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An Abridged History of Classical Maps

Maps are a way for humans to understand their surroundings and make sense of them on a larger scale. "The purpose of a map is to express graphically the relations of points and features on the earth surface to each other." (Crone xi) The reader of a map can use these plotted points and find the landmarks of the plotted points and know where their location is. "Mapping-like painting-precedes both written language and systems involving number, and though maps did not become everyday objects in many areas of the world until the European Renaissance, there have been relatively few mapless societies in the world at large. The map is thus both extremely ancient and extremely widespread; maps have impinged upon the life, thought, and imagination of most civilizations that are known through either archaeological or written records." (Harley & Woodward 1)

Early maps were primitive and crude, they were usually constructed on material that would not withstand through the years of time."The earliest world map surviving from the ancient world - a Babylonian map of the 6th or 5th century BC - is of approximately the same date as the first known references to maps of Greek origin; and for several centuries after this there are no maps, but only literary allusions and fragments of plans" (Bagrow 25) As a result of this historians have a hard time finding primary sources for there study of the maps of ancient people. Civilizations outside of Mesopotamia, for an example the Chinese, had their own independent developments in the art of map making. The first map in China dates from about 2100 BC and appeared on the outside of a ding (anchient cooking vessel) (Black 2).

 

Early Mesopotamian world map on a clay tablet.

The Greeks took over the art of map-making from the Mesopotamian and the Babylonians. From them they accepted the theory that the earth was a flat circular disk surrounded by a primordial sea. There were two notions of the Earth during this period, the earth known as 'ge' and the inhabited Earth known as the 'oikumene'. The earliest conception of the Earth entertained by the Greeks was the notion that the Earth was a flat disk covered by an inverted bowl in the sky.

The above map is a construction of the oikumene before Eratosthenes.

In 6th century BC, Ionian philosophers disregarded the bowl shaped sky and divided the heavens into bands. The flat disk theory however still remained. The first person credited with drawing the first map was Anaximander of Miletus, who lived between 610 to 547 BC. Anaximander worked as both a craftsman and philosopher, as indeed most of the earlier geographers during this period did (Harley & Woodward 134). Anaximander's map was improved 50 years later when Hecataeus, also of Miletus, constructed the first circuit of the Earth, known as the 'periodos ges' (Harley & Woodward 135).

Reconstruction of the world according to Hecataeus.

The first concrete evidence that the Earth was being conceived as a sphere comes through Plato 429-347 BC. In the Last Days of Socrates, Plato describes how Socrates comes to the conclusion that the Earth is a sphere (Heidel 81). However this was not the accepted view of the geographers and cartographers of the time because it was a relatively new idea. The hypothesis was acknowledged between 5th and 4th century, but wasn't developed until 2nd century BC. In determining the Earth as a sphere shaped object math and astronomy became more and more important. It is through mathematical equations and the positions of certain celestial bodies, namely the sun, that later philosophical geographers, such as Aristotle (384-322 BC), determined the spherical of the Earth. Although not considered a cartographer or geographer in any definite sense Aristotle had very distinctive ideas about the Earth's shape and outline of the oikumene.

Eratosthenes (276-195 BC), was another geographer and cartographer devoted himself to geography and in doing so set as his goal the perfection of the world map. Eratosthenes is reputed to have made the first map in which cognizance of the Earth's sphericy is definite. His map formed the basis of all later cartographers and geographers. He accepted and argued that the world was a sphere and through calculations determined the circumference of the Earth (Harly & Woodward 154).

In 2nd century AD two very well known geographers that came into the forefront were, Marinus of Tyre, who lived sometime during the 2nd century AD and Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 AD). Marinus of Tyre attempted to modify existing maps with new discoveries, thus expanding the oikumene. Working out of a Phoenician port he gathered information from travelers and merchants alike, in turn developing a comprehensive map. Ptolemy on the other hand, wrote 'Geography' including instructions for larger scale sectional maps of Asia, Europe, and Africa, a list of coordinates of approximately 8000 places; those places, however were not astronomically determined, but supplied by traveler's accounts. Ptolemy believed that astronomical determinations were necessary and though he did not use them on his map, he understood they were crucial to the accuracy of any map. Ptolemy used Marinus's work extensively in his 'Geography', but was more critical of it then it was of any actual use to him (Harley & Woodward 178). All of Ptolemy's original cartographic work is extinct, but reproductions dating back to the Byzantine period are still intact.

A reconstruction of Ptolemy's world map.

Ptolemy's world map, republished in 1482.

Links

GEOGRAPHICS AT CTS - A slide show about map making.

Geography and Map Division Homepage, Library of Congress- A helpful source of information and maps.

Classical History, Maps, and Archaeology - Princeton Universtity Department of Classics, gives research on specific topics of interest.

Reference List