Bangladesh, in full, People’s Republic of Bangladesh, republic of southern Asia, in the northeastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, bordered on the west, north, and east by India, on the southeast by Myanmar (formerly known as Burma), and on the south by the Bay of Bengal. The area of the country is 143,998 sq km (55,598 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Bangladesh is Dhaka. Geographically, historically, and culturally, Bangladesh forms the larger and more populous part of Bengal, the remainder of which constitutes the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal. From 1947 to 1971 the region of Bangladesh was a province of Pakistan. As such, its official designation was changed from East Bengal to East Pakistan in 1955. On March 26, 1971, leaders of East Pakistan declared the region independent as Bangladesh (Bengali for “Bengal nation”), and its independence was assured on December 16, 1971, when Pakistani troops in the region surrendered to a joint force of Bangladeshi and Indian troops. Land and Resources Bangladesh, a low-lying country traversed by numerous rivers, has a coastline of about 580 km (about 360 mi) along the Bay of Bengal. Physiographic Regions Most of Bangladesh lies within the broad delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and is exceedingly flat, low-lying, and subject to annual flooding. Much fertile, alluvial soil is deposited by the floodwaters. The only significant area of hilly terrain, constituting less than one-tenth of the nation’s territory, is the Chittagong Hill Tracts District in the narrow southeastern panhandle of the country. There, on the border with Myanmar, is Mowdok Mual (1003 m/3292 ft), the country’s highest peak. Small, scattered hills lie along or near the eastern and northern borders with India. The eroded remnants of two old alluvial terraces—the Madhupur Tract, in the north central part of the country, and The Barind, straddling the northwestern boundary with India—attain elevations of about 30 m (about 100 ft). The soil here is much less fertile than the annually replenished alluvium of the surrounding floodplain. Rivers and Lakes Rivers are a prominent and important feature of the landscape in Bangladesh. Some rivers are known by different names in various portions of their course. The Ganges (Ganga), for example, is known as the Padma below the point where it is joined by the Jamuna River, the name given to the lowermost portion of the main channel of the Brahmaputra. The combined stream is then called the Meghna below its confluence with a much smaller tributary of the same name. In the dry season the numerous deltaic distributaries that lace the terrain may be several kilometers wide as they near the Bay of Bengal, whereas at the height of the summer monsoon season they coalesce into an extremely broad expanse of silt-laden water. In much of the delta, therefore, homes must be constructed on earthen platforms or embankments high enough to remain above the level of all but the highest floods. In nonmonsoon months the exposed ground is pocked with water-filled borrow pits, or tanks, from which the mud for the embankments was excavated. These tanks are a chief source of water for drinking, bathing, and small-scale irrigation. Climate The climate of Bangladesh is of the tropical monsoon variety. In all areas about 80 percent of the annual rainfall typically occurs in the monsoon period, which lasts from late May to mid-October. Mean annual precipitation ranges from about 1400 mm (about 55 in) along the country’s east central border to more than 5080 mm (200 in) in the far northeast. In addition to the normal monsoonal rainfall, Bangladesh is subject to devastating cyclones, originating over the Bay of Bengal, in the periods of April to May and September to November. Often accompanied by surging waves, these storms can cause great damage and loss of life. The cyclone of November 1970, in which about 500,000 lives were lost in Bangladesh, was one of the worst natural disasters of the 20th century. More than 120,000 were killed and millions left homeless in April 1991 when a powerful cyclone struck the coastal areas in the Ganges delta. Tornadoes, which also accompany the monsoon season, can cause harm to Bangladesh as well. In May 1996 a tornado ripped through northern Bangladesh, killing more than 440 people, injuring thousands, and destroying at least 80 villages. Bangladesh has warm temperatures throughout the year, with relatively little variation from month to month. January tends to be the coolest month and May the warmest. In Dhaka the average January temperature is about 19° C (about 66° F), and the average May temperature is about 29° C (about 84° F). Vegetation and Animal Life With the exception of the Chittagong Hill Tracts District, portions of the Madhupur Tract, and the Sundarbans (a great tidal mangrove swamp in the southwestern corner of the country), few extensive forests remain in Bangladesh, the wooded area amounting to less than one-sixth of the total area. Broadleaf evergreen species characterize the hilly regions, and deciduous trees, such as acacia and banyan, are common in the drier plains areas. Commercially valuable trees in Bangladesh include sundari (hence the name Sundarbans), gewa, sal (mainly growing in the Madhupur Tract), and garyan (in the Chittagong Hill Tracts District). Village groves abound in fruit trees (mango and jackfruit, for instance) and date and areca (betel) palms. The country also has many varieties of bamboo. Bangladesh is rich in fauna, including nearly 250 indigenous species of mammals, 750 types of birds, 150 kinds of reptiles and amphibians, and 200 varieties of marine and freshwater fish. The rhesus monkey is common, and gibbons and lemurs are also found. The Sundarbans area is one of the principal remaining domains of the Bengal tiger, and herds of elephants and many leopards inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts District. Other animals living in Bangladesh include mongoose, jackal, Bengal fox, wild boar, parakeet, kingfisher, vulture, and swamp crocodile. Mineral Resources The mineral endowment of Bangladesh is meager. The principal energy resource, natural gas, is found in several small fields in the northeast. There is a coalfield in the northwest and large peat beds underlie most of the delta. Limestone and pottery clays are found in the northeast. Population The vast majority of Bangladesh’s inhabitants are Bengalis, who are largely descended from Indo-Aryans who began to migrate into the country from the west thousands of years ago and who mixed within Bengal with indigenous groups of various racial stocks. Ethnic minorities include the Chakma and Mogh, Mongoloid peoples who live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts District; the Santal, mainly descended from migrants from present-day India; and the Biharis, non-Bengali Muslims who migrated from India after the partition. Population Characteristics The population of Bangladesh (1991) was 109,876,977, making Bangladesh the world’s eighth most populous country. The overall density, 763 persons per sq km (1976 persons per sq mi) in 1991, is much higher than that of any other country in the world except for microstates such as Singapore. Fewer than 20 percent of the Bangladeshi people are classified as urban. The distribution of the population is relatively even, except in the sparsely populated Chittagong Hill Tracts District and the almost totally uninhabited Sundarbans. Most of the people are relatively young, some 45 percent being under the age of 15 and only about 3 percent being 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth is about 51 years. Principal Cities Among the major cities of Bangladesh are Dhaka, the capital, with 3,397,190 inhabitants (1991); Chittagong, the leading port, with 1,364,000 inhabitants; Khulna, a rapidly growing center for small-scale industry, with 545,849 inhabitants; Narayanganj, the inland port for Dhaka, with 268,950 inhabitants; and Rajshahi, located in a silk-producing area, with 299,670 inhabitants. Language The national language, Bengali, of the Indo-European family, is the first language of more than 98 percent of the population. It is written in its own script, derived from that of Sanskrit. Urdu is the language of several hundred thousand people, many of whom emigrated from India in the late 1940s. A number of languages akin to Myanmar are also spoken. Religion Islam, the state religion, is the faith of about 85 percent of the population, almost all of whom adhere to the Sunni branch. Hindus make up most of the remainder, and the country has small communities of Buddhists, Christians, and animists. Education and Cultural Activity Bangladesh lacks sufficient numbers of schools and cultural institutions, even though facilities were increased substantially in the 1970s. Education Public education in Bangladesh generally follows the model established by the British prior to 1947. Elementary education is free, but at least one-third of all children are not enrolled in school. Poor school attendance is a major reason for a literacy rate of only 35 percent for Bangladeshis aged 15 and older. In the period 1989 to 1990, the country had about 45,000 elementary schools, with a total annual enrollment of some 11.3 million pupils, and about 10,000 secondary schools, with a combined yearly enrollment of about 3 million. Bangladesh has several universities, the largest of which is the University of Dhaka (1921). Others include Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (1962) and Jahangirnagar University (1970), both in Dhaka; Bangladesh Agricultural University (1961) in Mymensingh; the University of Chittagong (1966); and the University of Rajshahi (1953). Colleges include Bangladesh College of Textile Technology (1950) in Dhaka, and Chittagong Polytechnic Institute (1962). In the period 1989 to 1990, the country’s colleges and universities together enrolled more than 500,000 students. Cultural Life Bangladeshi culture is, in many respects, inseparable from that of greater Bengal, and since the early 19th century a majority of the most widely read and admired Bengali writers and artists, Hindu as well as Muslim, worked for a time in the Indian metropolis of Calcutta. Greatest among these was the Hindu writer, artist, and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore. Classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular music enjoy a wide following in Bangladesh. Classical dancing is of various Indian schools, such as bharata natyam, and indigenous folk genres are being developed (see Indian Dance). Cultural Institutions Higher cultural life is concentrated in Dhaka, which is the site of the Bangla Academy (1972), devoted to the promotion and development of the Bengali language and literature. The country’s largest library is part of the University of Dhaka, and the Bangladesh National Museum, also in Dhaka, is noted for its art and archaeology collections. The Varendra Research Museum, controlled by the University of Rajshahi, is an important center for archaeological, anthropological, and historical research. Communications About 35 daily newspapers in Bengali and nine English-language dailies are published in Bangladesh, chiefly in Dhaka, and the country also has many weekly and monthly periodicals. Radio Bangladesh and Bangladesh Television are under government direction. About 4 million radio receivers, 480,000 television sets, and 206,000 telephones were in use in 1990. Government Since the nation’s formation in 1971, the government of Bangladesh has undergone many changes. A secular parliamentary form of democracy was established by the 1972 constitution, but it was suspended in late 1974 and replaced in January 1975 by a presidential form of government. The 1972 constitution, as amended, was suspended again in 1982 after a coup d’état. A ban on political activities was rescinded and the constitution reinstated in 1986. Executive and Legislature In February 1991 a parliament of 300 members was elected; 30 additional seats were subsequently filled by indirect ballot. Constitutional provisions abolishing presidential government and restoring a parliamentary democracy, headed by a prime minister, were approved by parliament in August 1991 and ratified by popular referendum in September. Judiciary The highest tribunal in Bangladesh is the Supreme Court, which is divided into a high court and an appellate division. The chief justice and the other justices of the supreme court are appointed by the president. Local Government Bangladesh is administered in four divisions—Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, and Rajshahi. Smaller units of government include unions, which are groups of villages with popularly elected councils; thanas (groups of unions); and, administratively most important, zillas (districts), which are groups of thanas. Political Parties The principal political groups in the 1991 parliamentary elections included (in order of finish) the Bangladesh Nationalist Party; an eight-party coalition led by the Awami League; the Jatiya Party; and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party. The 1996 elections brought a shift in power as the Awami League gained the majority and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party became the opposition. Health and Welfare Health and welfare services in Bangladesh are limited. The country has fewer than 2 trained physicians per 12,000 inhabitants, although the government maintains more than 1800 hospitals and dispensaries. Much of the welfare work in the country is administered by voluntary organizations, and Bangladesh is a major recipient of assistance from abroad. Defense Military service in Bangladesh is voluntary. In the late 1980s the nation had an army of 90,000 members, a navy of 7000 members, and an air force of 6000 members. International Organizations Bangladesh is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and was admitted to the United Nations in 1974. It also belongs to the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social Development, headquartered in Sri Lanka. Economy First as part of British India and then of Pakistan, the area now constituting Bangladesh suffered from chronic economic neglect. The region produced large quantities of agricultural goods, including most of the world’s jute, but received little investment in such basic items as transportation facilities and industrial plants. Bangladesh’s gross domestic product was estimated at $26.2 billion in 1994. In 1992 Bangladesh’s budget was estimated to include $2.8 billion in revenues and $4.1 billion in expenditures. Labor The civilian labor force of Bangladesh was estimated in the mid-1980s to include approximately 35.1 million people, of whom 74 percent were employed in agriculture, 11 percent in industry and commerce, and 15 percent in services. Unemployment and underemployment are significant problems in the country. Agriculture Nearly 40 percent of the gross domestic product derives from agriculture. Most farms are small, and per-capita output is low. Rice, of which two or three crops can be grown each year, is the leading food crop in all areas and accounts for at least five-sixths of the cultivated area; about 28.6 million metric tons were harvested in 1991. Pulses, the main source of vegetable protein, are the most important food crop after rice. Various oilseeds (mainly for cooking oil), wheat, potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, bananas, mangoes, and pineapples also are raised. The principal cash crop is jute (a plant used to make burlap and twine), grown throughout the annually flooded portions of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta; the amount of jute harvested in 1991 was about 977,000 metric tons. Tea, the second most valuable cash crop, is grown almost exclusively in the northeast, around Rajnagar (Sylhet). Cattle and buffalo are numerous but are not raised for human consumption. Dairy products and eggs are in short supply. Fishing, Forestry, and Mining Aquatic animals provide the chief source of animal protein in the Bangladeshi diet. Hilsa (a kind of herring) and prawns are among the principal commercial species. The amount of fish caught in 1990 was about 847,800 metric tons, mostly consisting of freshwater varieties. The leading commercial types of trees are wild sundari, gewa, and teak. Bamboo is also an important forest product. Mining and quarrying, apart from the modest production of natural gas, are of negligible importance. Manufacturing The manufacturing sector, which contributes less than one-tenth of Bangladesh’s annual national product, is made up principally of unmechanized, small-scale enterprises, which together employ more than 3 million workers. The chief manufactures of the country are jute products (such as cordage and sacks), textiles, processed food, beverages, tobacco items, and goods made of wood, cane, or bamboo. Large-scale factories process jute and sugarcane. Much of the nation’s heavy industry, including a small steel mill, is in the port of Chittagong. Energy More than 90 percent of Bangladesh’s electricity is generated in thermal plants using either coal, natural gas, or petroleum products, and most of the rest is produced by hydroelectric facilities, including a large installation on the Karnaphuli River. In 1990 Bangladesh consumed about 8 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. Transportation The numerous rivers of Bangladesh and the marked seasonal fluctuation in their width and depth greatly inhibit the development of an integrated road and rail transport system. Bridging the major channels is not feasible economically, and reliance on ferry connections makes most long-distance overland travel exceedingly slow. The country has some 102,500 km (about 63,700 mi) of roads, about 10 percent of which are paved; the road network may be severely damaged by monsoon flooding. About 67,000 motor vehicles were in use in the late 1980s. The country is served by some 2870 km (some 1785 mi) of operated railroad track. Much of the country’s domestic freight and passenger traffic is carried on inland waterways. Commercially operated navigable routes in the rainy season total at least 8050 km (5000 mi), but shrink to some 4025 km (some 2500 mi) in the dry season. Small boats can navigate an additional 17,700 km (11,000 mi) in wet months. International freight traffic is handled at the ports of Chittagong and Chalna; the former leads in imports and overall value and the latter leads in exports. Government-owned Bangladesh Airlines (Biman) provides international and domestic air service. The main international airport is at Dhaka. Currency and Banking The principal unit of currency in Bangladesh is the taka (40.25 taka equal U.S.$1; 1995); the taka is divided into 100 paisa. The government-run Bangladesh Bank handles central-banking operations. Commerce and Foreign Trade The per-capita volume of Bangladeshi internal and foreign trade is low. Domestic trade is conducted largely through thousands of periodic markets called hats. Since independence in 1971 the value of Bangladesh’s annual imports has usually been at least twice that of exports; in 1990 imports cost about $3.4 billion, and exports earned some $1.5 billion. The principal exports are jute products and raw jute; clothing, seafood, tea, and hides and leather goods are the other important exports. Imports include foodstuffs, basic manufactures, mineral fuels, machinery, and transportation equipment. Exports go mainly to the United States, Italy, Great Britain, Japan, Germany, Belgium, and Singapore; imports come chiefly from the United States, Hong Kong, Japan, Great Britain, Singapore, India, and France. Only a small number of tourists visit Bangladesh each year. History For the history of the territory prior to 1947, see India; Pakistan. The people of East Pakistan Province declared their independence as the nation of Bangladesh on March 26, 1971, while fighting a savage war against the central Pakistani government. The fiscal separation from Pakistan took place, with extensive aid from India, on December 16, 1971. Bangladesh was soon recognized by most other nations, although Pakistan withheld diplomatic recognition until 1974 and China did not recognize the nation until 1976. Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations in 1974. The country’s initial government was formed in January 1972 under the charismatic leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, known as Mujib, who became prime minister. His immediate tasks were to rebuild the war-ravaged nation, reestablish law and order, and reintegrate the numerous Bengalis returning from India. A longer-range goal was to foster economic growth in order to raise the very low living standards of the densely populated nation. In the first years of independence Bangladesh received much aid from abroad, and Mujib nationalized major industries as part of his program of developing the country along the lines of democratic socialism. He had little success, however, in improving the economy, and lawlessness prevailed. In mid-1974 the country was devastated by floods that destroyed much of the grain crop. At the same time, political disorder was increasing, and in late 1974 a national state of emergency was declared. In early 1975 Mujib became president under a remodeled constitution that granted him virtually dictatorial power. He was unable to stabilize the political situation, however, and was killed in a military coup d’état on August 15, 1975. In November military leaders ousted Mujib’s successor, Khandakar Mushtaque Ahmed, who had initiated martial law, and installed Abusadat Muhammad Sayem as president. General Ziaur Rahman assumed the presidency when Sayem resigned in 1977. Martial law was lifted in 1979, following parliamentary elections. Despite a continuing food shortage, the nation made considerable economic progress in 1980 and 1981. President Rahman was assassinated in May 1981 as part of an abortive military coup. He was succeeded by Vice President Abdus Sattar, who won election to the presidency in his own right in November. However, a bloodless military coup in March 1982 brought General Hossain Mohammad Ershad to power. After suspending the constitution and abolishing all political parties, Ershad ruled by martial law under a figurehead president. A proposal by Ershad to require all schools to teach Arabic and the Koran sparked demonstrations and riots in February 1983. Later in the year limited political activities were allowed to resume; in December Ershad assumed the presidency. The long-postponed parliamentary elections took place in May 1986. Some members boycotted the initial meetings of parliament because Ershad did not lift martial law. In an October 1986 presidential election that was boycotted by opposition parties, Ershad was elected to a five-year term with a majority of more than 80 percent. In November, after parliament passed legislation protecting his military regime from reprisals, Ershad lifted martial law and reinstated the constitution. Devastating floods in September 1988 inundated about three-fourths of the country and left an estimated 30 million people homeless. Faced with rising political opposition, Ershad resigned in December 1990; he was subsequently convicted and imprisoned on charges of corruption and illegal weapons possession. In February 1991, Begum Khaleda Zia, widow of President Rahman, was elected prime minister, which, after a constitution change later that year, became the governmental position with primary executive power. New elections were held in February 1996, but a boycott led by opposition parties triggered low voter turnout and violence, and Begum Khaleda Zia’s Bangladesh Nationalist Party won by default. The opposition parties refused to recognize the election results and called a general strike, which had a negative effect on Bangladesh’s already strained economy. By late March Zia agreed to resign and allow a caretaker government to preside over new elections. Former Supreme Court Chief justice Mohammad Habibur Rayman was named chief advisor of the caretaker government under President Abdur Rahman Biswas. New elections, held in June, brought a shift in power to Bangladesh. The Awami League won the most votes and, forming a coalition with the Jatiya Party, gained a majority in the parliament. Sheikh Hasina, leader of the Awami League and longtime foe of Zia, was named prime minister. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party, winning slightly more than one-third of the parliament’s seats, formed the official opposition.