Khuzdul – the language of the Dwarves

Khuzdul – the language of the Dwarves.

Preface

This is by no means a complete grammar. Actually, it is little more than a compilation of my theories on Khuzdul and my attempts to make up new aspects of this language. My primary sources are of course the works of JRR Tolkien, though I rely heavily on the excellent compilation of the current knowledge on Khuzdul by Helge Kåre Fauskanger. I am no professional linguist; this is just a hobby of mine and I am but trying to make as much of my limited knowledge as possible.

Some of the elements in here are directly attested, some I conjectured, and some I simply made up.

If you have any comments or additional ideas on this (and I’m rather sure you do), please do not hesitate at telling me.

PS: Since English is not my native tongue, there may be some grave mistakes in here – I apologise for that in advance.

1. The Noun

1.1 Substantive

Numbers: There are four complete numbers in Khuzdul: singular, septal, indefinite plural and definite plural. All plural forms employ a complex system of broken derivation (detailed below); yet there is a set of plural suffixes, which is used only with derived nouns today (that is, agentive or abstract forms of adjectival or verbal roots). It is said those suffixes were more common in Ancient Dwarvish, and that they could be applied to all nouns, back in the days when Khuzdul was more akin to Valarin and thus used sound derivation more often than today.

The definite plural is also used as a collective form.

In addition, we have a fragmentary dual that is only employed when referring to body-parts like eyes, ears, feet etc. The case of hands is an especially interesting one: the root [M-K] seems to appear in dual only, as do all related roots, like the ancient emphatic form [M-H-L]; yet we have a strange singular construction for the right hand only (for most Dwarves are right-handed), with prefixed the- (in effect themêk, the right hand), which seems to be related to the definite prefix thu-.

The Dwarves have always associated ‘creation’ with ‘hands’ – quite understandably, given the kind of work so many of them excel in – and thus the Seven Fathers invoked Aulë by the name mêk, ‘hands’, in the language he had given them. But the desire arose in them to find a more glorious name for their greatest deity than a term for two appendages every dwarf was equipped with; and so it came that when they learned Aulës true name, a3ûlêz, they merged this strange but noble word with elements from their own tongue, thus forming ma3âl, which not long after became mahal (for the sound of 3 was alien to their tongue). And to this day, the Dwarvish name for Aulë is Mahal.

1.2 Genitive

We have an attested genitive structure, a plain broken declination with some pretty straightforward rules. This is called the status constructus or Construct State (CS) in hamito-semitic linguistics, as opposed to the status absolutus. The CS word order is X(CS) Y, roughly meaning X of Y, with X being put into the CS. (The word order X Y in the status absolutus is discussed below).

If X is a compound, the change to CS afflicts only the second element of X, if both elements are nouns; if not, only the noun is put into the CS. Exception: If Y is a compound, only the second (or noun) element of Y is put into the CS (e.g. uzbad khazad-dûmu instead of *izbid khazad-dûm).

In contrast to the substantive, the genitive of derived nouns is formed by a special broken structure.

The genitive also functions as the basic possessive structure, following the same rules: The possessive object in Construct State is placed before the subject. If, however, it is necessary to distinguish genitive from possessive forms in a sentence, the genitive is constructed as detailed, while bound pronouns (see below) are employed to denote the possessive, followed by a noun in the Construct State, in which case the CS takes on the function of a reflexive structure.

1.3 Nominative

The function of the nominative is to be the subject of the verb. Basic nominative is typically identical with the substantive; but there is one case in which the subject appears in the Construct State: if bound pronouns are employed as possessive particles, as detailed below.

The nominative is defined by its position in a sentence. The first substantive in a sentence is always the subject, except if there is a free pronoun in the sentence, or bound pronouns are employed as possessive particles. In the first case, the first substantive is the object, while the free pronoun acts as the subject. In the second case, the first substantive is the object as well, but the noun in the Construct State following the possessive particle is the subject.

Example sentence:

Khazâd ai-mênu.

The Dwarves are upon you.

Example sentence:

Rukhs âl zughul.

Orc he battle.

Example sentence:

Baraz [RM2]th’[RM1] ussu [RM3] uzbad-lê bundu [RM4] gabil[RM5].

Red the horse-of the king-his head-of is great. [The head of the king’s red horse is great.]

Note the final position of the verb. I choose to believe that all Khuzdul verbs maintain this position, either at the end of the complete sentence, or at the end of a sequence.

1.4 Accusative

The function of the accusative is to be the object of the verb. [My ideas on the exact form of the accusative aren’t quite clear yet]

1.5 Dative

The dative is defined by a simple nunation (final -n or -in/-’n after a vowel) added to the object. Its meaning is roughly ‘to’/‘for’.

1.6 Noun chart

Key: Small letters, e.g. x, a, u, denote vowels; x denoting any vowel (in irregular forms). Digits, e.g. 1, 2, 3, denote the root consonants or radicals.

1.6.1 Substantive

For genuine nouns	Singular	Dual	Septal	Indef. Plural	Def. Plural
One radical	1x	Unknown	ê1	u1	û1
Two radicals	1â2a	1ê2	ê1â2	1u2	1û2
Three radicals	1u23 or 1i2a3 or 1a2o3	1a2â3	ê1e23 or ê1î2o3	1a2a3 or 1a2û3 (archaic)	1a2â3

For derived nouns	Dual	Septal	Indef. Plural	Def. Plural
After vowel	–dab/–ab	–ten	–tash/–ash	–tab/–ab
After consonant	–ab	–en	–ash	–ab

Since the Khazâd seem so obsessed with the number seven, I have found it appropriate to include a septal form. The construction with initial ê (which is of course completely hypothetical) probably occurs only in septal. Thus, if we look at the radicals [Kh-Z-D], assuming that – as Mr Fauskanger suggested – they have something to do with the number seven (which becomes even more plausible when compared with Adûnaic hazid), we could derive a hypothetical Khuzdul word for ‘seven’ in a form like *êkhezd(?).

The plural noun dûm is well attested and is the source for my plural structure for two-consonantal roots 1û2. The singular structure 1â2a I derived from the element –nâla in Kibil-nâla, Khuzdul for the river Silverlode (Celebrant). Indefinite Plural is again formed by shortening the vowel.

Words with three radicals seem to be the most common form in Khuzdul. They appear in a variety of singular forms, like 1u23, attested in bund; 1i2a3 in zirak and bizar (and presumably in *mibar, see below); and 1a2o3, attested in gathol only. The definite plural construction 1a2â3 we know from khazâd, tarâg etc.; according to my theory, indefinite plural 1a2a3 is attested in mazar (as in Mazarbul; see below). The indefinite plural form 1a2û3 is to be found in shathûr.

For monoconsonantal roots we have only the plural ûl, from which comes the definite plural form û1, and the indefinite plural ul in Azanulbizar.

1.6.2 Genitive

For genuine nouns	Singular	Dual	Septal	Indef. Plural	Def. Plural
One radical	1^x	Unknown	ê1u	u1û	u1u
Two radicals	u12u	1ê2	ê1u2	1u2u	1û2u
Three radicals	1u23u	1a2â3	ê1î2u3	1a2u3	1â2û3

For derived nouns	Singular	Dual	Septal	Indef. Plural	Def. Plural
One radical	i1
Two radicals	i12i	1i2	ê12i	1i2i	1i2i
Three radicals	i12i3	1i2ê3	ê12i3	1i2i3	1i2i3

There is no example of a one-consonantal root in the construct state in the Khuzdul corpus. We know one two-consonantal root in CS indefinite plural, dûmu, which provided the basis for the structure 1û2u. Indefinite plural CS for three-consonantal roots 1a2u3 is attested in baruk khazâd, ‘axes of the Dwarves’ (note indefinite baruk for ‘axes’ and definite khazâd for ‘the Dwarves’).

Construct State pattern pl. for verb agentive and verb abstract forms: hence iglish, of hands, CS of aglash. There is no structure for one-radical derived nouns in all the plural forms, since the plural suffixes for those nouns are inflected as well; so there simply are no one-radical derived nouns in dual, septal, indefinite and definite plural.

1.7 Gender suffixes

Khuzdul employs no basic gender structure. All nouns are basically one category, although there is a derivative suffix used to denote the gender of living beings only. For example, if a root [T-D] denotes the basic idea of a ‘(domesticated) pig’, then we could assume a female form form tâda-a (>tadâ) to mean ‘sow’.

Since Khuzdul was invented by a male being (the god Aulë, who, in the first place, created only male Dwarves, by the way), it is obvious that the male gender should be the one employing the basic form of the noun; accordingly, the female suffix incorporates the indicative phoneme â, pointing away from the speaker (as opposed to î, for example, which would indicate something near to the speaker, if not the speaker himself; cf. French voici – voila, English this – that, German hier – da etc.). The suffix –a would probably come from Ancient Dwarvish –ðâ (>–hâ >–a); hence use of –ha if employed after long vowels, after o, or after e (for –u-a becomes –ô, –i-a becomes –ê, and –a-a becomes â).

I have invented the consonant ð for Ancient Dwarvish as a predecessor for modern h; it would, in effect, be the Aulian equivalent of Valarin 3, yet Aulë knew the sound 3 as well and used it in his own name A3ûlêz, from which it was adopted by the Dwarves into their name for their creator.

1.8 Definite articles

Nouns in singular, dual and septal are normally indefinite; there is, however, a definite prefix thu- (or th’- before vowels), although this is only rarely used, since definite nouns are mostly obvious from the context.

1.9 Pronouns

1.9.1 Free Pronouns

Most free personal pronouns are only employed as subject. They are placed directly before the verb.

The Khuzdul free personal pronouns are: 1^st person singular khîl; 2^nd person singular têl; 3^rd person singular âl; 1^st person plural nôl; 2^nd person plural mên; 3^rd person definite plural khâd (‘those’, also in an indicative sense); 3^rd person indefinite plural khad (‘they’); and 3^rd person septal khêd (‘the seven’). The broken forms khad and khêd are sometimes replaced by the sound variation dukhad (= indefinite plural khad + definite article thu-) and thêkhed (a combination of broken and sound derivation + the definite article th-, meaning, in contrast to khêd, ‘those seven’ with a certain indicative implication); but those constructs are only rarely used and considered obsolete or archaic by some.

1.9.2 Bound Pronouns

Bound pronouns have a special status in Khuzdul; their meaning depends entirely on their position. They are employed as suffixes only.

The Khuzdul bound personal pronouns are: 1^st person singular –helu; 2^nd person singular –tî; 3^rd person singular –lê; 1^st person plural –nâlu; 2^nd person plural –mênu; 3^rd person plural –hadu; and 3^rd person septal –hêdu.

Those suffixes express possessive meaning when attached to a substantive (e.g. mêk-lê, ‘his hands’). They are also used as basic possessive particles if it is necessary to distinguish genitive from possessive forms in a sentence; in this case, they are attached to the genitive object as described above, but are followed by the possessive subject in the Construct State

When bound pronouns are attached to a verb or to a preposition, however, they act as objective (e.g. khazâd ai-mênu, ‘the Dwarves are upon you’).

I have modelled the pronoun structure very closely after the system of Old Hebrew, because it fits perfectly into the known corpus and the overall structure of Khuzdul as presented herein.

1.10Verbs as Nouns

Nouns can be derived from verbs in several forms. We know of one verb agentive pattern: a1 for one-radical roots; a12(a) for two-radical roots, and a1a2â3 or u12ad for three-radical roots.

For action nouns, the durative present is used to form a gerund which may act both in an adjectival and in a nominal sense; that is, u1a for one-radical roots, u1a2 for two-radical roots and 1u23(u) for three-radical roots; this is also employed as a verb abstract structure, whence gund[RM6] (u), ‘the process of delving’, but also ‘underground hall’, from the verbal root gunud [G-N-D], ‘to delve underground, excavate, tunnel’.

In addition, there is a verb instrumental structure used to denote the tool or object with which the action defined by the verbal root is carried out. This is 1e for one-radical roots, â1e2 for two-radical roots, and 1e2a3 for three-radical roots, whence felak, ‘a broad-bladed chisel’ from felek, ‘hew rock’ (which is a curious case, by the way, for felak has been re-adopted to verbs, as such meaning ‘to use such a tool’).

The verb agentive patterns a1a2â3 and u12a3 are a conjecture from azaghâl, warrior, and uzbad, ruler. I haven’t yet found any better explanation for uzbad; so I decided to stick with alternative verb agentives. Assuming that Aulë wasn’t that great a linguist.

1.11Adjectives as Nouns

1a23ûn denotes, as Mr Fauskanger pointed out, a ‘person, thing or place characterized by the root meaning’. There is no hint in the corpus at what the corresponding structure for one- and two-consonantal roots might be, so I made up some patterns of my own: a1ûn for one-consonantal roots (e.g. alûn, ‘river-man’, ‘Ulmo’), and 1î2ûn for two-consonantal roots (e.g. bîlûn, ‘treasure-hold’ or ‘dear person’).

1a23ûn can also be applied as a noun agentive pattern, as detailed in the Derivation section below.

Stem Modifications

We know three types of roots: one-, two- and three-radical roots. The declinations are different for each of those types (see below). – I have invented a new type of root relation for Khuzdul, working on the basis of a structure found in some Kuschitic dialects: in some cases of stems with one or two radicals, an intensive form can be derived by prefixing the final radical in a softened form. For example, if we assume a hypothetic root [K-T] meaning ‘fire’, we could derive an intensive form [D-K-T] (final T>D and added as intensive prefix) with the possible meaning of ‘sun’. Similarly, we could derive a root [B-Zh-P], ‘gap’ or ‘cleft’ from [Zh-P], ‘opening’, ‘slit’.

Some Analysis

Barazinbar: a compound of baraz [B-R-Z], red, and inbar [M-B-R], horn or mountain(!). The original singular form of [M-B-R] would probably have been mibar according to the pattern 1i2a3; but this was changed to imbar in ancient times due to the influence of Elvish imbar, ‘The Habitation’, *‘home’ (WJ:419), which the Dwarves of course equalled with ‘mountain’. The dissimilation of mb>nb, thus forming modern inbar, may be due to the ‘semi-adopted’ nature of the word (for the Dwarves were quite hesitant at changing their own language, as is well known).

Mazarbul: known from ‘the chamber of Mazarbul’, translated by Tolkien as ‘the chamber of Records’; however, I would not accept this as a literal translation, thus equalling mazarbul with ‘records’, due to the strange structure of the word. If, as Mr Fauskanger suggested, the last element be the suffix –ul (see below), we would be faced with a four-consonantal plural word in the unlikely form 1a2a34 or, as Mr Fauskanger put it, a past participle ma1a23 of [Z-R-B]. I, for my part, choose to render mazarbul as a compound of mazar (indefinite plural of [M-Z-R] meaning something like ‘tales’, ‘stories’) and bul (another indefinite plural, of [B-L], denoting a ‘treasure’ or ‘valued item’).

Nargûn: This is the adjectival root [N-R-G], ‘black’, in the agentive pattern 1a23ûn (see above), meaning ‘Black Land’ (Mordor). Another example of the same pattern is tharkûn, ‘staff-man’ (Gandalf) from the radicals [Th-R-K], staff).

Tharkûn: cf. Nargûn

–ul: This is an adjectival ending applied to nouns that end in a consonant; we do not know what form would be applied if the suffix was used after a vowel, but I suggest *–dul (since –ul probably evolved from –ûl, which in turn could be a worn-down form of *–ðul; hence Tolkien’s spelling Khuzdûl in some places). In addition, -ul is used to form patronymics, as attested in Fundinul, ‘son of Fundin’. Obviously, the suffix is applied to the genetive object here (e.g. in patronymics to the father rather than to the son).

Gundabad: Gund(u), underground hall, + abad, sacred or holy. In this case, the adjective follows the noun it refers to; this is not so in other compounds like sharbhund, kibilnâla etc. The ‘correct’ form would be abad-gundu, ‘holy mountain’; but Gundabad is an archaic word, and the structures may have changed since that time. [Or else gund could in fact be the gerund structure. I haven’t quite sorted this out yet.]

Aglâb and Iglishmek: Verb agentive of [G-L], to speak: agl(a) (pattern a12(a), mentioned above). –ab, definite plural suffix for derived nouns; thus forming agla-ab>aglâb, the words, ‘spoken language’. –ish, indefinite plural suffix for derived nouns; whence aglash, words; Construct State thereof iglish, + mêk, dual of [M-K], hands = iglishmêk, words of hands, ‘gesture-language’.

Sharbhund: Adjective shar, bald, + singular of archaic root [Bh-N-D], which eventually evolved to [B-N-D]. [The most obvious solution. I just couldn’t think of anything better.]

Derivation

1a23ûn, noun agentive pattern; congruent with adjective agentive pattern (for one- and two-consonantal roots, see above). This is only valid for genuine nouns and adjectives. For derived nouns and adjectives, 1e2a3 is employed.

1e2a3 attested in felak (felak-gundu, ‘cave-hewer’).

Wordlist (by no means comprehensive)

Abad [B-D], adj sacred, holy

*Alûn [L], river-man, Ulmo; = [L] noun agentive

Aya/ai, prep upon, over

Azaghâl [Z-Gh-L], warrior; = [Z-Gh-L] verb agentive

Baraz [B-R-Z], adj red

*Bîlûn [B-L], treasure-hold, dear person; = [B-L] noun agentive

Bizar [B-Z-R], valley, vale

*Bizhap [B-Zh-P], rift, ravine; cf. zhup

Bâla [B-L], story

Bund [B-N-D], head

Burk [B-R-K], axe

Buzun [B-Z-N], adj cut in deep, located in a hollow or depression

*Dukt [D-K-T], sun; cf. kut

Dum [D-M], delving, (artificial) cave, mine

Dush [D-Sh], gloom, darkness

Êkhezd [Kh-Z-D], seven; cf. khuzd

Felak [F-L-K], 1) verb to use a tool like a broad-bladed chisel 2) a small axe; cf. felek

Felek [F-L-K], verb hew rock; cf. felak

Gabil [G-B-L], adj great, big

Gamil [G-M-L], old/wizened Dwarf

Gathol [G-Th-L], fortress

Gimil [G-M-L], adj old, experienced

Gund(u) [G-N-D], underground hall

Inbar [M-B-R], antiquated poetic form of mibar

Kheled [Kh-L-D], adj glassy, mirror-like

Khuld [Kh-L-D], glass

Khuzd [Kh-Z-D], Dwarf; cf. êkhezd

Khuzdul [Kh-Z-D], 1) adj dwarvish 2) Dwarvish (of language); = [Kh-Z-D] sg + adj ending –ul

Kibil, adj silver (of colour; adapted from Sindarin celeb); = zigil

*Kut [K-T], fire (symbolic); cf. dukt

Li [L], river, stream

Mahal [M-H-L], dual only creating/protecting Hands, later also Creator (Aulë)

Mazar, adj treasured, highly valued

Mazarbul [M-Z-R] [B-L], record (literally: treasured stories); = [M-Z-R] + [B-L] ind pl

Mênu, pron you acc pl

Mibar [M-B-R], horn, tip; = inbar

Narag [N-R-G], adj black

Nargûn [N-R-G], Black Land; = [N-R-G] adj agentive

Rukhs [R-Kh-S], ork

Sâsa [S-S], horse

Shar [Sh-R], adj bald

Sigin [S-G-N], adj long

Tharkûn [Th-R-K], staff-man; = [Th-R-K] noun agentive

Thirak [Th-R-K], magical or wandering staff

Turg [T-R-G], beard

Uzbad [Z] [B-D], ruler, lord; [Z-B-D] verb agentive

Zughul [Z-Gh-L], verb battle, wage war

*Zhup [Zh-P], cut, cleft, ravine; cf. Bizhap

Zigil [Z-G-L], adj silver (of colour); = kibil

Zirak [Z-R-K], tine, tip (of a mountain)