIII.
The
So-Called Era of Good Feelings
1.
James Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent 183 to 34, and ushered in a short
period of one-party rule.
2.
He
straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of
Nationalism.
3.
Early
in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he
received heartwarming welcomes.
4.
A
Boston newspaper even went as far as to declare that an “Era of Good Feelings”
had began.
IX.
The
Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times
1.
In
1819, a paralyzing economic panic (first since Washington’s times) engulfed the
U.S., bringing deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures,
unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded debtors’ prisons.
a.
A
major cause of the panic had been overspeculation in land prices, where the
Bank of the United States fell heavily into debt.
b.
The
West was especially hard hit, and the Bank of the U.S. was soon viewed with
anger.
c.
There
was also attention against the debtors, where, in a few overplayed cases,
mothers owing a few dollars were torn away from their infants by the debtors.
X.
Growing
Pains of the West
1.
Between
1791 and 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13.
2.
This
explosive expansion of the west was due in part to the cheap land, the
elimination of the Indian menace, the “Ohio Fever,” and the need for
land by the tobacco farmers, who exhausted their lands.
3.
The
Cumberland Road, begun in 1811 and running ultimately from western
Maryland toe Illinois, was noteworthy, and the first steamboat on western
waters was in 1811.
4.
The
West, still not populous and politically weak, was forced to ally itself with
other sections, and demanded cheap acreage.
a.
The
Land Act of 1820 gave the West its wish by authorizing a buyer to
purchase 80 acres of land at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash; the West demanded
and slowly got cheap transportation as well.
XI.
Slavery
and the Sectional Balance
1.
Sectional
tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to
become a slave state.
2.
Although
it met all the requirements of becoming a state, House of Reps stymied the
plans for its statehood when it proposed the Tallmadge Amendment, which
provided that no more slaves be brought into Missouri and also provided for the
gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri
(this was shot down in the Senate).
3.
Angry
Southerners saw this as a threat; if the Northerners could wipe out slavery in
Missouri, they might try to do so in all of the rest of the slave states.
4.
Plus,
the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.
XII.
The
Uneasy Missouri Compromise
1.
Finally,
the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri
Compromise.
a. Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance.
b.
All
new states north of 36°30’ line would be free.
c.
Both
the North and South gained something, and though neither was totally happy, the
compromise worked for many years.
2.
Monroe
should have been doomed after the 1819 panic and the Missouri problem, but he
was so popular and the Federalist Party so weak that he won in 1820 by all but
one vote (unanimity was reserved for Washington).
XIII.
John
Marshall and Judicial Nationalism
1.
John Marshall helped to bolster the power of the government at the expense of the
states.
2.
McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): This case involved Maryland’s trying to destroy
the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes. Marshall invoked the Hamiltonian principle of implied powers and
denied Maryland’s right to tax the bank, and also gave the doctrine of “loose
construction” its famous formulation.
He implied that the Constitution was to last for many ages, and urged
the end to be legitimate, and let it be within the scope of the Constitution.
3.
Cohens vs. Virginia (1821): The Cohens had been found guilty by Virginia
courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, had appealed to the Supreme Court,
and had lost, but Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review
the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of
the federal government.
4.
Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824): When New York tried to grant a private concern
monopoly of waterborne commerce, Marshall struck it down by saying that only
Congress can control interstate commerce, not the states themselves; it was
another blow to states’ rights.
XIV.
Judicial
Dikes Against Democratic Excesses
1.
Fletcher vs. Peck (1810): After Georgia fraudulently granted 35 million
acres in the Yazoo River county (Mississippi) to privateers, the legislature
repealed it after public outcry, but Marshall ruled that it was a contract, and
that states couldn’t impair a contract.
It was one of the earliest clear assertions of the right of the Supreme
Court to invalidate state laws that conflicted the Constitution.
2.
Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819): Dartmouth had been granted a charter by
King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it. Dartmouth appealed, using alum Daniel
Webster to work as lawyer, and Marshall ruled that the original charter
must stand. It was a contract, and the
Constitution protected those.
3.
Marshall’s
rulings gave the Supreme Courts their powers and greatly strengthened the
federal government, giving it power to overrule state governments sometimes.
XV.
Sharing
Oregon and Acquiring Florida
1.
The
Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at
the 49th parallel and provided for a ten-year joint occupation of
the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of rights and claims by
neither Britain nor America.
2.
When
revolutions broke out in South and Central America, Spanish troops in Florida
were withdrawn to put down the rebellions, and Indian attacks ravaged American
land while the Indians would then retreat back to Spanish territory.
a.
Andrew
Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs without
ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized St.
Marks and Pensacola.
3.
Monroe
consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson; all wanted to punish
him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain.
a.
The
Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and shadowy
claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas.
XVI.
The
Menace of Monarchy in America
1. Monarchs in Europe now were determined to protect the world against democracy, and crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans.
2.
Also,
Russia’s claims to North American territory were intruding and making Americans
nervous that Russia might claim territory that was “rightfully American.”
3.
Then,
in August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning,
approached the American minister in London proposing that the U.S. and Britain
combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin
American territory, and specifically warning the European despots to keep their
hands off of Latin American politics.
XVII.
Monroe
and His Doctrine
1.
Sly
and careful John Q. Adams sensed a joker in the proposal, correctly assumed
that the European powers weren’t going to invade American anytime soon, and
knew that a self-denouncing alliance with Britain would morally tie the hands
of the U.S.
2.
He
knew that the British boats would need to protect South America to protect
their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a defiant, nationalistic
blast at all Europe.
3.
Late
in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating noncolonization and
nonintervention.
a.
Dedicated
primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no colonization in the
Americas could happen anymore and also, European nations could not intervene in
Latin American affairs.
b.
In
return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against
Turkey.
XVIII. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised
1.
The
monarchs of Europe were angered, but couldn’t do anything about it, since the
British navy would be there to stop them, further frustrating them.
2.
Monroe’s
declaration made little splash in Latin America, since those who know of the
message also recognized that it was the British navy and not America that was
protecting them, and that the U.S. was doing this only to protect its own hide.
3.
Not
until 1845 did President Polk revive it.
4.
In
the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian tsar fixed the southern
boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40’ and stayed at that.
5.
The
Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense Doctrine, since Monroe
was concerned about the safety of his own country, not Latin America.
6.
The
doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement.
7.
It
was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a voice of
patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.
8.
Many
Americans falsely concluded that the Republic was in fact insulated from
European dangers simply because it wanted to be and because, in a nationalistic
outburst, Monroe had publicly warned the Old World powers to stay away.
