LONG RANGE PLANNING

Creating a Sustainable Economy and Future In the San Diego/Tijuana Region
A Case Study

By Jim Bell

If our scientists are correct, the human family has been around for some 150,000 generations, assuming each generation is 33 years.

Let our generation lay the groundwork to ensure that the next 150,000 generations have a healthy planetary life support system to sustain them in their time.

The Way I See It

If the human family is to prosper in the future, we’ve got to stop screwing around. Anyone with half a brain knows that the human family is seriously disrupting, if not destroying, its own planetary life support system. What should we do? What I’m doing is learning as much as I can about how our planet’s life support system works and how we work as human creatures. My goal is to use this knowledge to raise the general level of consciousness, happiness and sustainability where I live and ultimately, planet wide. If enough people do the same, the world will be a happy place for everyone, now and for future generations.

Ultimately, it’s all about consciousness. If enough of us become conscious enough, soon enough, all good is possible.

If you would like to reproduce all or any portion of this publication, permission can be obtained by contacting Jim Bell, at 619) 758-9020, jimbellob@hotmail.com, or by writing to Jim at 4862 Voltaire Street, San Diego, CA 92107.

Copyright Jim Bell 2003. First Addition, April, 2003.

Printing details: The cover and center spread of this publication is printed on 100 percent recycled fiber and 15 percent post consumer recycled paper. The text is printed on 60 recycled fiber and 15 percent is post consumer fiber with soy based ink.

This publication is a project of the Ecological Life Systems Institute (ELSI) If you would like to support this work and other ELSI Projects financially, or in other ways, please call Jim at the number above.

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Table of Contents

The Way I See It -------------------------------------------------------------- ii

Acknowledgments ----------------------------------------------------------- iii

Synopsis ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1

Part One: Vulnerability by Design?-------------------------------------- 1

Part Two: Developing a Plan ---------------------------------------------- 5

Where is it appropriate to do what on the land?------------------------------------------------------------- 5

How do we do the what once the correct location for it is determined. ----------------------------------- 6

Part Three: The San Diego/Tijuana Region, A Vision of a Sustainable Future ------------------------------ 18

Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

After Word --------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

Footnotes ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

About the Author ------------------------------------------------------------- 41

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Derek and Nancy Casady for their valuable suggestions and comments during the process of writing this document and especially Derek for his meticulous help in editing.

Thanks also to Michael Gelfand, Cassia Rodrigues, Sandra Wawrytko, Rebecca Margolis, Matt Stadsklev, Peter MacLaggan, Patrick Abbot, Ann Marie Harmony, Nadia Amer, Bill Rolley, Skip Fralick, Mary Clark, Chris Klein, Jodie Beebe, Sicco Rood, Bonny Hough, Allied Sun, Charles Wei-hsun Fu Foundation, Lenny Cooper Foundation, Vegitation, Psydecar, and Winston’s Night Club.

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LONG RANGE PLANNING

Creating a Sustainable Economy and Future in the San Diego/Tijuana Region

Note: Although the analysis presented here focuses on the San Diego/Tijuana region, the principals it is based on can be applied to any region on our planet.

Synopsis

Part one describes how the region and its economy are vulnerable. The threats discussed range from:

Intentional attacks on key infrastructure elements like aqueducts, electric transmission lines, natural gas and oil pipelines, freeway overpasses and railroad trestles to naturally caused infrastructure damage due to earthquakes, floods and severe weather. Additionally, part one examines how infrastructure attacks and natural phenomena would impact the flow of basic resources like energy, water and food into our region.

Also discussed is how the region is vulnerable economically, from a purely business-as-usual perspective, even if the threats to its security, just discussed, never manifest.

Part two introduces a comprehensive plan designed to strengthen the region’s economy while making it and the communities that make it up less vulnerable to the threats described in part one.

For example, if floodplains, which are vulnerable to flood and earthquake damage, are not developed, the public at large won’t have to bear the economic burden of floodplain clean-ups, lawsuits, etc., when floods and earthquakes occur. Similarly, if our region becomes energy self-sufficient through efficiency improvements and renewable energy development, its supply and cost of energy will not be affected by cost and supply uncertainties associated with dependence on imported energy. Currently San Diego County imports 98 percent of its energy.

Part Three is an exploration of the future. It answers the question: If the San Diego/Tijuana region were well on its way to becoming a sustainable economy, what would living in the region be like?

The goal of long range planning is to improve the common good now and for future generations. With this in mind and heart, I submit the following:

Part One: Vulnerability by Design?

Even if it had been planned intentionally, it would be difficult to create a regional economy that is less sustainable and more vulnerable than ours. As it is currently configured, the region’s infrastructure could be seriously damaged by a small group of people or even an individual. Power lines, oil pipelines, natural gas pipelines, freeway overpasses, railroad trestles, aqueducts, and dams are all vulnerable to simple explosives that can be homemade or stolen from mining or construction projects. (1)

Water stored in open reservoirs can be easily contaminated by dropping something into it from a plane or by contaminating upstream watersheds.

Power lines can be knocked out with hunting rifles.

If a terrorist attack was well orchestrated, the region’s infrastructure could be damaged so severely that the flow of energy, water and food to the region, for all practical purposes, would be cut off. The loss of key freeway overpasses and rail lines would also make it difficult for people to leave the region to obtain these necessities.

The region’s dependence on imported oil makes it vulnerable to political changes, terrorism and war in the countries from which it imports oil. Just the fear of reduced oil imports can affect the regional economy by causing oil and other energy prices to rise. Whenever there is conflict in an oil-producing nation oil prices rise. During the 1991 Gulf War, oil prices on the world market almost doubled and energy costs in general went up even though there was never any real oil shortage. With the impending Middle East war and political unrest in countries like Venezuela, similar energy price dynamics are coming into play. If shortages were to become real, the impact on our regional economy would be doubly traumatic.

Another threat is criminal activity to manipulate the supply and price of imported energy, whether there is a real energy shortage or not. During the recent California energy crisis, the average San Diego County household and business was robbed to the tune of $500 per household and $4,000 per average business above what the energy would have cost if supply manipulation had not occurred. (2)

The Mexican part of the region is slightly less vulnerable to events in other countries that affect the supply and price of oil in the world market. Unlike the U.S., Mexico currently pumps enough oil out of the ground to meet its domestic demand. Nevertheless, Mexico’s economic wellbeing is affected by the supply and price of oil on the world market.

Beyond the threat of intentional human acts, the region’s key infrastructural elements are also vulnerable to earthquakes. Geologists, who study the region, conclude that there is a high probability that the Tijuana/San Diego region will experience a serious earthquake sometime in the next 30 years. (This prediction was made more than 40 years ago.) (3)

Additionally, the region’s vulnerability to earthquake damage has been aggravated because of extensive development on valley floors that overlay alluvial deposits. Structures built on alluvial deposits are more vulnerable to earthquake damage than structures built on most other geological formations. Alluvial deposits are composed of sand and groundwater that tend to liquefy if shaken. This well-known phenomenon is called liquefaction.

Since areas subject to liquefaction usually lie in floodplains, these areas are vulnerable to flooding from excessive rainfall or the loss of upstream dams during earthquakes.

Obviously, if any of the possibilities discussed above occurred singly or in concert, the region’s economy would be seriously damaged. The cleanup and repair costs associated with a serious earthquake or flood, or both, where valley floors have been developed could range in the hundreds of millions of dollars or more. Even if damages are insured, the economic impact would be devastating. Insurance never covers everything, and when faced with catastrophic losses, insurance companies have gone broke. To avoid going under, insurance companies would almost certainly raise rates in general. (4) To the degree these losses were not covered by insurance, the taxes we pay, federal, state, and local would be tapped. Whatever the case, we the public end up footing the bills.

Even if we could be guaranteed that earthquakes, floods, terrorism, price manipulation or restrictions or cutoffs of essentials like energy, water and food would never occur, the region’s economy is still quite vulnerable from a purely business-as-usual perspective.

There are three principal ways that dollars come into our region—from exports, from federal and state governments (on both sides of the border), and from tourism and new residents. All three of these sources are shaky.

Although the region’s economy has a substantial export sector, it has historically run a trade (cash-flow) deficit. This is because what people around the world pay for our exports is less than what we pay for what we import.

The region’s nearly total dependence on imported necessities like water, food and energy aggravates our region’s trade deficit. Currently we export $20 billion a year to pay for the importation of 98 percent of our energy and 90 percent of our water and food. (5)

Even in good times, this $20 billion annual trade or cash flow deficit, represents a strain on our region’s economic health. During tough economic times the strain can be quite serious. This is because when economic times are tight, it’s easier for people living outside our region to cut back on purchasing the things that we produce and export than it is for us to curtail our purchase of imported necessities like water, food and energy.

In other words, during broad national and global economic slowdowns, the rate that money flows into our region slows down faster than the flow of dollars leaving it. The longer this continues, the more cash starved the local economy becomes. As dollars become scarce, local business suffers, and economic activity is stifled in general.

The more energy, water and food self-sufficient we become, the more of the $20 billion we now export we can return to our regional economy each year. If all $20 billion dollars were returned, economic activity in our region could potentially double, benefiting everyone’s bottom line.

Plus, and let me stress this: We would greatly increase our security by getting control over our energy, water and food future.

Another point of economic vulnerability is the region’s dependence on federal and state funding.

Changes in policy by the central governments on both sides of the border can severely reduce the amount of cash coming into the region. As federal and state deficits grow, there will be even more pressure to reduce the flow of federal and state dollars to counties and cities. Currently, San Diego County and its cities are scrambling to maintain public services in the face of their own mounting deficits and serious state and federal cutbacks.

In general, central and state governments in both countries are in serious debt and looking hard for ways to cut costs. This will be true for some time even under the most optimistic scenario.

Tourism and new residents are a third major way that dollars come into the region’s economy. Tourists spend money when they visit and new residents bring assets with them. Like trade, the amount of dollars brought into the region by tourism and new residents is vulnerable to broad national and global economic slowdowns. Plus, there are many who live in the region now who think there are already enough people living here and that promoting tourism only encourages more people to move here. (6)

The economy is also vulnerable ecologically. In addition to being almost totally dependent on the use of imported nonrenewable energy resources, it uses renewable resources in ways that make them nonrenewable or difficult to renew. The region’s rapidly filling landfills are graphic testimony to this fact. To replace what we bury, our region and planet are being scoured for a rapidly shrinking supply of virgin resources largely being exploited in non-sustainable ways.

Similarly, the region’s agricultural and forest soils are being used in ways that cause them to erode more rapidly than they can be renewed. These soils are also being used up by urban sprawl. As early as the nineteen- seventies, an estimated one million acres of prime agricultural soil were being converted into shopping malls, housing projects and roads each year. (7) Practices in our region continue to reflect this trend. Focusing on the car, for every 5 cars added to the U.S. fleet, an area the size of a football field is covered with asphalt. More often than not, cropland is paved because it is flat and well drained. Flat land is easier and cheaper to develop and with development comes roads and parking. (8)

Regional groundwater, an important element in a more water-secure future, is being contaminated with pesticides and domestic and industrial poisons. Additionally, the development of and damage to our region’s forests, grasslands and valleys is reducing groundwater recharge rates.

In short, our region’s economic practices are undercutting the ecological resource foundation that makes the creation of a sustainable future possible. As our ecological resource base shrinks, the region’s sustainable economic options shrink with it.

Obviously, the picture just painted is not very pretty, but is the current state of regional vulnerability inevitable? Absolutely not!

In fact we already have all the technologies and strategies necessary to preserve and strengthen our planet’s life support system --- and to create a strong, vibrant, sustainable economy and future at home and abroad.

Part Two: Developing A Plan

If our goal is to create a sustainable economy in any region or country on our planet, there are two fundamental questions that need to be answered.

1. Where is it appropriate to do what on the land?

2. And how do we do the “what” once we’ve determined the where?

Expanding on the “Where is it appropriate to do what on the land?” question first: What areas, like floodplains and other geologically unstable areas, should not be developed? Floodplains flood and are subject to liquefaction during earthquakes. Thus, floodplain developments are disasters waiting to happen and as such constitute looming economic and tax liabilities for everyone.

What land should be set aside for wildlife habitat? Healthy wildlife habitats are essential to watershed health and groundwater recharge. Healthy watersheds reduce flooding, protect against soil erosion and maximize the absorption of rainwater runoff by soils and the recharge of our region’s groundwater storage basins.

What land should be set aside for growing food? Given that global population is still growing and agricultural soils are declining, it’s only prudent that we set aside our most fertile soils for growing food. Having sufficient agricultural soils in use for farming or in reserve gives us insurance against the reduced flow or cutoff of imported food. Fortunately, the San Diego/Tijuana region is rich in agricultural soils.

Where are the best places to locate intense human activities? Broadly speaking, intense centers of human activity like cities and town, should be located on lands that are not floodplains, vital habitats or our best agricultural soils.

For a more detailed look at how answering the above questions correctly would look and function, see the map and accompanying text on pages 19 – 23.

How Do We Do The “What”?

Now that we’ve answered, at least in a general sense, the “WHERE TO DO WHAT?” question, let’s focus on the “HOW DO WE DO THE WHAT?” question.

How do we ensure ourselves a secure, plentiful and affordable energy supply? Our region’s only secure energy supply is solar energy in its various forms. Therefore any energy security solution for the region has to be based on renewable energy. In the shaky world of today, any energy future based on importing nonrenewable resources only serves to maintain our region’s current energy vulnerability.

Fortunately, our region is so rich in renewable energy resources it can easily supply all its energy needs and could even be a large energy exporter.

How do we ensure ourselves a secure, plentiful and affordable supply of water? Unlike renewable energy resources and agricultural soils, both plentiful in our study region, freshwater resources are not. Nevertheless, our study region can become water self-sufficient if an integrated water collection, storage, use and reuse strategy is developed. Plus, with our abundant renewable energy resources, seawater can be distilled to make up shortfalls. Nevertheless, creating a sustainable, secure water future in our region is one of our greatest challenges.

How do we ensure that our region has a plentiful, afforadable and sustainable supply of food? Currently we import 90 percent of our food. Given the shaky world we live in today, this is not a good position to be in. The only way we can ensure that we will always have sufficient food for everyone is to grow it here in our own communities. And unlike freshwater, our region is blessed with abundant and fertile soils. This is true, even though we’ve already developed or otherwise damaged some of our region’s best soils. So step one toward food security in our region, is to preserve the soils that have not yet been developed or otherwise misused and reclaim soils misused in the past wherever possible. Step two is to use organic agricultural practices that increase soil fertility, use local freshwater resources sustainably, and do not pollute our air, water and soil in any way.

How do we design and build our communities, buildings, transportation systems, vehicles, roads, parking lots, etc. in ways that enhance sustainability? Although building our communities and their supporting infrastructures in appropriate locations is vital to sustainability, it is also essential that they be designed to be:

- energy and water efficient
- made with nontoxic, recycled and sustainably harvested and mined materials
- easily recycled at the end of their useful life.

The following will answer these “How to do the what” questions more concretely.

Creating a Comprehensive and Sustainable Economy in the San Diego/Tijuana Region

Achieving energy self-sufficiency and its economic benefits

Energy self-sufficiency can be most cost-effectively achieved through a combination of increasing efficient energy use and by developing our region’s renewable energy resources.

But even without efficiency improvements, our region is so rich in renewable energy resources we could easily become energy self-sufficient. For example, even with zero efficiency improvements, San Diego County could be net metered out electrically if only 12 percent of the 300 square miles currently covered by buildings and parking lots in the county were covered by photovoltaic (PV) panels. Covering 35 percent of our county’s roofs and parking lots with PV panels would produce enough electricity to replace all the energy (electricity, natural gas, gasoline, diesel and propane) currently used in San Diego County. (9) Thirty-five percent coverage of roofs and parking lots is less than 2 .5 percent of the county’s land area. (10)

From an economic perspective, the more our region becomes energy, water and food self-sufficient, the more money we will have circulating in our local economies. If energy, water and food self-sufficiency were achieved, the $20 billion we currently export per year to pay for energy, water and food we import, would be returned to us, potentially doubling regional economic activity. More on this later.

To present a more detailed picture of how a graceful, win-win transition to energy self-sufficiency can occur, becoming electricity self-sufficient in the City of San Diego will be used as an example of how the process could unfold. Note: To translate the numbers used in the City of San Diego analysis to the county as a whole, multiply all the numbers used in the “Investing in an Energy-Secure Future” graph and accompanying text by two.

Investing In an Energy-Secure Future
The City of San Diego – A Case Study

This is a project of the Ecological Life Systems Institute

Jim Bell, Director
(619) 758-9020 jimbellob@hotmail.com
www.jimbell.com

(Graph Legend – page 9)

GRAPH LEGEND

(1) Investing $1 billion of low interest revenue bond dollars each year to hire local contractors and trades people to make our buildings more energy efficient and to install solar (PV) cells on roofs and over parking lots. The bond would be paid off with the dollars saved by reducing the need to pay for imported energy, which efficiency improvements and renewable energy development would generate. If you save energy or produce it locally, you don’t have to pay to import it. Efficiency improvements would include installing better insulation in walls and attics, double-glazed windows, fans, more efficient lighting and appliances, etc.

(2) Economic Multiplier Benefit. According to economists every dollar spent in a local economy generates $2 to $4 of additional economic activity. This graph assumes an average of $3 of additional economic activity per dollar spent. Thus, investing $1 billion per year on becoming more energy self-sufficient will generate $3 billion of additional economic activity each year.

(3) New tax revenue added to city coffers. Spending $1 billion each year on efficiency and renewable energy, plus $3 billion in economic multiplier benefits it will generate, will increase local tax revenues by $40 million each year, assuming a one percent tax benefit on the $4 billion.

(4) Dollars gained in freed up taxes and lower cost of living expenses. Business and job creation translates into:

-Fewer tax dollars needed to prevent and prosecute crime and to provide social services.
-Reduced drain on unemployment insurance funds, while increasing social security reserves.
-Fewer dollars needed to treat pollution related illnesses (efficiency and renewables are nearly pollution free.)
-Lower property maintenance costs. Pollution attacks paint, roofing, clothing, landscaping, public art, etc.
-Increased energy security. The more we reduce our dependence on imported energy, the more energy secure we will be.

(5) Maintaining the status quo – Currently we export $1 billion out of the City of San Diego’s economy each year, to pay for imported electricity or natural gas imported to make electricity. If this money were spent locally on efficiency improvements and renewable energy development we’d gain a positive economic activity swing of $10 billion each year or $300 billion over 30 years. (The $5 billion of economic activity lost each year with the status quo plus the $5 billion economic activity gain resulting from becoming electricity self-sufficient. See graph.)

(6) Lost economic multiplier benefits. Exporting $1 billion to pay for imported energy means there is no economic multiplier benefit gained in spending this money.

(7) Lost tax revenues because the original $1 billion dollars was exported. Once dollars leave our local economy, no local tax revenues can be generated from them.

(8) Loss of freed up taxes and a reduction in the general cost of living. When dollars are exported, they generate no local economic activity or reduce tax liabilities.

In the final analysis this graph shows us that investing in efficient energy use and renewable energy development is probably the best thing we can do to strengthen our regional economy and make it more sustainable and secure. It also touches on how revenue bond money can be used to finance the transition. The following materials expand on the revenue bond strategy and other ideas implied by the graph. Achieving Electricity Self-sufficiency in the City of San Diego.

Today, we are just as vulnerable to the next energy crisis as we were to the last one. It could be argued that our current lull in rising electricity prices and its availability, is just the eye of an energy uncertainty hurricane that will soon resume its ferocity when the eye passes. Plus, in my view, the hurricane season is just starting. Yes, we’ve built a few power plants, but they produce nothing without imported natural gas over whose price and availability we have little or no control.

But is our lack of control over our electricity future inevitable?

Absolutely not!

And, as ironic as it may seem, we are already paying, and will continue to pay, the money we need to get control of our electricity future, whether we invest in getting control of it or not.

Since this is a fine point, I’ll elaborate.

Every month, we pay our electricity bill. Each month the average household pays $60 and the average business pays $500 for electricity and related tariffs. (11) (What households and businesses pay for natural gas is not included in the numbers above.) If we assume a low inflation rate of 3 percent over 30 years, the length of a typical home mortgage, this outlay adds up to over $37,000 for the average household and more than $300,000 for the average business. (12) These are probably conservative estimates, given that the cost of electricity is likely to rise at a faster pace than 3 percent over the next 30 years if we don’t become energy self-sufficient.

But, even assuming 3 percent inflation, if we do nothing to make ourselves electricity self-sufficient, at the end of 30 years the average household and business will be out $37,000 and $300,000 respectively, with nothing to show for it but more supply and price uncertainty, vulnerability and continuing electricity bills.

If we invest in electricity self-sufficiency, however, at the end of 30 years we will have complete control over a secure electricity supply. Plus, the cost of electricity will be at worst stabilized, and at best will be reduced as we get more skilled at increasing the efficiency of our buildings and the efficiency of extracting electricity from renewable energy resources.

The only thing lacking to accomplish this goal is that most of us don’t have the up-front cash to take advantage of this opportunity.

How do we get the up-front cash?

Here’s the plan I’m proposing.

Step one - The City of San Diego issues a revenue bond. The money generated by the bond will be used to hire contractors and trades people to accomplish two tasks.

• Make all the buildings in the City of San Diego as energy efficient as is cost-effectively possible, i.e., install more efficient lighting systems, skylights for daylighting, more insulation, more efficient appliances, double glazed windows, etc.

• Install enough solar cells, either on the retrofitted buildings’ rooftops or over a local parking lot so that when the work is completed for each building, it will “net meter out.” A building is net metered out when it puts as many kilowatt-hours into the grid each year as it takes from the grid each year. In other words, the grid and the fossil fuel plants that supply it become our battery that we charge when the sun is shining and draw from when it is not.

Step Two - As each building “net meters out,” what was formerly paid to power suppliers for electricity and its delivery will be used to pay off the bond. (Note: There will still be delivery charges or tariffs to be paid on the electricity purchased from the grid, but with efficiency improvements and daytime use supplied primarily by direct solar, these charges will be greatly reduced.)

Step Three - Once the bond is paid off no one in the service area covered by the bond would pay for electricity. Only a monthly service charge for grid maintenance, system repairs and system upgrades would be paid. System repairs would be minimal since most solar cell panels are warranted for 25 years.

In addition to becoming electricity bill free, this plan has many other benefits. Here are some of them:

ECONOMIC MULTIPLIER BENEFITS - Economic studies have shown that every dollar spent in a local economy generates $2 to $4 of local economic activity. This means that the economic multiplier benefit of adding the billion dollars we now pay (export) to electricity suppliers back to our city’s economy would be $2 to $4 billion of increased economic activity each year, (the graph assumes an average economic activity gain of $3 billion each year.) Added to this economic activity gain are the original billion dollars invested in efficiency and renewables and a billion dollars in social service and health cost savings and increased tax revenues that this new economic activity will generate. In addition to this $5 billion economic activity gain, there is the yearly $5 billion of economic activity lost if we remain with the status quo. If we assume that only half of the $10 billion gain in economic in activity goes into paychecks, $5 billion translates into 100,000 jobs paying $50,000 a year.

INCREASED SALES TAX REVENUE – Adding $10 billion of economic activity to our city’s economy each year would greatly increase sales tax revenues coming into our city’s coffers. Assuming that only half of this $10 billion is spent on taxable items and that our city will only get $.01 in tax revenues for every dollar spent, the net gain in increased sales tax revenues for the city adds up to $50 million each year.

INCREASED PROPERTY TAX REVENUES - More money in local circulation would increase competition for property, which would translate into increased property values and thus increased property tax revenue. Each percent increase in the value of property in the county translates into $20 million in increased property tax revenues each year Countywide.

LESS UNEMPLOYMENT, HOMELESSNESS AND CRIME - More jobs and business equals less crime, homelessness, and less unemployment in general.

FEWER EMERGENCY ROOM INCIDENTS - Less air pollution translates into fewer emergency room incidents and premature death related to asthma and other respiratory illnesses.

FEWER HEALTH PROBLEMS IN GENERAL - Less pollution and especially less air pollution will improve everyone’s health.

LESS DAMAGE TO PROPERTY - Reduced air pollution means less damage to food crops and landscaping. It also equates to less damage to fabric, paint, roofing, lawn furniture, autos, public art, etc.

REDUCED GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – Efficient energy use and renewable energy development reduce CO2 and methane gas emissions to the atmosphere, two major contributors to the greenhouse effect. A study presented at the world conference of re-insurance firms is warning that “climate change could cost the world more than $300 billion each year” and that “only urgent efforts to curb emissions of CO2 and other gases linked with the greenhouse effect, can avert this outcome.” (13)

MOST IMPORTANTLY, ONCE A COMMUNITY NET METERS OUT, NO ONE WOULD EVER LOSE THEIR HOME, BUSINESS, JOB OR WAY OF LIFE DUE TO OUT OF CONTROL ELECTRICITY COSTS OR UNCERTAIN SUPPLIES.

*When we save a kilowatt-hour through efficiency, we maximize our benefit. Not only don’t we have to pay for the kilowatt we save, we don’t pay the tariffs or “components” associated with getting it to us. These tariffs or “components,” which include charges for distribution, transmission and less tangible charges like the “Trust Transfer Amount,” can cost anywhere from 1/3 to 2/3 of what ratepayers pay for the electricity they use.

Achieving Water Self-sufficiency

Although our region is rich in renewable energy resources and agricultural soils, this is not the case for freshwater. If recent lower than historic rain/snow fall continue, freshwater resources will be even more limited in the future.

But, even if recent less than historic rain/snow fall continues, our region can be water self-sufficient, with few or no lifestyle changes, if an efficient, integrated water collection, storage, use, and reuse-for-irrigation strategy is adopted in our region’s watersheds. And if this system is augmented by using our renewable energy resources to convert seawater into freshwater. WWat we need to do:

+Protect and improve watershed health to maximize groundwater recharge and surface water collection.

Healthy watersheds are rich in life. Plants provide food and oxygen for animals (humans included) and animals provide nutrient rich wastes and carbon dioxide for plants. Healthy plant communities protect against soil erosion by blunting the force of even the heaviest rain. By protecting the soil from eroding, plants keep surface runoff clean and easier to collect. Soil animals like earthworms create a nearly infinite number of tiny tunnels, which provide pathways for water to be absorbed by the soil to nourish both plants and animals and maximize soil and groundwater recharge, whatever the rainfall total is in a particular year. In other words, the healthier watersheds are, the more groundwater the people living in them will have for sustainable use, whether rainfall is below average or above it.

+Develop a more efficient, durable and secure local water collection system.

On the water collection front, water would be extracted from groundwater reservoirs or taken from streams and rivers. In some cases, surface water collection would require the construction of small reservoirs along stream or river channels. Unlike the typical reservoir of today, which completely blocks the flow of a waterway, these reservoirs would be small, usually less than 10 feet high, and designed to divert no more than 50 percent of the water flow into pumping reservoirs. Pumping reservoirs would be sited at valley perimeters out of floodplains. As the water rose in these reservoirs, float activated pumps would deliver water to underground storage tanks primarily located on mesas and never in floodplains.

+Develop a more secure water storage system to protect stored water from contamination and evaporation.

Thus far, my research shows that underground tank storage is the most secure and cost-effective storage system for our region with one or more tanks located in each community depending on the size of the community. The land above each tank would be used for parks, basketball and tennis courts, soccer, baseball and football fields, community gardens, etc., depending on the size and location of the tank and community preference.

The benefits of the underground tank storage over other options include:

1. No loss of water or water quality to evaporation. In our region, open reservoirs, depending on location, lose 4 to 8 feet of water from their surfaces each year to evaporation. (14) Not only is water lost, the salts and other minerals that were dissolved in it become more concentrated in the water left in storage.

2. Providing a secure water supply where water will be most needed if aqueducts and delivery pipes fail due to earthquakes, severe weather, or accidental or intentional human disruption. (15)

3. Protecting water from air or water-borne pollution. (16)

4. Making stored water more difficult to purposely or accidentally contaminate. (17)

5. Being less vulnerable to earthquakes than are dams. (18)

6. Fewer land-use liabilities. Unlike dams, underground tanks do not flood farmland or wildlife habitat. (19)

7. Eliminating the threat of deaths, injury and damage to property that dam failures cause. (20)

8. The potential to design underground storage tanks that can collect water from humid air even if precipitation is absent. (21)

9. Having a world-class underground tank builder based in our region. (22)

+Use water more efficiently by getting more water-use-benefit using less water Residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural water use can be substantially reduced in cost-effective ways without reducing water-use-benefits. Residential water use can be reduced by 70 percent without life style changes through a combination of low-flow shower heads, low-flow toilets, water efficient appliances, climate appropriate landscaping, and the use of bath and sink water (graywater) for irrigation where appropriate. (23) Commercial and industrial water use can be reduced by using the residential measures listed above where appropriate. Other improvements can be made depending on the nature of the commercial or industrial operations involved. One example, of several discussed in footnote 21, is the “Armco Steel Mill in Kansas City, Missouri, which manufactures steel bars from recycled ferrous scrap, (scrap steel and iron) draws into the mill only 9 cubic meters of water per ton of steel produced, compared with as much as 100 – 200 cubic meters per ton in many other steel mills – the Armco plant uses each liter of water 16 times before releasing it after final treatment into the river.” (24)

To maximize water security, it is important to use water efficiently in every way we can. But more efficient water use in agriculture could save more water than all other efficiency measures combined. Worldwide, the amount of water used in agriculture “accounts for some 70% of global water use,” greatly exceeding the quantity of water used for domestic and commercial purposes. In countries like the U.S., that have well-developed irrigation infrastructures, up to eighty-five percent of all water used is consumed by agriculture, with the remaining 15 percent accounting for all other uses. (25)

One of the most troubling aspects of this water use in agriculture is how rapidly it is depleting groundwater supplies. In 1986, the U.S. Department of Agriculture reported “that one-fourth of the 21 million hectares (52 million acres) of U.S. irrigated cropland was being watered by pulling down water tables anywhere from six inches to four feet per year.” (26) The depletion of water tables by crop irrigation is a problem worldwide. Whether in the United States or abroad, much of the water used by agriculture can be saved through the use of efficient irrigation practices and by growing climate-appropriate crops. (27) And, fortunately for us, our region’s farmers are already some of the most water-efficient farmers in the world. (28)

+Water Recycling

Water recycling is another way to improve water use efficiency. Water recycling can occur on several levels. Home gray water systems (bath and sink water) may be as simple as draining bath and wash water into one’s yard. Depending on the particular situation, more sophisticated systems may involve filtering, pumps, and disinfection. Gray water includes bath, sink, and water from washing clothing. It excludes toilet wastes. Food scraps and many soaps and shampoos present in gray water are not usually a problem since they can be broken down by soil organisms into nutrients that are used by plants. Whether it be human or general cleaning products, it is best if they are designed to biodegrade rapidly. (29) Community-scale water recycling is another way to get twice the benefit from the same amount of water. In dense urban areas where many residences do not have yards, where gray water use is practical, community-scale sewage recycling systems can be used. As with backyard systems, it is important to keep toxic and caustic materials out of all wastewater collection and recycling processes. If this is done there are a number of processes that can be used to clean up wastewater so it can be used for irrigation and fertilizer. In general, such recycling systems use both biological and mechanical methods to clean wastewater. A promising approach has been developed in Tijuana, Mexico. The treatment plant in Tijuana is called Ecoparque. I was involved in the design of this system, directed its construction and was co-project director during its construction. Ecoparque is designed to transform sewage into irrigation water and fertilizer. It is also particularly suited to our semiarid climate because very little water is lost to evaporation during its treatment cycle. (30) Designed to combine biological and mechanical methods to process wastewater, Ecoparque also minimizes the amount of land needed for treatment. The treatment process involves mechanical screens, biological filters, clarification (slowing the flow of water so solids can settle out) and disinfection. Basically, Ecoparque recycles all the water and nutrients that pass through it. The recycled water is being used for irrigation and the nutrient rich solids are composted through a vermaculture (earthworm) composting system, then used as an organic fertilizer rich in plant nutrients and food for soil organisms. (31) +Use our abundant renewable energy resources to convert seawater into fresh water through reverse osmosis, distillation and other strategies. Currently, most systems designed to convert seawater into freshwater, are powered, directly or indirectly, by fossil fuels, but direct solar or solar generated electricity can be used. Simple, single stage direct solar stills in Southern California will produce, on average, one gallon of fresh water from seawater each day per 10 square feet of glazing. Multistage solar stills can double this production. Combining waste industrial heat with solar distillation can increase freshwater production many-fold depending on how much waste heat is available. Currently, the most efficient way to convert seawater to freshwater is through reverse osmosis that can be powered by renewably generated electricity. Reverse osmosis uses high presser pumps to force seawater through a membrane that lets water through but blocks dissolved minerals like salt. Large scale reverse osmosis systems (5 million gallons per day and larger) produce 50 gallons of freshwater from seawater per kWh of electricity consumed. At this rate, 8.4 square miles of PV panels installed on rooftops and over parking lots will produce, on average, 180 gallons of freshwater from seawater per capita per day for 3 million people. (32) The amount of water used per capita per day in our County for all uses (residential, industrial, commercial and agriculture) in 2001 was 180 gallons. Wave power and tidal power can also be used to convert seawater into freshwater. Float Inc., a local company, has proposed building a floating airport to replace Lindbergh Field. I’ve researched their technology, and was quite impressed with it in general and its potential to use wave power to make freshwater from seawater. (33)

Collecting Water From The Land, Our Region’s Potential Given the goal of achieving water self-sufficiency, how much water can be sustainably collected from the region’s coastal watersheds each year and what do we need to do to convert sea water into freshwater to make up any deficits?

Historically, average rainfall, including snow, has run at around 18 inches per year, 9.9 inches on the coast to 40 inches on the western slopes of the Laguna Mountain Crest. If this historic average held up over the long run, the assumptions and conclusions in footnote 33 are more or less accurate. (34)

Unfortunately, average rainfall totals have been declining. As rainfall totals go down, the percent of runoff and groundwater recharge goes down even more steeply. In other words, the lower the average rainfall becomes, the smaller the percentage of it that will run off or recharge groundwater supplies. When rainfall is low there is little runoff because most of it is soaked up by the first few inches or feet of soil where it is used up by plants or evaporates over time. Similarly, very little groundwater recharge occurs until there is sufficient rainfall to fully saturate surface soils. (35)

Taking the above into consideration and assuming a coastal watershed average rainfall of 12 inches (6 inches along the coast and 24 inches above 4,500 feet elevation) instead of the historic average of 18 inches, how much water could we collect?

Basically there are 3 land sources of water available to us: general runoff from the region’s coastal watersheds, runoff from impervious surfaces like roofs and parking lots, and groundwater.

1. General Runoff - Assuming a Tijuana/San Diego region coastal watershed area of 6,220 square miles or 3,980,800 acres and that only 6 percent of the rain that falls runs off and that only half of this 6 percent can be collected (3 percent of 12 inches) without causing ecological sustainability problems - the amount of water that can be collected equals 17 gallons per capita per day for 6,000,000 people. (36)

2. Impervious surfaces – Assuming that there are 600 square miles of impervious surfaces (roofs and parking lots), in the San Diego/Tijuana region and that 6 inches of precipitation can be collected from these surfaces on average per year, the amount of water that can be captured per capita for 6 million people is 28.5 gallons per day. Note: With road surfaces included, there may be as many as 750 square miles of impervious surfaces in the San Diego/Tijuana region. Also, given the assumption of an average coastal rainfall total of 6 inches, six inches of collectible water is probably conservative considering that 6 inches of rainfall on the coast would be 8 inches west of I-15, around 10 inches in El Cajon, La Mesa and Escondido and 12 inches or more in communities like Alpine and Valley Center. (37)

3. Groundwater – Under these diminished groundwater recharge conditions, we should assume a yield of no more than 5 gallons per capita per day for 6 million people. (38)

Adding these totals together, we get 17 gallons + 28.5 gallons + 5 gallons = 50 gallons per capita per day sustainable water supply from precipitation in our coastal watersheds. If we recycle 80 percent of this water after use for irrigation it gives us an average per capita water budget of 90 gallons per day per capita for all water uses.

Currently, the average use of water in the San Diego part of the region, for all uses, (residents, commercial, industrial and for agriculture) is around 180 gallons per day per capita. (39) This is based on dividing the total amount of water used in San Diego County in 2001 by the total county population in the same year. I believe that through the use of currently available know-how and technology, it is possible to actually improve our water service benefits while using no more than 33 percent of the 180 gallons used today per capita for all uses, or 60 gallons per capita per day for 6 million. If this is true, and I believe it to be, we could improve peoples’ water service benefit in general while reducing their consumption to 60 gallons per capita per day for all uses. Since 90 gallons per capita per day for a 6 million regional population is available given the assumptions already discussed, we can more than meet our water needs if an integrated collection, storage, efficient use, and water recycling system is developed.

Plus, even if rainfall averages continue to fall, 8.4 square miles of solar cell coverage on each side of the border (16.8 square miles total), will generate enough electricity to produce 180 gallons of freshwater from seawater pre capita per day for 6 million people using reverse osmosis. (40) Additionally, wave and tidal power can also be used to convert seawater into freshwater. (41) Maximizing Food Security in the San Diego/Tijuana Region

On the food front, the San Diego/Tijuana Region is very rich in agricultural soils. From the most productive to the least, there are 8 agricultural soil classifications, number “1” being the most versatile for growing crops. The land areas covered in our region’s coastal watersheds by the 4 best soil classifications are as follows:

Number 1 soil – 153 square miles (396 square kilometers.)

Number 2 soil – 145 square miles. (375 square kilometers.)

Number 3 soil – 670 square miles. (1,735 square kilometers.)

Number 4 soil – 1,221 square miles. (3,162 square kilometers.) (42)

Although there are ample soils to feed many more than 6 million people, regional food production is limited by the availability of water. If historic average rainfall totals return, our water budget would be sufficient to grow enough food to feed our current population indefinitely. If they don’t, reduced precipitation can be replace by using renewable energy to convert seawater into freshwater. Fortunately, we have an abundance of renewable energy to accomplish this task. Plus, wave and tidal power can be used to convert seawater into freshwater as well. Efficient water use in growing food can be increased many-fold if crops are grown in greenhouses designed to collect the water that condenses on the underside of greenhouse glass for reuse.

The San Diego/Tijuana Region, A Vision Of A Sustainable Future

If our region’s economy was well on its way to becoming completely sustainable, what would it be like to live here?

Actually, at least on the surface, life would be much the same as it is today, except that the region would be much more park-like in appearance and there would be little if any pollution. If they chose to, people would still have cars and would be able to drive them as far and often as they do now. The difference would be that they would be driving much more efficient vehicles powered by renewable energy produced locally.

Rapid charge electric cars and trucks would charge up their batteries by using solar (photovoltaic) cells to convert the solar energy that falls on rooftops and parking lots into electricity. Hybrid drive and fuel cell vehicles would be powered by liquid fuels like bio-diesel, ethanol, methanol, etc., produced locally from food wastes, kitchen grease from restaurants, grass clippings, bush and tree trimmings, kelp, eucalyptus, chaparral and other biomass materials. Natural gas derived from the anaerobic digestion of food wastes, sewage and kelp residues can also be used to fuel hybrid drive and fuel-cell powered vehicles. To maximize the efficiency of converting biomass into liquid or gaseous fuels, solar generated electricity would be used to supply the conversion energy. (Continued on page 24)

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Mapping for Sustainability Details

Introduction

One of the most fundamental aspects of creating a sustainable economy lies in how we answer the question, Where is it appropriate to do what? on our planet. Where are the best places to site our cities? What land should be set aside for agriculture and for wildlife habitat? How can we use hazardous areas like floodplains and other geologically unstable lands, safely and productively?

Map Description

The Mapping for Sustainability Map is designed to answer these questions for the San Diego/Tijuana region specifically and to serve as an example of how such maps can be used to develop sustainable economies in any region around the world.

What is a watershed? - Watersheds or drainage basins are landforms that are shaped by and direct the flow of rainwater and snow melt on its path to the ocean. From countless raindrops, to billions of rivulets, to millions of streams, to thousands of creeks, and finally to hundreds of rivers, unrelentingly gravity pulls water runoff to the sea. The Amazon River watershed, the world’s largest, is larger than most countries. The Mississippi River watershed, the largest watershed in the U.S., is larger than the land area of California, Arizona and Nevada combined. By comparison, our region’s coastal watersheds are tiny. But, to live here sustainably, it is essential that we understand how they work and how we can maximize our benefit from them in ways that are completely sustainable. The total area covered by the coastal watershed boundaries encompassed on the map is approximately 6,200 square miles.

Watersheds as planning units – Watersheds are important to planning because they direct the flow of water and any water-borne pollution. Watersheds are also semiautonomous ecological communities. Though there is considerable interaction between the ecologies of adjacent and even distant watersheds, (some birds and animals migrate great distances), most of the life in them is native or indigenous. Natural watershed communities are inherently valuable as unique examples of life’s complexity, beauty, mystery and tenacity and if healthy, they benefit our human community in profound and practical ways. For example, healthy watershed communities maximize the creation of fertile soil. When plants and animals die or when animals eliminate wastes or plants loose their leaves, soil organisms convert them into soil. Healthy watershed communities also protect the soils they create from erosion. Plant foliage and dead plant debris protect the soil from pounding rain and water runoff. Root systems in concert with tunneling organisms make it easier for water to be absorbed into the soil. In the soil, water is used by plants or becomes groundwater that emerges as springs or is stored in groundwater basins. Healthy watershed communities help minimize flooding by absorbing rainwater and snowmelt runoff for slow release.

Getting oriented –Watershed boundaries - Look for the red arrows to find the Laguna Mountains Crest. Any rain that falls west of this crest flows toward the ocean. Rain falling east of the crest flows toward the desert. The yellow arrows indicate the U.S. Mexico Border. Straddling this border is the Rio Tijuana watershed, indicated by the orange arrows. The Rio Tijuana watershed is the largest watershed in our region at around 1,700 square miles or 4,400 square kilometers. The San Diego River watershed, indicated by the red arrows, is around 400 square miles or 1,036 kilometers) by comparison.

Principle resources and hazards - The large solid green areas (see map Legend) represent a composite of the region’s most important resources and its major hazards. It includes our region’s:

1. Number 1 and 2 prime agricultural soils.

World population is still increasing. The depth, fertility and acreage of our world’s agricultural soils are declining. Preserving our region’s agricultural soils is our best insurance to be able to feed ourselves in the future. Since we currently import up to 90 percent of our food, we are vulnerable to the failure of crops from where we import them or the failure of transport systems to deliver the crops to us.

2. Key wildlife habitat areas and their linkages.

Protecting and even expanding wildlife habitats and their linkages is vital to our region’s watershed and economic health.

3. Principle groundwater storage basins.

If we don’t pollute it or extract groundwater faster than its natural recharge rate, groundwater is forever a renewable resource.

4. Major floodplains.

Developing floodplains is just plain stupid. Floodplains flood. They also liquefy, (turn into mush) during earthquakes. Some floodplains in our region are especially vulnerable because they have dams holding back large water storage reservoirs up stream. If any of these dams fail in an earthquake, a flood of water, mud, rocks and other debris would devastate whatever the earthquake left standing on downstream valley floors.

Forests and upper elevation brush lands – (See Legend), These areas are where most of our coastal watershed precipitation falls. As such, their health is essential to the general wellbeing of humans and the life support system that supports us. This given, development in forested and upper brush land areas should be clustered around existing communities but not in floodplains and not on our region’s best agricultural soils. Not only does this make it easier to maintain watershed health and ensure food security, it also saves money because it greatly reduces the cost of creating and maintaining roads, sewers and other infrastructural elements associated with sprawl. Additionally, sprawl hurts watershed health because it cuts the land up with roads, utilities and fences. Clustering leaves most forest and brush lands open for wildlife and for human activities like hiking, camping and other recreational activities for forest and brush lands residents and the public at large.

A study sponsored by Bank of America titled BEYOND SPRAWL: New Patterns of Growth To fit The New Califorina, published in January 1995, shows that though sprawl may make money for developers, it actually drains money away from already developed communities to create and maintain the infrastructure that sprawl generates.

Existing kelp beds and their expansion – (See Legend) Kelp forests grow along our coast and along the coastlines of many countries where they are periodically harvested. KELCO is our local harvester. And unlike most things we harvest, kelp is harvested sustainably. Once harvested, kelp is processed to extract algin and other commercially valuable products. Algin, the primary product, is the smooth in ice cream, the foam in beer, an ingredient in numerous food and health care products and has uses in the textile industry. The residues of kelp processing can be used in a 2-stage process to produce methane (natural gas) and an excellent fertilizer. Kelp in our region grows by attaching itself to rocky reefs at depths of 40 to 100 feet. At depths greater than 100 feet, there is insufficient sunlight to support kelp growth. At shallower depths, wave action makes it difficult for kelp plants to become established. Kelp gets its nutrients from upwelling currents that bring nutrient rich water from the oceans depths to the surface. In addition to the uses sited above, kelp is valuable to our economy and wellbeing in other ways. For example, kelp is the foundation of the coastal food chain: the more kelp, the more fish, lobsters, abalone, etc.

Sometimes, normal upwelling nutrients are reduced because of changing ocean currents like El Nino and La Nina. To the degree this happens, kelp production declines. If nutrient reduction is severe, kelp forests can shrink dramatically. This can be overcome by using wave power to pump nutrient rich water from a depth of a thousand feet to kelp forest stands when natural upwelling is insufficient. Since we would be pumping water through water, very little energy is required to pump large quantities of nutrient rich water to the surface.

Kelp production can be increased even more by placing waste concrete rubble like the foundations and the slabs of demolished buildings next to existing reefs. As reefs are enlarged, kelp plants will colonize them, expanded kelp production and all the benefits that come with it.

Using Mapping for Sustainability as a teaching tool.

Mapping for Sustainability is designed to help people understand the principles of sustainable land use planning. Creating a sustainable future requires the preservation of watershed health and vital human support resources like agricultural soils and groundwater storage basins. It also depends on using the regions hazardous lands like floodplains in safe, productive and sustainable ways. The better these principles are understood and followed, the easier it will be to develop an economy and way of life that is completely life-support sustaining in our region and ultimately planet wide.

As a transparency, the map can be placed over maps showing existing and proposed development of the same scale. This overlay will show past land use mistakes and help us correct them and avoid similar mistakes in the future. This knowledge is also a prerequisite to restoring land misused in the past, to its former state of health and sustainable productivity.

Continued from page 18) If wood and other biomass materials are converted into methanol, half the energy in the biomass would be used up in the conversion process. Converting a primary energy source into a more usable energy form always uses up energy. If solar generated electricity is used to supply the conversion energy, all the energy in the biomass can be converted into methanol and ethanol. In addition to producing more bio-fuel like methanol and ethanol, the extra fuel produced constitutes the storage of the solar generated electricity that was used to power the conversion process.

Even though plenty of energy for powering cars and trucks would be available, people probably wouldn’t drive nearly as much as they do today. This is because communities they live in would be designed to maximize the balance between the availability of homes and apartments, with opportunities for work, shopping, education, and recreation. Some people would still commute to jobs and travel to other communities, but the opportunity to work and play in one’s own community would be optimized. To make communities more people friendly, balanced communities would include an internal transportation system consisting of various pathways designed for pedestrians and human powered vehicles. Electric carts and vans would be used to move cargo and people needing transportation assistance in and around community centers. The expanded use of telecommunications would also reduce the need to commute by making it possible for more people to work or be educated at home or at satellite locations in their own communities.

To facilitate transportation between communities, each community’s internal transportation system would be linked to a local transportation hub. This hub, in turn, would be linked to the hubs of all the other communities in the region. Whether by bus, trolley, or train, this would make all mass transit between communities, express. In large, densely populated areas, cars and delivery vehicles would be brought in on underground roads to underground parking and loading docks. In smaller communities they would be kept to the outskirts of smaller community centers.

Buildings would look more or less the same as they do today but would be much better insulated and very resource efficient in all their operations. Some low-cost ($40-$45 per square foot in 1980) buildings in Canada are as much as 10 time more energy efficient than are most buildings in our region today. Even though winter temperatures may drop to as low as minus 60 degrees Fahrenheit, some 2,000-square-foot homes in Canada have heating bills that are less than $60 per year. (43)

In addition to being more insulated, most buildings in the region would get 85 percent of their light during the day from daylight sources. Windows, skylights, electric lighting, wall coloring, etc., would be coordinated to maximize the benefits of natural light to increase the comfort, health and productivity of each individual while saving energy.

Electric lighting fixtures would be very efficient and fixture placement would focus on delivering light to where tasks requiring it are performed. Light systems would also be controlled by automated motion/heat sensors so that electric lights would turn on when someone entered a room and turn off automatically when the last person left. Light intensity sensors would also dim or turn electric lights off according to the amount of daylight available. Potentially, the range of light levels in a room would be infinitely adjustable by its occupants.

Buildings would also be designed or remodeled to avoid external and internal heat gain. This would be accomplished through the thoughtful placement and choice of windows, and by using the most energy efficient machinery and office equipment available. Commercially available openable windows have 7 times the insulation value as do the single pane windows widely used today. More advanced window designs can double and perhaps even triple the efficiency of the commercially available windows used now. Focusing on office equipment, some computers and monitors use a fraction of the energy to do the same work as do others.

Although buildings with features like those just described would require very little cooling, cooling would be provided by installing heat-absorbent pipes horizontally below the ground. When cooling is required, air collected in naturally cool places like in the shade of a tree, would be drawn by a fan through the buried pipes. As it passes through the pipes, the air would be further cooled by the earth before it is discharged to cool the building. The temperature a few feet below the surface of the earth is usually around 55 degrees Fahrenheit.

In most situations, this system alone would be sufficient to cool thoughtfully designed buildings. Where air conditioning cannot be avoided, earth-cooled air would save energy and money by reducing the amount of cooling that air conditioners would have to provide.

If all costs are considered, direct solar energy is the most cost-effective energy source available in our region for heating space and water, and for producing steam and/or drying heat needed for many industrial processes. Selective surface,* flat plate collectors can produce steam even when it is overcast. Concentrating tracking collectors can deliver steam at 600 degrees centigrade (1,112 degrees Fahrenheit) or more on clear sunny days. Back-up energy for these processes will be provided by solar generated electricity—primarily from solar PV (photovoltaic) cells mounted on roofs, parking areas, and other areas where shade is desirable.

(*Selective surfaces are specially designed surfaces that are very good at absorbing and converting light energy into heat energy while not letting heat energy escape once it’s absorbed.)

Industries, their machinery, and the electric motors that power them would also be much more efficient than today. Most of this technology is already available, and in most cases, its installation will pay for itself just in energy savings in 5 years or less. (44)

Whether industrial, commercial, or residential, new buildings would not be built in areas that are subject to flooding or earthquake damage due to liquefaction. As buildings already located in these areas wore out, they would be dismantled and recycled and rebuilt in safer locations as needed.

Efficient Water Use

Although water consumption per capita cannot be reduced as much as energy, good efficient water use strategies can cut water consumption substantially without changing water use benefits or lifestyles. In other words, people could shower, bathe, and flush toilets just as now, but all the toilets and showerheads installed in the region would be low flow.

Landscaping, to the casual observer would appear to be much the same as today with perhaps a bit less grass. Vegetation used in landscaping would be drawn from a large palette of luxuriant, drought-tolerant native and introduced plants. Drought-tolerant plants that produce useful material and food would also be an important consideration in selecting trees, shrubs and groundcovers.

Where irrigation is desired, it would be supplied by water-efficient irrigation technologies like drip irrigation controlled automatically by soil moisture sensors installed in the soil. These sensors, called tensiometers, insure that irrigation water is only applied when there is a real need. (45)

Water Reuse

In addition to efficient water use, water resources would be stretched through water reuse. Homes with yards would be equipped with gray water systems that would filter and disinfect bath, washing machine and sink water so it can be used for irrigation. Sewage water, unpolluted by harmful industrial or domestic chemicals and heavy metals, would be recycled and disinfected. Then it would be used to irrigate farms and landscaping. Sewage solids would be composted and used for fertilizer. During rainy periods, recycled water would be stored in underground tanks to be used when rainfall is insufficient.

Water Collection And Storage

Fresh water would be collected from general rainwater runoff and from impervious surfaces and from groundwater. Using renewable energy to convert seawater into fresh water would also augment supplies that can be sustainably collected from the land.

Water collected from all available sources would be stored in underground tanks as discussed on page 9.

Food

In a sustainable economy future, most of the food consumed in the region would be grown and processed locally. Water is scarce, but the more we move agricultural production into water recycling greenhouses, the more food we can grow, even if rainfall averages in our region continue to decline. See page 12 for more details.

Conclusion

If I’ve made my case at all, clearly, our region has a lot to gain economically and in increased security by adopting an economic strategy aimed at maximizing regional self-sufficiency and sustainability. This is especially true as it relates to foundational necessities like energy, water and food.

For the average person, making our regional economy more self-sufficient and sustainable will increase business and job opportunities that pay a fair return on one’s efforts and that make the world a happier and more secure place, locally and planet-wide.

From a municipal perspective, new business and employment would reduce municipal costs because the more good employment options people have, the less demand there will be on unemployment insurance reserves, for social services and infrastructure repair. (If we don’t build in floodplains, we won’t have to pay for infrastructure repairs when floods and/or earthquakes occur.)

With more well-paid jobs, more people will be able to purchase more of the things they need and want. This will generate sales tax revenue. With more money in local circulation, more people can qualify to purchase a home or purchase or start a business. This would increase property values and thus increase property tax revenues. With more money in people’s pockets, more people would be able to afford a comfortable and safe place to live. This would benefit the rental market. Additionally, with reduced municipal costs and increased revenue pouring into municipal coffers, there would be plenty of money to build more affordable rental housing and to take care of people who are having a rough time or are not capable of taking care of themselves.

In addition to the economic, social and spiritual pluses discussed above, using resources more efficiently and developing those available in the region, would provide a number of other benefits:

1. Efficient resource use and regional resource development bring the added security of being less vulnerable to resource delivery cutoffs and corporate and/or politically-generated price fluctuations.

2. Efficiency and resource development would also reduce pollution and ecological damage in general. As pollution is reduced, we will be healthier, happier, and more productive. With less damage to the region’s ecology, less money is needed for cleanups and repairs.

There is also the aesthetic value of living in a pristine environment where the air and water are clean, the food tasty, nutritious, and pesticide free, and where the landscape is beautiful and rich in plant and animal life.

Although these benefits are less easy to quantify, their dollar value is at least as great as the economic benefits described earlier. If considered from an overall quality of life and sustainability perspective, the value of these benefits is infinite.

Afterword

I do a lot of public lectures on creating sustainable economies and ways of life regionally and planet-wide. After I’ve given one of these presentations, I’m often asked if I think we can make it. By this, the questioner means, “will we make the economic and lifestyle changes needed to sustain our planet’s life support system soon enough to avoid a catastrophic decline?” My answer to this question is, I don’t know.

Do I think it is possible? Yes I do. The potential is definitely there and potentially infinite. If enough of us decide that we want an economy and way of life that is humane and life-support sustaining, there is no question in my mind that we can create it. Obviously, I’m personally committed to this path. I look forward to working with you toward this goal along the way.

Footnotes

(1) It is assumed in this paper that the meltdown of one of the region’s several nuclear reactors or the loss of water in one of their spent fuel rod storage ponds, whether the result of a terrorist attack or an accident, will not happen. If it did, the only long range planning we’d be doing would be calculating how many decades or centuries we would have to wait until our region would be safe to inhabit again.

(2) Author’s calculations based on balancing account data supplied by the California Energy Commission and our local utility watchdog, UCAN (Utility Consumer Action Network). The balancing account, which we are still paying off, topped out at $648,745,000. Additionally, there were several months of price gouging, that took place before the rate was capped and the balancing account set up, that were not included in my calculations.

(3) Conversation with Patrick (Pat) L. Abbott, PHD, Professor of Geological Sciences, San Diego State University.

(4) Just considering insurance rate increases related to global warming, a recent world conference of re-insurers reported that global climate changes (more severe storms and rising sea levels) could cost the world economy $300 billion per year. (“Climate Change Costs Could Top $300 Billion Annually,” Environmental News Service, (Feb 5, 2001).

(5) The $20 billion figure is an estimate based on data taken from the SAN DIEGO REGIONAL ENERGY PLAN, Volume 2, published in December 1994 by SANDAG. Also see NEWS, Published by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, released April 18, 2002, (Consumer Spending Patterns in San Diego, 1999-2000.) Although this $20 billion figure is more or less accurate today, it could ratchet up rapidly if there is any serious restriction on the flow of energy, water or food to our region. Our recent energy crisis is a graphic example of how price explosive such occurrences can be.

(6) If our region were energy water and food self-sufficient today, the region’s economic benefit from tourism and new residents would triple. Just as it is for longtime residents, almost all the money tourists and new residents spend on energy, water and food is exported out of our regional economy. In other words, if the region were energy, water and food self-sufficient, 1/3 as many tourists and new residents would bring in the same amount of money.

(7) Clark, Mary E. Contemporary Biology. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, London, Toronto, (1979): p. 152.

(8) Brown, Lester R. et al. The Earth Policy Reader. Earth Policy Institute. W. W. Norton & Company. New York, London. (2002): pp. 31-37 & 195-199.

(9) Marion, William and Stephen Wilcox. Solar Radiation Data Manual for Flat-plate and Concentrating Collectors. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Midwest Research Institute, Contract # DE-ACO2-83CH-10093, (April 1994): p. 42. This manual shows that each square meter of horizontal surface in San Diego County intercepts, on average, 5.0 kWh of direct solar energy each day. Converting 5.0 kWh of sunlight into electricity at an efficiency of 10 percent equals an average of .5 kWh of electricity per square meter per day. Multiplying .5 kWh per day by 365 days per year = 182.5 kWh per year per square meter.

All the electricity sold in 2002 in SDG&E’ s service area (San Diego County and part of Orange County) for all purposes equals 17.83 billion kWh. Dividing 17.83 billion kWh sold by SDG&E in its service area by the service areas population of 3.09 million equals 5,770 kWh per year per capita or 15.8 kWh per person per day.

Assuming the same consumption level for the 2.9 million San Diego County population, 2.9 million x 15.8 kWh per day equals 45,820,000 kWh per day. Dividing 45,820,000 kWh per day by .5 kWh per day per square meter equals 91,640,000 square meters. Multiplying 91,640,000 square meters times 3.86 x 10 to the -7 (the constant to convert square meters into square miles) = 35.4 square miles. In other words, installing 35.4 square miles of solar (PV) panels would produce enough electricity for San Diego County to net meter out. (Net metering out means that the County would be pushing as many kWh into the grid each year as it uses from the grid each year. Dividing 35.4 square miles by the Counties land area of 4260 square miles show that 35.4 square miles is less than 1 percent of the County’s land area. A land use analysis of San Diego County, provided by SANDAG, lists 96 land use categories and the number of acres each land use occupies. My analysis of this list indicates that there are at least 300 square miles covered by buildings, parking lots and other areas where shading would be desirable in the County. Dividing 35.4 by this 300 square mile parking/roof area show that35.4 square miles equals 11.8 percent of this 300 square mile area. (10) To replace all the energy services (40 kWh per capita per day for 2.9 million people) currently supplied to our region by imported electricity, natural gas, gasoline and diesel with solar generated electricity would require less than 90 square miles of solar PV cell coverage. Rounding up to 100 square miles to be even more conservative, 100 square miles equals 2.3 percent of the County’s land area and 34 percent of the land area currently covered by parking lots, rooftops and areas where shading is desirable.

(11) Telephone conversation with SDG&E staff.

(12) Author’s calculations based on the $60 per month per average household and $500 for the average business.

(13) “Climate Change Costs Could Top $300 Billion Annually,” Environmental News Service, Feb 5, 2001.

(14) Author’s calculations based on data from – State of California, Department of Water Resources. Evaporation from Water Resources in California. Bulletin No. 73-1, State of California, May 1974. With global warming and reduced cloud cover due to fewer

storms, evaporation losses are probably increasing. (15) Locating underground tanks in the communities they serve increases community water security. Reservoirs formed by dams are often considerable distances from the population centers they serve. Even if a dam survives a severe earthquake, it is quite likely that the piping system from the dam to where the water is needed will fail. When water is stored in the community it serves, even if piping systems are severely damaged, water can still be pumped out of storage tanks and distributed through temporary pipes and fire hoses until normal delivery systems are repaired. Since fires often accompany earthquakes, community-based water storage would also aid in their control. An added bonus of having community-based tanks could be a reduction in fire insurance premiums. Tank covers also protect stored water from air-borne pollution.

(16) Ibid.

(17) An urban network of underground tanks would be less vulnerable to sabotage than the typical open storage system. If a tank or even several tanks were damaged or contaminated, the impact on water security would be less than if a single large reservoir was contaminated or if its containment dam failed. It would require many tanks to store the same quantity of water as is stored in one large open reservoir. Thus it would require the contamination or failure of many tanks to reduce water security to the degree that the failure or contamination of one large reservoir would cause. Their number, distribution, and the fact that they would be covered also reduces the potential for large scale water supply contamination, either intentionally or accidentally.

(18) Covered underground tanks are less vulnerable to earthquakes than are dams. Large impoundment dams are very tall, some over 300 feet, and must be able to totally support the water stored behind them. Additionally, the weight of water behind dams can actually trigger earthquakes. Tank walls are shorter, usually less than 50 feet. The cylindrical shape of tanks also makes them very strong. Additionally, the walls of underground tanks get extra support from the earth that is packed in around them after they are completed. With much smaller volumes of water stored in each tank, it is much less likely that tank storage would trigger an earthquake, especially considering that the water stored in an underground tank will be lighter than the earth removed to accommodate the tank. The removed earth would be processed to reclaim its topsoil, extract sand for beach replenishment, and to repair soil erosion problems throughout our region.

(19) When dams are built, they flood large tracts of land behind them.

(20) When dams fail, downstream flooding can have catastrophic and life threatening consequences. With underground tank storage this threat is eliminated. If an underground tank fails, the water in storage will be contained by the surrounding earth. At worst, the released water would slowly seep away. This would give plenty of time to pump the escaping water to another storage facility or to dissipate it safely.

(21) Since the earth below ground level is relatively cool (usually around 55 degrees Fahrenheit in temperate climates), underground tanks and the water they contain will also remain close to that temperature. During periods when the outside air is warm and humid, warm humid air would be drawn into cool tank environments. As the humid air cools, some of the water it contains will condense and thereby increase the amount of water in storage. While the quantity of water that can be collected in this way is not large, if combined with the water not lost to evaporation, the net gain is substantial. Adding condensed water to storage would also improve water quality. Water condensed out of the air contains no minerals and thus would improve the quality of the water in storage by diluting its mineral concentration. (22) The technology for the construction of large underground water storage tanks is already well established. In fact, DYK Prestressed Tanks INC., based in El Cajon, builds underground water storage tanks all over the world. The number of tanks, their capacities, and their locations would depend on a community’s geology, topography, population, population distribution and the desired level of water security. The more tanks a community builds, the more water secure they will be. Since tank covers are supported structurally by columns, the areas over them can be used as parks and community gardens and for recreational activities like tennis, basketball, baseball, and soccer or any combination of the above depending on community choice.

(23) Although residential water use accounts for only about 8% of the water used in the United States, from an ecological security perspective it is important to use water more efficiently on every front. Using residential water more efficiently also makes good economic sense. This reality has many municipalities and agencies getting on the efficiency bandwagon. In the San Diego County part of our region some water agencies offer point of purchase vouchers, $75 for ultra-low-flow toilets and $125 for efficient clothes washers. The City of Glendale in Arizona passed an ordinance that gives residents up to a $100 cash rebate for installing low-flow toilets (1.6 gallons or less). This is because city leaders realized that rebating toilets was much less expensive than increasing water supplies and sewer capacity. The California Department of Water Conservation estimates “that installing a low-flow toilet can save a family of four $25 to $50 a year on water bills.” The producers of Consumer Reports magazine reported an even larger savings potential. “By our own calculations, an average family that uses municipal water can save as much as $50 to $75 per year on water and sewer bills by switching to low-flow showerheads and low-flush toilets.” In addition to saving money on water, low-flow showerheads and water efficient appliances also save on energy costs. Just changing from a 6 gallon-per-minute to a 2 gallon-per-minute showerhead can save more than half the energy used in a home to heat water. This can be as much as $50 per year. Faucet restrictors, automatic shutoff faucets, and water-efficient appliances can also save water and energy. Faucet flow restrictors and automatic shutoff faucets can cut the use of sink water in half while reducing energy consumption for water heating. State-of-the-art washers and dishwashers use only 70 to 75 percent of the water and energy consumed by less efficient models. The Staber System 2000 washing machine uses only half the water and ¼ the energy of similar models. If all the efficiency measures just described were in general use, household water consumption in the U.S. could be reduced by 70% or more. Water use can be further reduced through the use of dry or composting toilets. Composting toilets come in a variety of designs ranging from the old-fashioned outhouse to the modern chambered versions installed in bathrooms. In these toilets, wastes are composted and the composted residues are periodically removed and used as fertilizer. These modern systems usually include a port for adding kitchen scraps that are composted along with toilet wastes. Sawdust or other similar material is added after each use to control odors. Some composting toilets work better than others so do your homework if you are considering a purchase. Climate-appropriate landscaping can significantly reduce residential water use. In low rainfall areas, the amount of water used for residential landscape irrigation can average 50 or more gallons per day per capita. The use of water-efficient irrigation equipment and selecting landscaping schemes and plants that are suitable for the climate can greatly reduce this requirement. Efficient water use in landscaping does not mean that landscaping themes have to be sparse. Even in arid areas, there are numerous beautiful plants from which to select. Nor does such a strategy preclude having a vegetable garden, fruit trees, or grass. Reducing water use in other parts of a landscape, coupled with gray water frees up water for these purposes. If climate appropriate landscaping is combined with water-efficient irrigation equipment, even more water can be saved. Water-efficient irrigation equipment ranges from various drip irrigation systems and low flow drip emitters and sprinklers to sophisticated irrigation control tools called tensiometers. Tensiometers are electronic devices that are installed in the soil where they measure soil moisture content. They can be read and water applied accordingly or they can be used to activate automated irrigation systems when water is needed. As far as climate appropriate plants to choose from, there are literally hundreds of attractive drought-tolerant trees, shrubs, vines, and ground covers that can be included as part of a low-water-use landscape palette. Additionally, there are numerous drought-tolerant plants that produce food and other useful materials. These plants include the California Black Walnut tree, the fig family, the Oriental Persimmon, the Quince tree, members of the grape family, the Guava family, loquat trees, Aloe, Bamboo, and many more. Even modest efforts toward coupling water efficient irrigation systems with climate-appropriate plants in landscaping could cut irrigation requirements in low rainfall areas in half. If climate appropriate plants are used exclusively, irrigation requirements can be reduced to zero after plants become established. If gray water recycling systems are incorporated, even relatively water intensive landscapes can be successful without using potable water for irrigation. (24) Changes in operational strategies and manufacturing processes can increase efficient water use even more. In 1978, U.S. manufacturing industries used each unit of water 3 to 4 times before it was discharged. It was predicted at the time that by the year 2,000 the water-reuse rate for industry will have increased to over 17 times before discharge. As of yet my research has not turned up any studies to confirm that prediction, but in a telephone conversation an EPA water expert said that industrial water recycling has increased substantially since 1978 but he did not have a definitive study that gave actual numbers.

Even in the 1980s, some innovative firms had already achieved or exceeded this level of efficiency. “Armco steel mill in Kansas City, Missouri, which manufactures steel bars from recycled ferrous scrap, (scrap iron and steel), draws into the mill only 9 cubic meters of water per ton of steel produced, compared with as much as 100-200 cubic meters per ton in many other steel mills—the Armco plant uses each liter of water 16 times before releasing it after final treatment, to the river.” “One paper mill in Hadera, Israel, requires only 12 cubic meters of water per ton of paper (produced), whereas many of the world’s paper mills use 7-10 times this amount.” Pioneer Metal Finishing, a plating firm in New Jersey, has developed a water recycling process that totally eliminates sewer discharge. In the Pioneer process, all water is recycled and most of the chemicals and metals extracted from it are reused. Pioneer is now looking for a use for the small quantity of dry residue left over from their recycling operation. Water use in industry can also be cut by using non-chemical water treatment processes to prevent biological fouling and water scale buildup in boilers, water lines, and cooling systems. Non-chemical water treatment consists of exposing water to magnetic and electrostatic fields to prevent mineral scale from attaching itself to pipes and other metal surfaces and to remove such deposits where they already exist. Non-chemical treatment also creates an environment hostile to the growth of water-borne bacteria, fungus, and algae. The buildup of scale and bacterial slime reduces the efficiency of heating and cooling systems by restricting water flow rates and by insulating heat exchange elements. A 1/16 inch scale buildup requires 15% more fuel to achieve the same heating results. A ¼ inch buildup increases fuel consumption by 39%. In the U.S., chemicals have been the predominant method used for treating such problems. But chemical treatments are labor and material intensive because they need regular chemical mixture adjustments. Maintenance is also high because chemical treatments reduce the rate of scale buildup but do not prevent it. This means that heating and cooling systems have to be drained and manually cleaned on a regular basis. Additionally, all the water in chemically treated systems must be periodically purged because evaporation losses increase the concentrations of chemicals and minerals beyond acceptable levels. This purging wastes water and releases treatment chemicals like algaecides, fungicides, bactericides, and phosphates into the environment. Non-chemical treatment minimizes or avoids most of these problems. Although they have been slow to catch on in the U.S., non-chemical treatment systems have been the preferred treatment choice in Europe and in the Russian Commonwealth for decades. But this is changing as is evidenced by the numerous high profile firms like Kodak, IBM, Hewlett Packard, Ford Motors, Holiday Inn, Pepsi Cola, Coca Cola, Marriott, and Bantam Books that have already switched to non-chemical treatment processes. (25) Bell, Jim. Achieving Eco-nomic Security On spaceship Earth. Ecological Life Systems Institute Inc. December (1995): p. 84. Today, the most prevalent form of irrigation in the world is to periodically flood fields with water. This form of irrigation is inexpensive to establish where land is flat but is it is not particularly efficient. This is because a large percentage of water will run off fields unless they are perfectly level, (little land is) before it has time to soak into the soil. In porous soils, substantial quantities of water can be lost because it percolates to underground levels beyond the reach of plant roots. If this water returns to the aquifer from which it was extracted, this can be positive but not if the water becomes contaminated with pesticides, chemical fertilizers and salt along the way.

Sprinkler systems are generally more water-efficient than flooding because the amount of water applied and the evenness of its distribution is more easily regulated. On the negative side, sprinkler systems are expensive to install and maintain. Sprinkler systems also increase the amount of water lost to evaporation. Water evaporation is increased as it is dispersed in small droplets through the air and as water sits on plant foliage. Such losses can be avoided to a large extent if sprinklers are used at night when the humidity is usually higher than during the day. The efficiency of large sprinkler systems can also be enhanced by attaching “drop tubes” to sprinkler arms. To reduce evaporation losses, drop tubes deliver water closer to the ground and in large droplets. The efficiency of flooding and sprinkler systems can be improved if fields are precisely leveled. Laser technology can be used to guide farm equipment to insure accurate leveling. Drip irrigation, a technology developed in the 1960s in Israel, is a further advancement in the efficient use of water for growing plants. This method delivers water directly to each plant by means of small tubes that supply just enough water to saturate plant root zones. Other drip technologies include soaker hoses and various specialized emitters suitable for different crops. Soaker hoses, for example, are good for many row crops because they weep water along their whole length. Drip irrigation devices can be used on the surface, on the surface below mulch, or below the surface depending on plant requirements. Losses to evaporation can be almost completely eliminated when emitters are installed below mulch or beneath the soil surface. While drip equipment is relatively costly, increased crop yields coupled with money saved by reducing water consumption can result in a quick payback on the investment. In Israel, where drip systems are used to “supply water and fertilizer directly onto or below the soil...experiments in the Negev Desert have shown . . . yield increases of 80 percent over sprinkler systems.” Computer technologies are also being mobilized to increase water-use efficiency in agriculture. One device called a tensiometer measures the moisture content of the soil and the amount of moisture in the soil that is actually available to plants. This second feature is important because some soils, like those with a high clay content, are so absorptive that they do not give up the water they hold easily to plants. Sandy soils, on the other hand, do not hold water like clay soils. They may have a relatively low moisture content but almost all the moisture in a sandy soil is available to plants. When tensiometers sense that the moisture content of a particular soil is too low to meet plant needs, they activate an automated irrigation system. Tensiometers can also be read manually for more low-tech applications. Automated irrigation systems can be programmed so that irrigation water is only applied at night to minimize the loss of irrigation water to evaporation. Automated systems can also be designed to detect leaks, compensate for wind speed, control the application of fertilizer, and optimize the effect of the fertilizer used. Though they are costly to install, such “systems typically pay for themselves within 3 to 5 years through water and energy savings (using less water means that less energy is needed for pumping) and higher crop yields.” Another development in the efficient water-use arsenal is to combine water efficient technologies with weather monitoring programs. The University of Nebraska’s Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources has developed a computer program called “IRRIGATE” that compiles information gathered across the state of Nebraska from small weather stations. By calling a telephone hot line, farmers can “find out the amount of water used by their crops the preceding week, and then adjust their scheduled irrigation dates accordingly.” The California Department of Water Resources is involved in a similar program called the California Irrigation Management System or CIMIS. The aim of CIMIS is to save 740 million cubic meters of water annually by the year 2010. (740 million cubic meters equals a little more than 600,000 acre feet or about the same amount of water used in San Diego County today.) Like Nebraska and California, Wisconsin has developed its own system of weather monitoring to assist farmers. This system, which is called the Wisconsin Irrigation Scheduling Program (WISP), is managed by irrigation specialists through the University of Wisconsin.

(26) Ibid.

(27) Growing climate-appropriate crops is another way to use water more efficiently in agriculture. With water-efficient cropping, the water requirements of a particular crop should be reasonably close to the natural precipitation that could be expected in the climate zone where it is grown. Irrigation could still be used, but only to even out yearly rainfall totals and as a way to supply water during periods when rainfall is below normal.

To date, research in the development and use of low-water-use crops has been poorly funded. The dollars that are spent are usually spent on water conservation, but mostly to reduce the water consumption of existing crops. Nevertheless, there are a number of promising plants now being grown, some commercially and others experimentally. Sweet sorghum, for example, is already widely grown. It requires a third less water and half the fertilizer required by corn to produce a crop and sweet sorghum is an excellent animal food. Currently, most of the corn grown in the U.S. is used for animal feed. According to Steve Staffer, an alternative crop expert with the California Department of Agriculture, sweet sorghum can also outperform corn as an energy crop. An acre of corn can be processed into 360 gallons of ethanol. Processing an acre of sorghum can produce 600 gallons. Staffer estimates that by growing low-water-use plants like sorghum, “California could produce 25% to 30% of its energy needs, without affecting our price of food”. Given Staffer’s projections, producing ethanol from sorghum alone could more than supply all the energy needed in California today if the efficiency measures described earlier were in place.

Other promising low water use crops include:  Canola, a seed bearing plant, which is used to produce one of the healthiest cooking oils around. Canola requires a fraction of the water needed by many other crops grown in the (Sacramento, California) region;  Buffalo gourd, a perennial that is native to the Mojave Desert, has seeds that can be processed into lubrication oil and a starchy root that can be used to make alcohol;  Guayule, a plant that yields rubber;  Kanaf, an African plant which can be used as food, clothing fiber, packing material, carpet backing, and as high quality newsprint that is so absorbent that the hands of newspaper readers stay clean;  Tepary bean, a drought-tolerant high yield food crop that contains as much if not more protein than most edible legume crops,  Hemp, though much maligned, is an energy, fiber, food, resin, soil improving and medicinal crop. Its seeds produce some of the world’s healthiest, most easily digested plant oil and protein and are used in many health food products. Hemp was praised and grown by founding fathers like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. It was also grown during World War II as an essential fiber in support of the war effort. Hemp is currently grown commercially in 24 countries including Canada, China, France, Britain, Germany and Spain.

While the strategies discussed above to reduce water consumption in agriculture may seem obvious, they are not necessarily used. This is because farmers who benefit from federal subsidies, which allow them to purchase water at rates as low as 1/10 the price that urban dwellers pay, have little incentive to invest in efficient water use strategies or grow more climate appropriate crops.

In his book Cadillac Desert, Marc Reisner points out such subsidies lead us into absurd Alice in Water Land situations. In 1986, four low value crops grown in California [pasture (grass and hay), alfalfa, cotton, and rice] consumed 5.3, 3.9, 3.0, and 2.0 million acre feet of water respectively. Added up, this is almost three times as much water as was consumed by the 27 million people living in California at the time including all the water they used to irrigate landscapes and keep swimming pools full.

Even if all these low-value crops were totally discontinued and no more water-efficient crops were grown in their place, the economic loss to the state would be less than one third of one percent of California’s yearly economy.

Additionally, if we converted a little more than half the land now used just to grow grass and hay to grapes or other specialty crops with a similar or greater dollar value, the economic loss would be erased. Grapes require roughly the same amount of water per acre as grass and hay pasture. Plus, eliminating pasture irrigation for the remaining land would double the water available for urban uses. This is a perfect example of how the lack of true-cost pricing promotes practices that are not in anyone’s long term interest. Even farmers, whose over-irrigated soil is becoming increasingly unproductive, as salt and other minerals are concentrated, will win.

A parallel aspect of growing low-water-use crops is related to the production of meat. Currently, “Over half the total amount of water consumed in the United States goes to irrigate land growing feed for livestock.” To put this fact into perspective, a 50% reduction in the production of livestock nationally would free up almost twice as much water as is currently used in the U.S. domestically, commercially, and by industry combined. Though the production of meat in all its forms is water intensive, growing beef requires the most water. It takes approximately 2,500 gallons of water to produce a pound of beef (some water-use estimates are much higher). Given this 2,500 gallon figure, it takes up to 100 times more water to produce a pound of beef than it does to produce a pound of wheat. Rice requires more water than any other grain, yet rice requires only a tenth as much water per pound of production as meat.

(28) Primarily, this is because local farmers have been paying much higher prices for water than their Imperial Valley and Central Valley competitors.

(29) In some states, home gray water recycling is illegal. (Check with local health officials) The reason for this prohibition is that gray water may be contaminated by harmful bacteria, viruses and parasites. Contamination can occur in a number of ways, such as washing diapers at temperatures too low to kill harmful organisms, or from the small amounts of fecal material that is washed off our bodies when we bathe. For this reason, gray water that has not been disinfected should not be used to directly water vegetable parts that are to be eaten raw or on lawn areas where direct human contact is likely. Although the use of gray water could be potentially harmful, it’s worth noting that health officials I consulted knew of no documented case of illness caused by gray-water use even though it is used by millions of people to one extent or another just in California. During times of drought, gray water recycling has been encouraged by state officials.

Since there is a small possibility that diseases could be transmitted by gray water contact, gray water should be used carefully. Gray water can be used safely to water fruit and other trees, or in landscaping. It can also be used for vegetables if it is applied sub-surface with a soaker hose or by some other sub-surface system. Sub-surface application is the most preferred way to use gray water because direct exposure to gray water is eliminated and soil organisms kill pathogens. Soaker hoses can also be used with relative safety on the surface in gardens since water applied by them does not splash onto the edible parts of plants. Although the uptake of pathogens by root crops does not take place, root crops watered with gray water should be carefully washed and/or well cooked before they are consumed. To maximize safety, gray water can be disinfected before it is applied. Historically, water has been disinfected by adding chlorine. Chlorine does disinfect but its use can also result in the creation of compounds like chloramine. Chloramine, which is toxic to soil and aquatic organisms, results when chlorine reacts with the carbon in water-borne organic materials. If the level of organic materials is low, the amount of chloramine created is small. But if the organic load is high, the amount of chloramine produced becomes a problem. Chlorine is also toxic to soil and aquatic organisms but it dissipates faster than chloramine. If water is disinfected with ozone, this problem is avoided. Ozone, a form of oxygen that links three atoms of oxygen together, is even more effective at killing pathogens than chlorine and does not cause harmful side affects. It can also break down many organic pollutants and can be used to remove heavy metals through a process of precipitation. Though the adoption of ozone water treatment systems in the U.S. has been slow, ozonization has replaced chlorine in 99% of the swimming pools in Western Europe. Soaps containing phosphates can also be used without negative consequences in most gray water recycling situations. Phosphate is a much-maligned nutrient because it stimulates aquatic plant growth in lakes and waterways. These plant “blooms” can cause fish to die from suffocation. At night, aquatic plants need oxygen which they extract from the water. If the number of aquatic plants in a volume of water is excessive, oxygen levels can drop below levels that can support fish. Excessive plant growth also threatens fish with suffocation when plants die in the autumn. With large quantities of dead plant material available, decay bacteria multiply rapidly. These bacteria require oxygen and can quickly reduce the oxygen content in a body of water to levels below which fish can survive. In soil, however, phosphate (unless too concentrated) is a nutrient readily usable by plants and needs only to be avoided if there is a possibility that the phosphate will enter a waterway instead of becoming part of a terrestrial plant system. (30) The treatment cycle is less than an hour so there is little time for evaporation.

(31) Another potential system that fits the limited land and low evaporation needs of our region has been developed by John Todd. Todd’s system uses translucent tanks inside greenhouses to maximize decomposition of organic solids. The nutrients released through this process are taken up by plants through photosynthesis. As the wastewater flows through a series of semi-transparent tanks a complex community of aquatic plants and animals purify the water by consuming and converting the organic waste into animals and plants (biomass). At the end of the process, the clean water can be used for irrigation or it can be safely discharged into streams. In addition to water, the process also produces a crop of fish and other aquatic organisms and aquatic plants that can be composted and used as a soil amendment. This system will work well in our region if its greenhouse enclosure is designed to capture evaporated water and return it to the system.

(32) Author’s calculations based on numbers taken from the U.N. Environmental Programme, Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics News Letter and Technical Publications Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean, Part B. Also see U.N. Publication, Technology Profiles, Heading Advantages, bullet #6 and Seawater/Brackish Water Desalination by Reverse Osomosis in the British Virgin Islands, heading Costs.

(33) www.floatinc.com.

(34) These figures assume a historic rainfall average (including melted snow) of 18 inches per year and the collection of only half of the coastal watershed runoff, or 6 percent of 18 inches. If collected and stored in underground water storage tanks, it would be enough water to supply a 6-million-person San Diego/Tijuana region with 53 gallons of water per person per day.

This 53-gallon figure is based on the assumption that: • The total area encompassed by the Tijuana/San Diego Region’s coastal watersheds is 6,220 square miles or 3,980,800 acres.
• The average rainfall over this whole area is 18 inches per year. (Historic yearly rainfall in the region ranges from around 10 inches along the coast to 40 inches plus in the higher mountains.)
• 12 percent of the region’s yearly average rainfall of 18 inches runs off into the ocean or is captured behind dams.
• Only half of this runoff (6 percent of the region’s historic average rainfall) can be collected from the 3,980,800 acres that make up the region’s coastal watersheds without causing unsustainable trauma to the region’s (plant and animal) watershed communities.
In addition to the 53 gallons per capita per day that could be collected from watersheds, another 21 gallons per capita per day of runoff can be collected from impervious surfaces like rooftops, parking lots, paved playgrounds, driveways and patios. When rain falls on these surfaces, close to 100 percent of it can be collected. (This 21-gallon-per-capita figure is based on impervious surface estimates derived by the author from data published 3/29/94 in SANDAG/SOURCEPOINT taken from “Source: Series 8 Regional Growth Forecast.” Note: Road and freeway surfaces are not included in the calculations as potential collection surfaces.)

Obviously, water collected from parking lots and driveways would need to be filtered for most uses. Even water from rooftops, patios, and paved playgrounds would need filtration. Filtering can be expensive, but if coupled with a good watershed education program, its cost can be greatly reduced. A good watershed education program can improve the quality of the water collected from impervious surfaces markedly. As more people come to understand how their activities affect the water they drink, they will be much more conscious about releasing pollutants that will end up in it.

In addition to collecting rainwater from watersheds and impervious surfaces, there is around 100,000 acre-feet of water that can be extracted sustainably from the region’s groundwater supplies each year. If these resources are developed, it would add another 15 gallons per capita each day for the projected regional population of 6 million people. Adding these three sources together --- 53 gal. + 21 gal. + 15 gal., equals a water supply of 89 gallons per capita per day for 365 days a year for a 6 million person population.

If 80 percent of this water is recycled after it is used, it would supply another 71 gallons per capita per day for irrigation. This 71 gallons added to the 89 gallons that could be collected, adds up to a total per capita water-use allowance of 160 gallons of water per capita per day. The per capita water used in the San Diego part of the region today is around 180 gallons per day for all purposes, (residential, commercial, industrial, and for agriculture).

(35) Conversation with hydrology faculty at SDSU and UCSD.

(36) Author’s calculations based on the assumption presented.

(37) Ibid.

(38) Ibid.

(39) Author’s calculations based on San Diego County Water Authority 2001 Annual Report. p. 14, and SANDAG population statistics for 2001.

(40) Author’s calculations based on an average of .5 kWh per square meter of horizontally mounted solar (PV) cells and the production of 50 gallons of freshwater from seawater per kWh of electricity consumed.

(41) www.floatinc.com, www.poemsinc.org.

(42) Author’s calculations based on maps and data published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Soil Survey – San Diego Area. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, in cooperation with the University of California Agricultural Experiment Station, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of the Navy, United States Marine Corps. Issued December 1973.

(43) Bell, Jim. Achieving Eco-nomic Security On Spaceship Earth. Ecological Life Systems Institute Inc. December (1995): p. 43. (44) Ibid. p. 49.

(45) Tensiometers measure the moisture content of the soil and the amount of moisture in the soil that is actually available to plants. This is important because some soils, like those with a high clay content, are so absorptive that they do not give up the water they hold easily to plants. Sandy soils do not hold water like clay soils. They may have a relatively low moisture content but almost all the moisture in a sandy soil is available to plants. When tensiometers sense that the moisture content of a particular soil is too low to meet plant needs, they activate an automated irrigation system. Tensiometers can also be read manually for more low-tech applications.

Jim Bell - A Brief Biography

Family History - Jim Bell was born in Willmington, North Carolina in 1941. His family moved to Long Beach California in 1943, and to San Diego in 1951. Jim has lived in San Diego ever since.

Education - Jim attended Chesterton Elementary, Montgomery Junior High School (in Linda Vista, 7th and 8th grade), Grossmont High School (9th – 11th grades), and graduated from El Capitan High School in 1960. He attended Palomar College and Long Beach State University. He graduated from SDSU in 1985 with a bachelors degree in Art and Art Sciences. In high school and college, Jim participated in a number of sports, including track, cross-country and basketball. He played varsity basketball at Palomar College and Long Beach State University.

Work History - During high school Jim helped support his family by working as a gardener, ditch digger and as a carpenter's helper. During and after college he worked as a carpenter. During the late 60s and early 70s Jim became concerned about the impacts of human activities on the environment and our quality of life. He became increasingly convinced that there were "smarter" ways to conduct our lives and build our communities that would minimize negative impacts. Toward this goal, starting in 1974 Jim pursued a career as an Ecological Designer, and as a public lecturer on the principals of Ecological Design. He is the author of Achieving Eco-nomic Security On Spaceship Earth and numerous other articles and papers on creating sustainable economies.

Working with People - Jim Bell has served as a Director of Ocean Beach People’s Food Cooperative, the San Diego Ecology Center, I Love a Clean San Diego, Environmental Health Coalition, and the California Association of Cooperatives. Currently, he serves as Director of the Ecological Life Systems Institute and the San Diego Center for Appropriate Technology.

Professional Life - Jim Bell, is an internationally recognized expert on life support sustaining development. His projects include the design and construction of the San Diego Center for Appropriate Technology and Ecoparque, a prototype wastewater recycling plant in Tijuana, Mexico that converts sewage into irrigation water and compost. He also worked as a consultant for the Otay Ranch Joint Planning Project and the East Lake Development Company. He’s currently designing a life support friendly hotel for Terra Vista Management and is an ecological design consultant for the Ocean Beach People's Food Cooperative's new "green" store. Jim has over 40 years experience in the design and construction industry. As a lecturer, Jim speaks to many groups each year. His lecture credits include the AIA California State Conference, the Society for International Development's World Conference in Mexico City, and keynote addresses at the University of Oregon's first "Visions for a Sustainable Future" conference and the State of Oregon's Solar Energy Association Conference. Jim is often interviewed on television, radio, and by the written press and has been a guest on National Public Radio's "Talk of the Nation." His honors include: The Society of Energy Engineer’s Environmental Professional of the year for the Southwestern States, a "Beyond War" award, and a City of San Diego Water Conservation Design Award for one of his projects.

Political Involvement - In 1996 and 2000 Jim ran for Mayor of San Diego. He ran again for the 2nd District City Council in 2002. Though he has not yet been elected, his ideas relating to making our region as energy, water and food self-sufficient as possible as soon as possible are being embraces by an increasing number of elected officials and planners. Currently, Jim serves on Mayor Murphy's Environmental Task Force and SANDAGS Long Range Planning Group. He also represents the Sierra Club on the San Diego Regional Energy Advisory Committee.