Haemotaphonomy or hemotaphonomy refers to "the study of bloodstains, and especially of the changes in appearance and size of the cellular components, as well as the characteristics of their cell position and appearance in function of the superficial topography and composition of the substrate". This term was proposed by the author in a paper published in 1992 in Forensic Science International.

Systematics for the smear-origin erythrocytes, wich is valid for, at least, mammalian blood.

Author's papers on haemotaphonomy

      (full-text pdf available upon request)

Keywords: Scanning electron microscopy, blood smears, erythrocytes, organic residues, prehistoric archaeology, actualistic palaeoanthropology, forensic biology.

1. SEM analysis of red blood cells in aged human bloodstains. Forensic Science International vol. 55, pp. 139–159, 1992.

Mammal red blood cells (RBC) in bloodstains have been previously detected by light microscopy on stone tools from as early as 100,000±25,000 year ago. In order to evaluate the degree of morphological preservation of erythrocytes in bloodstains, an accidental human blood smear on white chert and several experimental bloodstains on hard substrate (the same stone - white chert; another type of stone - graywacke; a non-stone support - stainless steel) where stored in a room, in non-sterile and fluctuating conditions, for lenghths of time ranging from 8 to 18 months. Afterwards, the specimens were coated with gold and examined by a Cambridge Stereoscan 120 scanning electron microscope. Results revealed a high preservation of RBC integrity, with the maintenance of several discocytary shapes, a low tendency to echinocytosys and a frequent appearance of a moon-like erythrocytary shape in the thinner areas of the bloodstains.

2. SEM characterization of blood stains on stone tools. The Microscope vol. 40 (2), pp. 111–113 [Editorial ‘Errata’ in vol. 40 (3), p. vi], 1992.

Mammalian red blood cells (RBC) in bloodstains have been previously detected by light microscopy on stone tools circa 100,000 years old. To observe and characterize the bloodstain-original RBC, a modern replica of ancient blood residues was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). To simulate a Stone Age process a collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) cadaver was skinned using a paleolithic-like white chert knife, which was then smeared with blood plus serous liquid. After drying in the open air for one week, the tool was stored at unsterile and fluctuant room conditions. After six months, a detached fragment of the bloodstain  on a SEM stub was coated with gold and examined at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV using a Cambridge STEREOSCAN 120 scanning electron microscope. Results reveal protuberant moon-like shapes which are interpreted to be characteristic of RBC.

 

3. Application of SEM to the study of red blood cells in forensic bloodstains. Microscopy and Analysis vol. 40, pp. 19–21 (UK) & vol. 28, pp. 21–23 (EU), 1994.

Although in forensic analysis the presence of red blood cells in a smear is considered to be a confirmation of blood, to date morphological researches using electron microscopy dealing with superficial preservation or imprints characterisation of erythrocytes in bloodstains have not been carried out.  Short-time preservation of specimens is a "sine qua non" precondition to bioarchaeological or palaeobiological preservation. So a part of author’s researches on ancient blood residues has been focused on developing a methodology to study forensic suspected bloodstains – considering as 'forensic'  all modern blood smears of unknown origin– covering substrates from hard to (absorbent) soft ones. In this article dealing with 'urban' forensic hemotaphonomy, field and scanning electron microscopy procedures, as well as showing examples of achieved results on either soft (paper handkerchief) and hard (urban asphalt on a crossing-walk) smear substrates are reported.

4. Experimental SEM determination of game mammalian bloodstains on stone tools. Environmental Archaeology vol. 6, pp. 99–104, 2001.

The presence of morphologically complete mammalian red blood cells (RBC) from bloodstains has been previously evidenced in prehistoric implements. While the presence of ancient non-human blood on a prehistoric tool is an evidence of the real use of this on an animal resource, the presence of RBC in a smear is an evidence as being blood. In a simulation of a prehistoric predation human operative chain, mammalian bloodstains on palaeolithic-like chert implements were obtained from two specimens belonging to order Artiodactyla: collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu, family Tayassuidae) and Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas, family Bovidae). After one year, the unburied peccary blood smear and the buried gazelle one were coated with gold and then examined by a scanning electron microscope. Results revealed the presence of preserved RBC with several shapes as those found in haematological studies, as well as moon-like shapes and negative replicas, two bloodstain-characteristic morphologies which are interpreted as due, respectively, to erythrocyte-plasma interaction when drying and to imprinting by dried plasma matrix.

5. Morphological characterisation of red blood cells in human bloodstains on stone: a systematical SEM study. Anthropologie vol. 39, pp. 235–240, 2001.

Mammalian erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) have been previously reported as forming part of residues on prehistoric implements. On the basis of the Principle of Actualism, several thick smears of human blood were obtained on chert. After increasing lengths of storage time span (1‑36 months), the bloodstains were micromorphologically studied via scanning electron microscopy. Results revealed, in all the smears, the presence of an erythrocyte acme‑zone with packed RBC, as well as negative replicas and moon‑like shapes. Morphologies were found to be time‑independent, and furthermore those erythrocyte acme‑zones with packed RBC to be thick‑bloodstain characteristic.

 

6. Red blood cell haemotaphonomy of experimental human bloodstains on techno-prehistoric lithic raw materials. Journal of Archaeological Science vol. 29, pp. 733–739, 2002.

Mammalian erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) -whose presence in a smear is a blood evidence- have been previously reported as forming part of residues on prehistoric implements assigned to be as far as around two million years old. On the basis of the Principle of Actualism, bloodstains from human individuals were obtained on obsidian, limestone and chert, and then stored in a unsterile room under microclimatically unmanipulated fluctuating conditions, for lengths of time ranging from 7 years, 6 months to 10 years, 2 months. Afterwards, the bloodstains were doubly coated with carbon and gold and then examined by a JEOL JSM-6400 scanning electron microscope (SEM). Results revealed a high preservation of erythrocyte integrity, with several shapes as those found under physiological conditions and a significant presence of moon-like shapes plus a minor one of negative replicas, two morphologies that are interpreted as specifically related to blood drying phenomena. These results agree with several previously reported SEM analyses of younger mammalian bloodstains on chert and materials other than obsidian and limestone, and lead to consider the moon-like shapes (hecatocytes, a term ex novo) and negative replicas (janocytes, another term ex novo) as the genuine RBC morphologies characteristic of (at least mammalian) bloodstains.

 

7. The “strange” world of bloodstain cells. A brief overview of haemotaphonomy. Problems of Forensic Sciences vol. 57, pp. 16–23, 2004.

Mammals are the only vertebrates that have anucleate red blood cells (RBC's). In this zoological class, RBC's typically have the shape of biconcave discs. The cytomorphological study of RBCs in bloodstains is an issue with implications in fields such as forensic biology or prehistoric archaeology. Using scanning electron microscopy, the author has pioneered a new approach to the study of bloodstains, which has led moreover to a general terminology and systematics for smear-origin mammalian RBC's. This paper summarises the results of more than 10 years of research in this field, by presenting the main morphological features of mammalian erythrocytes, when in smears.

 

8. SEM examination of human erythrocytes in uncoated bloodstains on stone: use of conventional as environmental-like SEM in a soft biological tissue (and hard inorganic material). Journal of Microscopy vol. 218, pp. 94–103, 2005.

Although nowadays the so-called environmental scanning electron microscopes (ESEMs) allow the observation of the samples without metal or carbon coating, many conventional scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) are still in use. On the other hand, the presence of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) in a smear is considered a blood confirmation. Such a presence has been previously reported even in Lower Stone Age implements. In previous works, I have reported several studies dealing with cytomorphology of RBCs in bloodstains using scanning electron microscopy with standard specimen preparation procedures, i.e. via coating the samples before SEM analysis. In order to explore the potential of conventional SEM as environmental-like SEM in haemotaphonomical studies, two alkaline (limestone) and two acid (flint) rock fragments were smeared with human blood from a male and a female. The bloodstains obtained in this way were then air dried indoors and stored into a non-hermetic plastic box. Afterwards, the smears and their rock substrates were examined directly without coating, via secondary electrons, using a JEOL JSM-6400 scanning electron microscope. Satisfactory results reveal the capability of a conventional SEM to work in secondary-electron mode as an environmental-like SEM on these kinds of biological and inorganic materials, and probably in many other biological and non-biological samples.

 

9. Using an SEM as an ESEM to study minute human bloodstains on stainless steel. Microscopy and Analysis vol. 20(6) [new series], pp. 15–17 (UK), pp. 5–7 (EU), pp. 23–25 (US) & pp. 11–13 (AP), 2006.

Because many conventional, high-vacuum scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) are still in use, their full potential should always be explored. With this aim in mind, two uncoated stainless-steel blood lancets, used for finger puncturing in a study carried out 20 months earlier, were examined for possible blood smears in an SEM using secondary electron imaging at an accelerating voltage of 0.5 kV. Minute bloodstains and some of their erythrocytes were found. As was previously revealed in uncoated bloodstains on stone, this study clearly demonstrated that a conventional SEM can be used in secondaryelectron mode just like an environmental SEM to examine these biological materials on a stainless-steel substrate.

 

10. Secondary-electron SEM bioimaging of human erythrocytes in bloodstains on high-carbon steel substrate without specimen preparation. Micron vol. 39, pp. 53–55, 2008.

The imaging of most biological samples via conventional scanning electron microscope (SEM) in secondary-electron mode involves routinely some kind of specimen preparation. Conventional SEMs are still used when a low-vacuum or variable-pressure SEM (usually known as ‘environmental’, or ESEM) is not available. But that preparatory approach may be undesirable in certain cases, for instance in museum specimens, forensic evidences or clinical samples. This report details a simple, low-cost, and sample-saving bioimaging protocol without specimen preparation, by using removable plastic conducting carbon cement, and then working under ex-profeso SEM conditions, i.e., by using an SEM in secondary-electron mode just like an ESEM. The successful use to image up to high magnifications human erythrocytes in bloodstains on an extensively bloodsmeared, high-carbon steel surgical blade is reported as an example of the potential of this procedure.

 

11. Using digital anaglyphy to improve the relief effect of SEM micrographs of bloodstains. Micron vol. 40, pp. 409–412, 2009.

Anaglyphy is a stereoscopic technique based on the superimposition of two images of the same view, taken from slightly different angles as well as in two different colours. This superimposition produces a depth effect when viewed through glasses having one red and one green, blue or cyan lens acting as a colour filter. The nearly-flat surface of a chip of grey chert was thin-smeared with peripheral human blood. Two months later, the specimen was fixed to a SEM stub as horizontal as possible, coated with gold, and examined via secondary electrons by a scanning electron microscope. After obtaining SEM micrographs, anaglyphs were digitally generated. The best results were obtained using pairs of SEM micrographs acquired at 10° differing angle and at SEM-stage tilts that were symmetric from the horizontal plane. The relief effect was more accentuated at low magnification. The most ergonomic colour combination for viewing bloodstain anaglyphs was red-cyan. Digital anaglyphy provides a simple and feasible method to improve the relief effect of SEM micrographs of bloodstains. Moreover, as a first consequence of this improvement, the results obtained in this research reveal that the outermost erythrocyte layer of a thin bloodstain – coinciding, in general, with the smear surface – can be much more uneven than that previously suggested by customary SEM micrographs.

12. The aesthetics of haemotaphonomy: a study of the stylistic parallels between a science and literature and the visual arts. Eidos vol. 10, pp. 162–191, 2009.

This study intends to provide insight into the aesthetics of the science of haemotaphonomy (HTN), by identifying its stylistic parallels with literature and the visual arts. The object of study of HTN is the cytomorphology of the blood cells in bloodstains. Its subjects of study are bloodstained specimens, while its method of study is the analysis of images in chiaroscuro obtained via scanning electron microscopy. Literarily, HTN is stylistically parallel to the aesthetics of both tremendism and decadentism. Visually, HTN is stylistically parallel to the aesthetics of both Churrigueresque architectural decoration and pictorial tenebrism. In accordance with the results of this study, HTN can also be stylistically regarded as literary realism and visual naturalism. Furthermore, because tremendism, decadentism, churriguerism and tenebrism converge into the Baroque culture, it must be concluded that, aesthetically, HTN is a baroquistic science.

You are the visitor

JC Penny Coupons

© 2006–2009 All rights reserved.