The is page consists of two sections. The first is a unit of work I developed based on the work of DeVito. This is followed by my own unit of work based on my own experiences and observations.
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This is a unit of work based on the work of Joseph A. Devito from
Essentials of Human Communication (2nd ed.)(1996), Harper Collins, New York
I found this an invaluable text when at university and it has two very useful chapters on public speaking skills. I have based the unit on this work. Most of the theory is from this text but most of the activities have been designed by me to give students the chance to practice their skills.
A Unit of Work
Ten steps are necessary to prepare an effective public speech.
1. Select the Topic and Purpose
2. Analyze the Audience
3. Research the Topic
4. Formulate Your Line of Argument and identify the major points you will use to support it
5. Support the major propositions
6. Organise the Speech Materials
7. Word the Speech (and the title of the speech)
8. Construct the conclusion and the introduction
9. Rehearse the Speech
10. Deliver the Speech
The first step is to select the topic on which you will speak and the general and specific purposes you hope to achieve.
The Topic
The topic must be;
worthwhile
interesting to the audience
interesting to you
one which you feel confident or passionate about
preferably one you have prior knowledge of or would be happy to go out and research
Finding Topics
At school you are usually given topics which you must speak about for oral presentations. If you are given the opportunity to choose your own topic, there are many places you could look for inspiration;
the newspaper
the library
the internet
Suggestions for Speech Topics
Depending on your area of interest, the following are a list of topics you may present a speech on;
Entertainment – industry, benefits, abuses, functions of media, movies : censorship, history, composition, festivals, role models
Communication – advertising techniques, effects of, ethical, freedom of speech, subliminal, laws, violence, programming, audiences, propaganda, ratings
Politics – governments, politicians – public views of, newspapers, cover ups, power, conduct of, war, communism
People – aggression, behaviour, alcoholism, suicide, depression, drugs and society, teenagers, families today, cultural differences, lifestyle choices, racism, feminism, prejudice, chauvanism
Activities
1. What would be five topics that you would be confident speaking about?
2. What prior experience with or knowledge of these topics do you have?
3. Predict what topics you think your best friend or a family member would be confident speaking about. What gives you this impression?
4. Using a recent newspaper, scan through the pages and identify 5 headlines for articles that you think would be interesting to use as speech topics (remember : you can interpret the topic in a different way from which it is presented in the paper)
5. After listing your 5 headlines, brainstorm 10 words you would associate with each concept (e.g. Sport for Winners – Grant Hackett, Ian Thorpe, Olympics, gold, champion, success, effort, confidence, support, compete)
General Purpose
The two major kinds of speeches are the speeches of information and the speech of persuasion.
The informative speech creates understanding. It clarifies, enlightens, corrects misunderstandings, demonstrates how something works, or explains how something is structured.
The persuasive speech, on the other hand, influences attitudes or behaviors. It may strengthen existing attitudes or change the beliefs of the audience. It may also influence the audience to respond in a particular way.
Specific Purpose
The specific purpose of your speech identifies the information you intend to communicate (if an informative speech) or the attitude or behaviour you wish to change (if a persuasive speech). For example, your specific purpose in an informative speech might be:
to inform my audience of the parts of a computer
to inform my audience of the aboriginal dreamtime
to inform my audience about changes to the constitution
Your specific purpose in a persuasive speech might be;
to persuade my audience that cigarette advertising should be abolished
to persuade my audience that the Richmond Tigers are the best AFL team in the league
Whether you intend to inform or persuade, your specific purpose should be narrow enough so you will be able to go into it in some depth. Your audience will benefit more from a speech that covers a small area in depth than from one that covers only the surface of a broad topic.
Activities
Identify the general purposes and the specific purposes of the sample speeches below. Discuss how you came to your conclusions.
1) The other candidate is a lying, manipulative man who has proven to you time and time again that he will say whatever he needs to say in order to accomplish his own goals and take whatever he wants from the people he is supposed to be protecting and representing. In his three years in office, he has failed to reduce unemployment, he has failed to improve the education system of our country and he has also failed to live up to the grandeur of his election promise to ensure the aged members of our society will receive more entitlements.
2) The concept of art is a very broad one. It can be interpreted in many ways. There are many types of art and there are many different ways of thinking about visual representation. One period in history which has been given great attention is the Renaissance. Another key concept that is also often explored by art critics is Abstract art.
3) The members of the board came to the decision that we should not invest in the venture. They agreed that it was a very risky time to be throwing such a large amount of money into the project when there was no way to guarantee there would be profits in the long term. The members of the board weighed up the benefits of being a part of the project against the risks that would be involved and decided to decline the offer to invest at this time.
4) Lung cancer, bad breath, yellow fingers and an awful smell that follows you everywhere you go. Is that what you want? Is that the way you would want to be defined and identified? I doubt that members of the opposite sex would find those attributes attractive!
If you are to inform or persuade an audience, you must know who they are. What do they already know? What would they want to know more about? What are their attitudes, opinions or beliefs? Where do they stand on the issues you want to address? Specifically, you will want to know the sociological characteristics (i.e. age, gender, religion) and the psychological characteristics (i.e. feelings, attitudes).
Audience Sociology
Age : What is the general age of the audience? How wide is the range? Does it include different age groups you will want to address differently? Does the age groups of the audience impose any restrictions on the topic you can present on or the language you will use?
Gender : Is the audience predominantly of one gender? Do men and women view the topic differently? If so, how? Do men and women have different backgrounds, experiences and knowledge about the topic? How will this influence the way you will develop the topic?
Religion : What is the dominant religious affiliation of the audience? (what religion do they believe in?) What might this mean in relation to my speech or the topic I have chosen?
Audience Psychology
Focus your psychological analysis on 3 main questions;
1) How willing is your audience?
If you face an audience willing to hear your speech, you will have a relatively easy time relating your speech to them. If, however, they are not very willing you might like to consider;
- securing their interest in your speech as early as possible
- relate what you are saying directly to them
- use supporting materials or examples that gain attention and secure interest
2) How favourable is your audience?
If you face an audience that is unfavourable towards your topic you might consider;
- building on similarities you share with them
- strive for small gains
3) How knowledgeable is your audience?
Listeners vary greatly in the knowledge they have. Some listeners will be very knowledgeable about some topics while others might be ignorant. Mixed audiences can be difficult ones to approach because you have to try to cater for everyone in your audience and keep them all interested. If your audience do not know a lot about the topic;
- do not talk down to your audience
- do not confuse a lack of knowledge with a lack of intelligence
If your audience is knowledgeable about the topic;
- emphasize your credibility in dealing with the subject
- let the audience know you are aware of their knowledge and expertise
Activities
1) Consider the following topics and state who you think would be the ideal audience for a persuasive speech about the topics and why you think so
a) immigration
b) school hours being extended
c) politics
d) a new bike ramp being installed
e) ‘Barbie dolls’
2) Make up a list of terms that you think would be appropriate to use in a persuasive speech to the following audiences;
a) teenagers about the danger of drug use
b) adults about violence on television
c) older people about health care services
d) children about a new toy on the market
Research is essential if your speech is to be worthwhile. First read about the topic in a general resource such as an encyclopaedia or a news article so that you can start to think of ideas related to the topic. Other resources that may be useful can include;
- The Internet
- Newspapers, magazines
- CD ROMs
- Journals
- Videos
The idea behind searching for more information is to give you a broader understanding of the topic so that you can then choose the best information to present to your audience that will be interesting and informative for them.
It is a good idea to keep a list of notes that you take from your resources. Another option would be to take down key words as you identify them in each resource and build up a ‘bank’ of words related to your topic.
Your line of argument is the way in which you are going to tackle the topic (the way you will build the argument so that it is clear that what you are saying is correct).
You need to brainstorm all the arguments that you will be making during your speech. You then follow the following outline;
1) Eliminate points that seem the least important to your argument
2) Combine points that have a common focus
3) Select points that are most relevant to your audience
4) Use 2, 3 or 4 main points at most
5) Develop your main points so they are separate and distinct (clarity of your arguments is essential)
Now that you have identified your thesis and your major propositions, you need to support them.
In the informative speech, your support primarily amplifies – describes, illustrates, defines, exemplifies – the concepts you discuss.
In the persuasive speech, your support is proof – material that offers evidence, argument, and motivational appeal and that establishes your credibility and reputation.
You support your propositions with reasoning from specific instances, from general principals, from analogy and from causes and effect. These may be thought of as logical support. Also, you support your position from motivational appeals.
Activity
What might be 2 arguments I could use if I were arguing the topic;
a) that smoking should be banned in all public places
b) that teenagers should be allowed to have a job when they turn 13
c) that McDonalds is better than Hungry Jacks
You must organize your materials if the audience is to understand and remember it. There are several patterns you can use to organise the body of a speech;
Time Pattern
- organising major issues in your speech based on chronological order (the order in which they happened). You might begin with the past and work up to the present or the future. Or, you might start with the present and work backwards if you are trying to explain the relationships between stages of history. Most historical topics lend themselves to organisation by time pattern.
Spacial Pattern
- This is patterning the main points of a speech on the basis of space. This means based on the amount of physical space between the topic and the audience. I.e. if I were presenting a speech about countries of the world, I would start with Australia first as it is where I am located and it is where the audience is located, then I would discuss New Zealand (our next door neighbour) and then Indonesia, then America etc. (starting with what is close first and working your way out).
Topical Pattern
- This is perhaps the most popular way of organising speeches. It divides the speech into major topics. For example, if my broad topic were branches of government, I would break the speech into the major topics of taking each branch of the government one at a time and talking about them.
Problem –Solution Pattern
- A popular way of presenting the persuasive speech is to present the main ideas in terms of problem and solution. The speech is divided into two parts; one part deals with the problem and the other with the solution. By presenting the problems first (or the flaws with what already exists, or the flaws in certain ways of thinking about a topic) it shows you have clearly thought through the topic from many angles. By then presenting the ‘solutions’, it shows the audience that you have given great thought to how to improve the problem through logical deduction rather than just saying that something should be done for the sake of saying something should be done. (it gives them alternatives, some of which they may not have realised before)
The Motivated Sequence
- The motivated sequence is a pattern of arranging your information to motivate your audience to respond positively to your purpose. In the motivated sequence there are five steps;
- 1) Attention – make your audience give you their undivided attention. You do this by starting with a phrase or a line or some other means of appealing to them from the very beginning (i.e. a poem, a well known phrase. E.g. I have a dream….)
- 2) Need – Here you prove that a need exists. The audience should feel that they need to learn or do something because this need exists. You can establish need by;
- stating the need or problem as it exists or will exist
illustrating the need using specific examples, illustrations or
statistics
- pointing to how this need specifically affects your audience – for
example, their financial status, career goals
- 3) Satisfaction – here you would present a ‘solution’ to satisfying the need. The audience should believe that what you are informing them or persuading them about will satisfy the need. This step usually involves two types of statements; 1. A clear statement of what you want the audience to believe, learn or do and, 2) a statement of how or why what you are asking them to learn, believe or do will lead to satisfying the need
- 4) Visualisation – this intensifies the audience’s feelings or beliefs. It takes the audience beyond the present place and time and helps then imagine the situation
- 5) Action – Here you would tell the audience what they should do to to satisfy the need
Activity
Imagine you were to give a persuasive speech about the reasons the school uniform should be changed. Choose one of the above approaches and plan the speech you would give. Imagine it was to go for 3 to 4 minutes.
Activities
Lets’s practice what we have learned so far;
1. For one of the following, narrow the topic sufficiently for a five minute informative or persuasive speech. Once you have selected a suitable limited subject, formulate a specific purpose, then plan the outline of your speech. - History - literature - Emotions - energy - Family - love - mass media - science - religion - war - entertainment - conflict - transportation
2. Try to predict the attitudes of your class members towards each of the following propositions by indicating how you think the majority of the class members feels about each. Write F for favourable, N for neutral or U for unfavourable;
a) The death penalty should be law in Australia b) People of all sexual preferences should be allowed to adopt children c) Members of groups that have been discriminated against should be given preferential treatment in entrance to university d) Marijuana should be legalized for all people over the age of 18 e) Teenagers should be given the ability to vote in state elections
After you have recorded your responses, discuss the answers you gave with your classmates to see if your predictions were correct
3. Imagine you have been asked to get up at a year level assembly and give a persuasive speech about an issue that concerns teenagers. What would that issue be and what would you say about it?
Speaking and writing need to be different. This is because listening and reading are different. In listening, you hear a speech only once. The speech must therefore be able to be understood after having heard it once. In reading, you can reread a text or look up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary.
Spoken language consists of shorter, simpler and more familiar language than does written language.
There are some elements to consider;
Clarity
Clarity in your speech should be a primary goal.
- Be economical – don’t waste words, avoid redundancies (unnecessary repetition) and meaning less words (e.g. more unique, we first began the discussion – the words in italics are unnecessary) - Use specific terms and numbers (e.g. don’t say ‘living thing’, instead try ‘animal’, ‘dog’ or ‘poodle’. Note that is gets more specific so the audience knows exactly what I am talking about) - Use short, familiar and commonly used terms (e.g. say ‘help’ instead of ‘assist’, ‘show’ rather than ‘indicate’, ‘harmless’ rather than ‘innocuous’)
Vividness
Select words that help make your ideas come alive in the listener’s minds.
- Use imagery – appeal to the audiences senses, especially their visual, auditory and tactile senses. Make them hear, feel and see what you are talking about. - Visual Imagery – describe people or objects to create images the audience can see. E.g. height, weight, colour, size, shape, length - Auditory imagery – use terms that describe the sounds to appeal to the audience’s sense of hearing. E.g. the car screeching, the wind whistling, the angry teacher roaring - Tactile Imagery – use terms referring to temperature, texture, to touch to create tactile imagery. E.g. Let the listeners feel the cool water running over their skin, the rough as sandpaper clothing.
Appropriateness
Appropriate language is consistent with your topic, your audience and your own self-image. It is language that does not offend anyone or make anyone feel uncomfortable. It is language that seems natural in the situation. So; avoid unfamiliar terms, speak at the appropriate level of formality and avoid slang, vulgar and offensive expressions (including sexist or racist language).
Personal Style
Audiences favour speakers who use a personal rather than an impersonal style – who speak with them rather than at them.
- use personal pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘he’,’she’ or ‘you’. Avoid expressions such as ‘one will realise that’, or ‘you, the listeners’ - Direct questions to the audience – involve the audience by asking them questions, questions to think about (obviously not reply to while you are speaking!). It is a good idea to ask a question and then pause to give the audience time to refelect on their answer to it
Sentence Construction
Keep this in mind;
- favour short over long sentences – to keep the audience interested and to help them understand the point you are making. Short sentences are more forceful, leave more of an impact on the audience. - Favour active sentences over inactive sentences – this makes your sentences more vivid and livelier. E.g. instead of saying ‘The proposal was favoured by management’ say ‘Management favoured the proposal’.
Activities
1. Change the following sentences from inactive to active;
a) The cake was eaten by the teenagers
b) A path of destruction was left by the twister
c) The bay had been polluted by toxic waste
d) A successful result was achieved by the teenager
2. What would be common words we could use in a speech to replace the following complex terms that would be difficult to understand (imagine the audience is a group of teenagers – you may need a dictionary to help you);
a) Obsequious e) pedantic b) Rotund f) eccentric c) favourable d) permitted
Your conclusion and introduction are special because they can determine the effectiveness of your speech.
The Introduction
You try to accomplish two goals in your introduction; gain the audience’s attention and orient the audience with what you will be talking about.
Gain attention – focus the audience’s attention on your speech so you can then try to maintain that attention throughout the speech
Ask a question – questions are different from normal statements because they involve the audience. They indicate to the audience that you are talking directly to them and care about their responses
Refer to recent happenings – The audience will pay more attention to you if you start talking about something they are familiar with (i.e. they may have heard it on the TV recently or their parents may have been talking about it)
Use an illustration or dramatic or humourous story – as a way of hooking your audience
Orient the audience – you should preview what you will talk about by;
Giving the audience a general idea of your subject
Giving an outline of your major propositions
Identify the goal you hope to achieve
(don’t spend a lot of time outlining everything – sometimes it is better to get straight into it and start persuading or informing your audience)
The Conclusion
Summarise what you have said in your speech
Restate your Thesis – restate the essential point of your speech
Restate Its Importance – Tell your audience again why your topic or thesis is so important.
Restate Your Major Propositions – reiterate your main arguments or points
Close – The conclusions second function is to provide closure, to give the speech a clear and definite end. Don’t leave your audience wondering if you are finished. Two popular ways of closing are using a quotation (that highlights what you have been talking about) or posing a challenge to the audience (e.g. so, get out there and make a difference)
The biggest hurdle to overcome when it comes to public speaking is stage fright! This is when someone has ‘butterflies’ in their stomach or has an attack of nervousness. People feel this way because they think that speaking in front of an audience is embarrassing and that they have something to fear by being the center of attention. There are ways to overcome this nervous reaction.
Are You Afraid to give a speech in public?
Complete the following questionnaire. Indicate the degree to which you agree to the statements by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree or (5) strongly disagree with the statements.
1. I have no fear of giving a speech 2. Certain parts of my body feel tense and rigid when I give a speech 3. I feel relaxed when I give a speech 4. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I give a speech 5. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence 6. While giving a speech, I get so nervous that I forget facts I really know
Thinking Critically about Public Speaking Nervousness
To find your public speaking nervousness score use the following formula;
18 plus scores for items 1, 3, and 5
minus scores for items 2, 4, and 6
A score above 18 shoes some degree of nervousness. Most people score above 18 so if you scored relatively high, you are among the vast majority of people.
Five factors especially influence people’s public speaking anxiety. Understanding these factors will help you control them and your fear of speaking;
1. Perceived novelty – new and different situations make us anxious. Therefore, gaining more experience in public speaking will lessen your anxiety.
2. Subordinate status – basically this means we think others are better than us or more clever than us when it comes to public speaking and so we get anxious about getting up in front of these people. Thinking positively about yourself and being thorough in preparation will reduce this kind of anxiety.
3. Conspicuousness – When you are the center of attention, your anxiety increases. Therefore, think of public speaking as a form of conversation. If you are comfortable speaking in small groups, such as your friendship groups, think of your audience as a small group.
4. Dissimilarity – When you feel you have little in common with your audience, you feel anxious. Try emphasizing your similarities with your audience as you plan your speech as well as during your presentation
5. Prior History – When you have a prior history of being apprehensive, you are more likely to become anxious. Positive public speaking experiences will help reduce this cause of anxiety.
Here are a few other suggestions to deal with and control speaker apprehension;
- Prepare and practice thoroughly – nothing will make it easier for you than knowing your content and being comfortable with it. People panic when they know they are not prepared well enough, so BE PREPARED - Try to rehearse in the room you will be giving your speech so that it will feel familiar to you when you get up in front of the audience in that room - Gain experience – experience will help speakers who feel any level of apprehension or anxiety. The more you give speeches, the more confidence you will have and you will realise that you are an effective speaker - Realise that your audience does not expect perfection – your teachers and your peers know that you do not give public speeches for a living and making mistakes is only a part of life, everyone makes them. The important thing is to learn from them. - Remember your breathing – breath deeply to relax yourself, clench your fists and then relax them before you get up to give the speech as this helps to relax you as well. - Practice, Practice, Practice – in front of friends, family, the mirror, even family pets! - During rehearsal – time the speech, rehearse the speech from start to finish rather than in parts, rehearse at least 3 or 4 times in a row to get a feeling of familiarity with the speech (practice as often as you can)
Activity
Choose a page from your favourite novel. Photocopy this page if possible and bring it to class. Practice reading this page to a small group (3-4 people), then take it home and practice reading it there, as often as you can. Bring it to class the next day and read it to the same group of people. Ask them to comment on whether it seemed you were more confident delivering the speech on the second day. How had you improved?
Your body and voice are a great part of the message that the audience will receive. Use these tools to complement your verbal messages.
Voice
Your voice is your major tool in delivering your message. There are five areas we can consider in an attempt to improve our presentations.
Volume
This refers to the loudness or softness of your voice. An obvious problem here is that you might be talking too softly and all your audience members cannot hear you. You must be aware of the size of the room you are in so that you can project your voice loudly enough so everyone can hear what you are saying. On the other hand, if you talk too loudly then you might seem disturbing to the audience (they don’t want to be yelled at!). You should use the volume of your voice to emphasise certain words that are important in your speech (as well as the pitch).
Rate
Rate refers to the speed at which you speak. Sometimes people who are nervous when they give presentations can race and speak too quickly. If you do this, you deprive your listeners the opportunity to digest what you are saying (let it sink in and have an impact). You need to pace yourself. By doing this, you also seem relaxed and more approachable.
Pitch
Pitch refers to the relative highness or lowness of your voice. Changes in pitch often signal changes in meaning. The most obvious is the difference between a statement (where the pitch falls) and a question (where the pitch rises).
Articulation and Pronunciation
Articulation refers to movements of the speech organs as they modify and interrupt the air stream you send from the lungs. Different movements (for example, of the tongue, lips, teeth) produce different sounds. Pronunciation refers to the production of syllables or words according to some accepted standard, such as that of the dictionary. We can identify some common problems associated with faulty articulation and pronunciation;
- Articulation : errors of omission Incorrect Correct gov-a-ment gov-ern-ment hi-stry hi-sto-ry wanna want to comp-ny comp-a-ny - Articulation : errors of substitution Incorrect Correct wader waiter dese these bedder better ax ask ekcetera etcetera - Articulation : errors of addition Incorrect Correct acrost across athalete athlete idear idea lore law - Pronunciation : errors of accent Where people emphasise the wrong part of a word e.g. insurance – some people incorrectly emphasise the ‘I’ rather than the ‘u’ - Pronunciation : errors of adding sounds For some words, some people add sounds that are not part of the acceptable pronunciation. Some people pronounce letters that are a part of the word but which should remain silent. e.g. Incorrect – evening correct – evning
Body Action
Your body is an important tool in your speech. You speak with your body as well as your mouth. The total effect of your speech depends not only on what you say but also on how you present it. The five aspects of body action especially important in public speaking are eye contact, expression, posture, gestures and movement.
Eye Contact
The major problem here is when the speaker does not make eye contact with the audience. Some make the mistake of reading straight from their palm cards and failing to remember that the presentation is about more than the content. Speakers who do not maintain eye contact appear distant, unconcerned and less trustworthy than speakers who look directly at their audience. Without eye contact you will not be able to secure the all-important audience feedback. Communicate with members on all sides of the room as well, rather than only looking at the teacher or one or two people.
Facial Expressions
If you look like you are relaxed and enjoying giving the presentation then your audience will respond more positively to you. If you look nervous (tightened lips, shifty eyes, overacting) then the audience will be skeptical about what you are saying.
Posture
When delivering your speech stand straight but not stiff. Try to communicate a command of the situation but not any nervousness you feel. Avoid putting your hands in your pockets, leaning on the desk or the board or crossing your arms. When people cross their arms, they do so as a defensive gesture. It is another way of saying ‘go away, I don’t want to let you in and I am really uncomfortable and nervous’. An audience will certainly not respond well to this!
Gestures
Gestures help you illustrate your verbal messages. To be effective, body action should be spontaneous and natural. Gestures may include motioning towards the audience or using your hands to emphasise important points (this does not mean you wave your arms around like a madman! It needs to seem natural.)
Movement
Speakers who move around too little may seem fearful or distant (as thought they are scared to move from that spot). Too much movement may lead the audience to concentrate on the movement itself, wondering where you will end up next. Use movement to emphasise transitions and to introduce important assertions. For example, when making an important transition you might step forward towards the audience.
Using Notes
Effective delivery depends on the smooth use of notes during the speech. The following are some tips to using palm cards effectively;
- palm cards are called palm cards because they should be small enough to fit in the palm of your hand. Do not use strips of paper that look like pom poms! Waving strips of paper around is very distracting and takes the focus away from what you are talking about. - Practice using your cards at home – if you know your content and what you have on your cards, you will be able to move from one card to another quickly without drawing attention to the fact you are using the cue cards. - Do not write out the whole speech on the cards – You should only have key points in point form on the cards, not full sentences. If you do write out the whole speech, word for word, and get nervous while presenting then you are likely to spend the whole time reading off the palm cards (looking at them the whole time) and you will not use eye contact. - Slip the cards behind one another as you are finished with them – do not drop them on the floor or onto the desk as this can be distracting and unprofessional.
Activity
Imagine the paragraph below had to be summarised into point form and that these brief points or key terms were to be written on a palm card. Write the points or key terms you would put on the palm card.
Australia is a fascinating country. There are so many things to do and places to see. Activities you can do in Australia include absailing, canoeing, swimming, bungee jumping and air ballooning. There are many famous monuments and landmarks you can also visit including the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Crown Casino in Melbourne and the Gold Coast in Queensland. You are guaranteed to have an enjoyable holiday if you decide to go to Australia. Make sure to take a camera with you because you will need it to capture the many amazing things you will see. There are so many creatures that are unique to Australia including echidnas, kangaroos and cockatoos.
Thinking Critically About Public Speaking Preparation and Evaluation
Part of the function in learning public speaking is leaning to evaluate the finished, delivered speech. As a beginning guide to speech evaluation, focus on the following questions, which come from the topics we have discussed in this unit of work. Use these questions to check your own speech as well as a guide to evaluating the speeches of others.
The Subject and Purpose
1. Is the subject worthwhile? Relevant? Interesting to the audience and to the speaker? 2. What is the speech’s general purpose? (to inform, persuade) 3. Is the topic narrow enough to be covered in some depth? 4. Is the specific purpose clear to the audience?
The Audience
1. Has the speaker considered the age, gender, cultural factors, occupation, income, status and religion of the audience members? How does the speech deal with these factors? 2. Has the speaker considered and adapted to the willingness, favourableness and knowledge of the audience?
Research
1. Is the speech adequately researched? Are source reliable and up to date? 2. Does the speaker seem to thoroughly understand the subject?
The Thesis and Major Propositions
1. Is the speech’s thesis clear and limited to one main idea? 2. Are the speech’s main propositions clearly related to the thesis? 3. Are there an appropriate number of propositions in the speech (not too many, not too few)?
Supporting Materials
1. Is each major proposition adequately and appropriately supported? 2. Do the supporting materials actually support the arguments they are being used to prove or support?
Organisation
1. How is the body of the speech organised? What is the organisation pattern? 2. Is the organisation pattern appropriate to the speech topic? To the audience? Does it help the audience understand the speech?
Wording
1. Does the language used help the audience understand clearly and immediately what the speaker is saying? Are words simple, rather than complex, concrete rather than abstract? 2. Are the sentences short, direct, active, positive and varied?
The Conclusion, Introduction and Transitions
1. Does the conclusion adequately and effectively summarize the speech? 2. Does the introduction gain the audiences attention (how?) and provide a clear orientation to the speech? 3. Are there adequate transitions between the parts of the speech? Do the transitions help the audience better understand the speech’s development?
Delivery
1. Does the speaker maintain eye contact with the audience? 2. Are the volume and rate appropriate to the audience, occasion and topic? 3. Are the voice and body actions appropriate to the speaker, subject, and audience? (comment on posture, gestures, facial expressions and movement)
1. You will write a speech of your own on any topic you choose. It is to be a persuasive speech. It is to go for between 3 and 4 minutes. You are to plan the speech in detail in your exercise books. When delivering the speech, you are to take into consideration all of the issues we have discussed about public speaking in an attempt to earn the best grade you can. Your speech will be graded by the teacher and will contribute to the listening and speaking folio grade on your end of semester report.
2. You will be asked to write an evaluation of another person when they deliver their speech. You will be told on the day who the person is you will be evaluating. You are to follow the guidelines we discussed for evaluating public speaking. You will submit this evaluation to the teacher and this will be graded. The grade you receive will also contribute to your listening and speaking folio grade as you will need to use your listening skills in order to complete this activity.
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The following are units of work that I have developed on my own for teaching different skills of public speaking.
An impromptu speech is a speech that you are asked to deliver after only having a few minutes to be aware of the topic and prepare what you are going to say.
The biggest hurdle to overcome when delivering a speech of this kind id to find links between the topic, what you know about the topic and what the audience knows about the topic.
If you can link the topic to something you are interested in or know a lot about then you will probably have no difficulty in thinking of something to say about the topic.
For example, if you were given the topic of ‘school’ then you would probably find it easy to talk about it since you are a teenager and go to school every day and it is a part of your life. On the other hand, if you were given the topic of ‘tax and small businesses’ then you would have much more trouble!
Generally, you should have a palm card prepared in case of emergencies. The card should have the following points listed on it:
me
my friends
my family
my country
internationally
the media
If you get absolutely stuck when discussing a topic, refer to this card to think of ideas to inspire you as most topics can be related to all of these different people or places.
Using Palm Cards
The purpose of palm cards : Palm cards are an aide to help prompt you during your speech.
Palm cards should : fit in the palm of your hand, be small and rectangular (or square, depending on the shape of your palm), be invisible during your speech – people should not even know you are using them, be numbered, should be placed behind one another after they have been used – not dropped on the floor or dropped on the desk. Never draw attention to your palm cards – you want your audience focusing on you and your message, not on what you are doing with your palm cards
Palm cards should not : have the whole speech written on it – only have notes to prompt you or else you will be tempted to read straight off them, especially if you get nervous!, look like pom poms, be connected – if you staple them then it is obvious when you turn from one to the next
Activity
Trace your hand on a sheet of paper. Next, draw a rectangle/square in the palm of your hand. This is the size your palm cards should be from now on.
Using Palm Cards – Part 2
Last week we discussed how to determine the relative size of your palm card and we did an activity that allowed us to practice using these palm cards properly.
Firstly there are some things I would like to clarify:
- People seemed concerned that it was hard to hold and hard to turn so many palm cards. I think that people were forgetting that speakers should not be having to use a mountain of palm cards. Generally, the fewer palm cards you have the better – anywhere between 2 and 4 is generally acceptable, any more than 5 and you are making things very difficult for yourself. Remember, palm cards should not have your whole speech on them – they should only have a collection of points to help you remember what you are going to say!
- People were concerned that the paper we used was hard to hold – ideally your palm cards would not be made of simple paper. Ideally, they would be made of thin cardboard which is firmer, doesn’t bend and are easier to hold. It is also easier to turn thin cardboard palm cards than paper ones.
- People seemed concerned that after cutting out their palm cards they seemed to be too big. You can trim down your palm cards after doing that exercise – it is not an exact science, it is only a way to determine the relative size of your palm cards. It is also a matter of getting used to the size of the palm card if you have been using giant ones or ‘pom poms’ in the past!
Today’s activity will be similar to last weeks activity. I would like you to prepare 4 palm cards. On each of those palm cards you will write one of these phrases:
On the weekend I ….
What I like about the world is …
The person I most admire is …
If I could change one thing it would be …
After writing these phrases on the cards (and numbering the cards in the top right hand corner!), place them face down on the desk and shuffle them around. Then place them back in a pile. Find a partner for the next part of the activity (who will have done the same thing). Choose who will go first. At this point both of you should still have your palm cards in an upside down pile on the desk. The person who will go first will look at the first card and then look up and start talking about the topic. When they run out of ideas, they look at the next card and then look up and start talking again on the new topic. When the first person has finished their set of cards, the second person picks up their set and starts. Make sure you think about turning your cards properly during the exercise. If you and your partner finish early, make up a few additional palm cards with the following phrases on them and repeat the activity.
What bothers me is when …
My favourite holiday was when …
The funniest thing I remember was …
The hardest thing I have ever had to do …
Verbal Apsects of Public Speaking
The following are important considerations when delivering a speech in public:
TONE
The tone of your voice. The way in which something is said. E.g. in a serious tone, a sarcastic tone, a sad tone, a critical tone. Varying the ‘colour’ in your voice will help you to emphasise things and will also keep the audience interested in what you are saying. If you talk in a monotone – all in one tone – then you will put your audience to sleep! Think of the word ‘really’. How many different tones of voice can you say this word in to give it different meanings?
TUNE
Tune relates to the pitch of your voice. Using high and low ‘notes’ to add variation to the way in which you say things to keep your audience hooked.
PAUSE
Using pauses effectively in your speech gives the audience time to think about what you have just said. If you do not use pauses and just keep going like a freight train and give them one point after another, they will not be able to think of each individual point. It will be too much in too short a period of time. You want your audience to walk away thinking about what you have just said, not wondering what you said at all because you overloaded them!
PACE
Pace refers to how quickly or how slowly you give your speech. Usually you slow down in your speech when you are saying something really important to give it time to sink in for the audience. If you talk too quickly you can lose your audience as well because they can’t keep up with what you are saying and they lose the meaning of the speech. A successful speech is a conversational one.
VOLUME
Speaking loudly enough so everyone in the room can hear you. You can vary your volume based on what you are talking about. For example, if I were talking about a sad event where someone had died and it was very upsetting I might speak more quietly but if I were talking about a terrorist event and I wanted people to get enthusiastic about doing something or taking some action, I might speak more loudly.