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JOURNAL ARTICLES
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Historical Perspectives on Technology and Music
By Peter Webster
This Article is to make familiar to the reading the growth and progress of technology in the music education perspective, as apparent by
the name of it. Peter Webster starts by placing hardware advances in Phases. Phase 1 Gears and Levers, Phase 2 Electricity, Phase 3 The vacuum tube, Phase 4 Transistors, and Phase 5 Integrated circuits. Each one of these phases is representative of a time in history and he goes into detail on each one with examples of things that would fit into the phase. From here Webster goes on to tell the importance of software content in music Ed. He discusses the different thing that we have had over time and how greatly they have improved and how they have improved. Then onto Changes in Philosophy and finishes the article talking about the future of Technology in Music Education,
I think this is a very good article, and an important topic. Technology is becoming more and more important in unseen ways. It allows for
things to get done that would take so much more time.
The beginning of the article is good because it helps put into perspective all the changes we have gone through over time and sets a good
basis for the rest of the article. Also this article helps to bring names of things that should be familiar to people, to their attention. Then Webster goes into the Philosophy. He doesn't say much about it but what he does is very good. The ways in which music is now thought and is most effect is described and brought together with how the electronic media resources that we now have help to aid in the constructivist way of teaching. I think this is great because a lot of people don't take the time to see how electronic media can help them to teach what they want and possibly do it in an even more productive way then without it.
The end of the article is just to bring to the attention of the reader how things are just getting better and cheaper and smaller. All these
things make it more and more ideal for the classroom and the all around learning experience. |
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Historical Perspectives on Technology and Music
By Peter Webster
In the opening paragraph of a 1926 article on the use of radio in music instruction, William Fisher stated, “We live in a period of rapid and
surprising changes. From our age-long bondage to time and space we are fast being released, and no thinking man dares set the bounds for tomorrow's discoveries.” This article was titled “The Radio and Music,” and it was published in this journal, which was then called the Music Supervisors' Journal.
Children entering formal education today are unaware of a world without computers, personal digital assistants, portable CD and MPG3
players, digital keyboards, and the Internet with its connection to vast amounts of information. Music is everywhere in these media, and music teachers are continually inspired to use these computer-based technologies in their work. This connection between the fundamental goals of our profession and the opportunities that technology presents is hardly new. Computer-based technology is far more complex today than ever before, and music-and its worldwide presence in our society-has never been richer; thus, our fascination with technology and its role in teaching and learning continues to grow.
The word “technology” itself comes from Greek roots that relate to art/skill and discourse/communication. From the medieval days of the
famous music teacher Guido of Arezzo, who used his hand to teach music intervals and modes, to the present day, when a teacher may use an Internet site with Flash technology to reinforce the very same thing, we have celebrated the use of applied science to improve student understanding of our very complex art form. This article places some of the landmarks in computer-based technology into historical perspective. I have chosen to organize developments into those that relate first to hardware, then software, and finally to a philosophy of use. The Technology Time Line sidebar provides an overview of hardware and software development. The Selected Readings sidebar and the sources listed in the notes offer resources for deeper understanding of this topic.
Hardware Advances
Developments in music technology owe much to the imaginations and achievements of not only musicians, but also physicists, engineers,
inventors, and mathematicians interested in music. Their achievements have been mostly directly related to the hardware aspect of music and technology and are noted here in five phases.
Phase 1 (1600s to mid-1800s): Gears and Levers. This is the age of music boxes, player pianos, calliopes, and other music machines
that used pneumatic and spring-driven power. Many of these early mechanical devices can be seen and heard today in museums dedicated to preserving such traditions. Their sound quality and craftsmanship of design are impressive. Dramatic advances in traditional acoustic instruments were made during this time, including improvements in string, wind, and percussion instruments that have come to define these instruments today. In the world of mathematical calculations, Charles Babbage designed calculating machines that automated the preparation of navigation tables and solved mathematical problems. Our understanding of the physics of sound accompanied these hardware achievements. For example, during this time period, Joseph Sauveur's acoustical research led to more precise rendering of the overtone series. Jean Fourier developed a method of sound synthesis that we still teach today, and Hermann von Helmholtz began his pioneering work in acoustics.
Phase 2 (mid-1800s to early 1900s): Electricity. The mechanical achievements of Phase 1 were given new life and refinement with the
development of electrical power. The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell and the phonograph by Thomas Edison changed our expectations for communications and the delivery of music instruction. During this time, Herman Hollerith developed the first system of coding data on punched cards, and his Tabulating Machine Company later became what is now IBM. Thaddeus Cahill successfully financed and built the Telharmonium, a two-hundred-ton machine that employed rotating wheels passing near magnets to produce sounds that were sent through telephone lines. Cahill's hope for this venture in 1906 was to sell music delivered as a service to clients at distant sites-an interesting foreshadowing of the Internet.
Phase 3 (early 1900s to mid-1950s): The Vacuum Tube. This phase of hardware development saw an extraordinary development of
new devices. Edison's vacuum-tube technology, together with electromagnetic relay switches, provided the basis for some switches, provided the basis for some of the most impressive early computers, such as the ABC, the UNIVAC, and the ENIAC, which filled a room the size of a city block. The development of new musical instruments during this period had considerable impact on electronic music and music education. The vacuum-tube oscillator was a great boon to music because it led to the development of amplifiers, new phonographs, tape recorders, jukeboxes, and even early electric guitars. Electronic performance instruments such as the Hammond organ, Theremin, and Ondes Martenot were created and played in public to some level of success. Electronic music was born during this period and was seen as a natural step for composers such as Hindemith, Milhaud, Honegger, Ibert, Messiaen, Varese, and Stockhausen-all of whom used electronic instruments in their scores.
Phase 4 (mid-1950s to late 1970s): Transistors. Computing machines and music machines were further transformed in this postwar
period by the invention and development of the transistor and the semiconductor. Large mainframe computers like the IBM 360 and CDC 6000 became more common and affordable, while smaller minicomputers, such as Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8, were developed. Computer-assisted instruction from mainframe systems was used on such campuses as the University of Illinois and Florida State University. Rober Moog and Donald Buchla developed some of the first commercially successful music synthesizers. Schools and individuals could purchase devices like the ARP 2600 and experiment with sound synthesis. In fact, during this time period, music educators began to experiment with principles of electronic music. Work with analog tape to create new compositions was common. Sound synthesis was stressed in many music classes, and “music concrete”-music created from recordings of real-life sounds-was seen as a fascinating way to encourage creative thinking in music.
Phase 5 (late 1970s to the present): Integrated Circuits. During this period, we witness the growth of small, but powerful, personal
computer systems. Because of the effectiveness of the integrated circuit and the computer chip, computing machines and electronic instruments have gotten smaller while increasing their ability to process digital information. The popular Apple IIe personal computer was developed in the late 1970s, and add-on, digital-to-analog circuit cards gave the computer four-voice polyphony. The IBM corporation soon followed with its own personal computer, which was emulated by many computer manufacturers in the coming years. In the mid-1980s, the Macintosh platform with built-in sound emerged to replace the Apple IIe, and new IBM machines have become the dominant computers for music performance and education. Advances in hard disk and removable storage made it possible for more and more educators to experiment with their own computer programs. Development of laser-driven CD-ROM drives (in the late 1980s) that can play audio CDs has allowed these personal computers to be easily adapted to the music classroom.
As computer technology developed in this modern era, so did electronic music instruments. The MIDI (Music Instrument Digital
Interface) protocol was developed in the mid-1980s and allowed music devices to transmit codes that described sound. The sound resources inside these devices have improved dramatically in recent years, as sampling technology captured in chips has allowed the internal sounds of MIDI hardware to rival some of the best acoustic instruments. Since the beginning of the 1990s, music educators have used these MIDI-based devices to assist in music composition, performance, and listening-building on the tradition of the Moog and Buchla machines of the past. The Yamaha Disklavier piano, with its built-in recording technology, has offered an interesting addition to the performance options of musicians and has continued the long tradition of player pianos that began in the nineteenth century.
The Importance of Software Content
These developments in hardware mean very little to music educators without software development. From the earliest music boxes to the
recent handheld computer, there must be something of worth inside to communicate to others if this technology is to be useful. The first three phases of music technology development (1600s to the mid-1950s) focused on hardware development, with little or no attention to software design for music pedagogy. Music reproduction was featured with little interest in the actual teaching of music. This changed in Phase 4 of hardware development (later 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s) when mainframe computers began to interest those in academic circles.
Software Development in the Mainframe Ear (mid-1950s to mid-1970s). Several forces converged to make some of the very first
computer-based music teaching software. In addition to the development of the phonograph, tape recorder, sound reproduction devices, and computer hardware, high-level programming languages began to be created to help run the mainframe systems. Musicians and educators on major university campuses gained access to hardware resources and began to experiment with writing software. For example, in 1967, Wolfgang Kuhn and Reynold Allvin of Stanford University used a pitch extraction device and a mainframe computer to help judge the pitch accuracy of melodic patterns. At the Pennsylvania State University in 1969, Ned Deihl did early work with a large computer on ear training for instrumentalists.
Perhaps some of the most significant work done at this time was at the University of Illinois with the PLATO system, first developed by
Don Bitzer. The PLATO system used a large computer, touch-sensitive screens, and a programming language called TUTOR. G. David Peters and Robert Placek did experiments in music teaching, and the PLATO system came into regular use for college music instruction in 1973. Fred Hofstetter used a PLATO system at the University of Delaware in 1975 to develop ear-training materials. His curriculum, called GUIDO, continued to be developed, and its effectiveness was extensively documented.
These efforts are historically important and marked the true beginning of computer-based music teaching software development. Much of
the effort was federally funded, restricted to students at large universities, and had a limited effect on music teaching in the primary and secondary schools. One by-product of these years was the 1975 establishment of the National Consortium for Computer-Based Musical Instruction (NCCBMI), which is now the Association for Technology in Music Instruction (ATMI). This group was, and continues to be, a major force in the application of technology at all levels of instruction.
Software Development in the Age of the Personal Computer (mid-1970s to present). The hardware advances in personal
computing, MIDI, and laser technology have completely changed the nature of music instruction; however, this time period is equally impressive for its major advances in music software. During this time, music production software for music printing, sequencing, and digital audio emerged. The drill-and-practice software that dominated the past era continued, but new music software that uses guided instruction, games, simulation, and creative exploration has become dominant. Internet-based delivery of instruction has become a recent development.
During 1978 to 1984, often referred to as the “eight-bit” period in honor of the first personal computers (such as those created by Apple,
Atari, and Radio Shack), David Williams and David Shrader (and their Micro Music company) developed the first commercial library of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) software for use with these “microcomputers.” The library included software to support melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic dictation; error detection; and music composition. This period was important for primary and secondary school education because school systems cloud, for the first time, afford computer technology in addition to tape recorders and music synthesizers. Computer languages such as BASIC and LOGO were designed to run on these home computers and became important creative tools for students and music educators in the design of custom software.
From 1984 to 1994, the software aspect of music technology exploded in ways unparalleled in history. The development of the MIDI
protocol and production of “sixteen-bit” computers, such as the Apple Macintosh and the newer versions of the IBM computer and its clones, allowed the created of more sophisticated music instruction programs. Laurie Spiegel's Music Mouse program became the first improvisation- based software that turned the computer itself into a musical instrument. Band-in-a-Box from PG Music became the first commercial software to provide automated accompaniments for improvisation. Practica Musica from Ars Nova was one of the first music theory/aural skills programs to incorporate options for students and teachers-creating a kind of “flexible-practice” software that could be adapted to individual learning needs. Each of these programs used the MIDI protocol to help the computer use external synthesizers as sound sources as well as interactive partners in the learning process.
In addition to these CAI titles, the first programs for music notation were published. The Deluxe Music Construction Set, created by
Geoff Brown, was the first popular music-printing program, followed soon by the development of the ENIGMA notation engine, which became Coda Music Technology's Finale program. Jack Jarrett's MusicPrinter Plus and Donald Byrd's Nightingale also emerged around this time. Each of these music-printing programs was aided greatly by MIDI support and by the development of laser-printing technology, which was also causing major advances in desktop publishing outside of music. Software for music sequencing was developing at the same time, allowing arrangers and composers to develop scores for commercial music, television, and film more effectively. Programs such as Performer from Mark of the Unicorn and Musicshop and Vision from Opcode were soon used by commercial musicians and music educators wishing to help students experiment with music production.
It was also during this ten-year period that the audio CD greatly influenced the development of multimedia software production. In 1989,
the term “hypermedia” was coined by Ted Nelson, building on a much earlier idea of interrelated text sources. Nelson's idea was to create a learning environment that allowed software to connect graphics, sound, and text into an integrated whole. In this same year, Robert Winter designed the first commercial product in music to use this idea-an interactive program on Beethoven's Symphony no. 9, using a CD recording controlled by a software program. The software program was Apple's HyperCard, a tool kit for the development of hypermedia programs, written by Bill Atkinson. HyperCard was a conceptual breakthrough for music software production because it allowed music educators without significant computer programming experience to create high-quality interactive software that used audio recordings on CD. This, together with Apple Computer's development of QuickTime technology, which allowed the capture and playback of digital video as part of computer software, inspired a number of professionally created interactive CD-ROMs devoted to music.
The period from 1995 to the present has seen continued development of hypermedia titles, referred to as “multimedia” experiences. For
example, “enhanced CDs”-audio CDs with multimedia content that can be viewed using a CD-ROM drive-are readily available for many forms of music. In addition, software for music pedagogy has included new titles that encourage simulation and guided instruction. Making Music and Making More Music by Morton Subotnick provide support for music composition; these programs assume no knowledge of music notation and allow the student to discover musical structures by using a drawing metaphor. The role of a composer is simulated in ways that help teach the processes of composition. Harmonic Visions Music Ace and Music Ace 2 use guided instruction to help students understand music theory and aural skills in an interactive environment using animation. Children are guided in their discovery of important music facts, and opportunities are provided to test mastery with games and a composing space. These programs can be tailored to meet the needs of students and teachers and use the latest in computer-based technology, including software-based sound synthesis.
Music technology support for the music studio has significantly increased in recent years. Software such as SmartMusic and Intonation
Trainer from Coda have provided accompaniment support for instrumentalists and vocalists and helped in the teaching of intonation. The quality of modern personal computer digital audio recording capabilities has also increased, allowing educators to take advantage of software that records performances directly to disc. Software such as Peak from Bias and Sound Forge from Sonic Foundry can be used to record and process sound with an impressive array of special effects. Music can now be easily recorded, processed, and “burned” onto an audio CD in one's home.
Perhaps the most important recent trend for software has been the rise of Internet-based materials for music teaching and learning. As
more music teachers gain skills in the development of Web sites and as more schools gain access to the Internet, music teaching materials provided online at any time of day or night have begun to transform both content and delivery strategies. Individuals and companies now routinely distribute recorded music on the Internet in the form of MPG3 files. Music notation software companies such as Coda and Sibelius recently announced procedures for purchasing published music directly from an Internet site.
Changes in Philosophy
A review of developments in hardware and software is incomplete without attention to the underlying shifts in how technology is used.
The world truly is a more complex place today that it was thirty, twenty, or even ten years ago. Multiple cultures and value systems flourish, knowledge is growing at exponential rates, and change occurs faster and with more profound consequences than at any other time in history. Content is becoming more complex, and what we know about how children learn is a major consideration. Rote learning, memorization, and convergent thinking are more likely to be augmented or even replaced with discovery learning, problem solving, and divergent thinking. Cooperative learning, peer teaching, and project-centered learning with the teacher as a facilitator or monitor are becoming more valued than teacher-dominated interaction.
In the last ten years, music educators have used technology in a more “constructionist” context. Students are encouraged to “construct”
their understanding of music through their experiments while being expertly guided by teachers. “The traditional drill-and-practice techniques that dominated the use of technology until the mid-1980s have been complemented by much more powerful software that used problem-solving and role-playing techniques. Video, animation, text, and sound can unite to support a symbolically constructed world that represents reality in interesting and meaningful ways for children. With today's affordable personal computers, even the youngest children can play along with the computer, make increasingly complex decisions about the composition of the music, or listen to music in new and exciting ways. It is not just the multiple media that are significant, but their use in allowing children to think and feel musically.
The Future
The ratio of cost-to-hardware capability has never been more favorable for music educators. Computers costing less than a thousand
dollars have processing power, memory, and storage capacity that rival room-size mainframe computers of only a few decades ago. Digital video displays (DVD) will soon be commonplace to schools, replacing projectors and large tube screens. DVD drives are now standard on most computers, allowing access to several times more space than the average CD-ROM. At this time, DVDs have not been produced for music education with the kind of content that is really needed. This, however, will surely change as the production of such software resources becomes more economically feasible. There is also potential for the development of virtual-reality devices that allow children to explore music creation in powerful ways, interact with music while listening, and perform in new ways with instruments not imagined currently.
Perhaps the most compelling current development is the trend for hardware devices to become smaller and to communicate without
wires. Laptop computers and small personal digital assistants (PDAs) may soon be as ubiquitous in schools as lunch boxes and backpacks. It is not uncommon today to find these devices trading information by using infrared, satellite, or other wireless technologies. Personal recording devices like the MPG3 player are becoming quite affordable and can be programmed to contain compressed versions of hundreds of recordings from standard CDs or the Internet.
It seems clear from these trends that information in the form of text, graphics, video, and sound will be (1) moving to a digital format, (2)
rendered with smaller and more powerful machines, and (3) used extensively by music teachers to assist children in understanding music by having them create music more interactively. The words of William Fisher that opened this article were published seventy-six years ago, but they could have been written yesterday. It has never been a more exciting time to be a music teacher.
Technology Time Line
1600s to mid-1800s
·Music boxes, player pianos, calliopes, and other machines use pneumatic and spring-drive power to make music.
·Advances in traditional acoustic instruments are made.
·Charles Babbage designs calculating machines.
·Joseph Sauveur's acoustical research leads to more precise rendering of the overtone series.
·Jean Fourier develops a method of sound synthesis.
·Hermann von Helmholtz begins his pioneering work in acoustics.
Mid-1800s to early 1900s
·Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone.
·Thomas Edison invents the phonograph.
·Herman Hollerith develops a system of coding data on punched cards.
·Thaddeus Cahill builds the Telharmonium.
Early 1900s to mid-1950s
·Early computers such as the ABC, UNIVAC, and the ENIAC are built.
·The vacuum-tube oscillator leads to the development of amplifiers, new phonographs, tape recorders, jukeboxes, and electric guitars.
·Electronic performance instruments such as the Hammond organ, Theremin, and Ondes Martenot are created.
Mid-1950s to late 1070s
·Large mainframe computers become more common and affordable, while smaller minicomputers are developed.
·Computer-assisted instruction from mainframe systems is found on university campuses.
·Robert Moog and Donald Buchla develop commercially successful music synthesizers.
·Wolfgang Kuhn and Reynold Allvin use a pitch extraction device and a mainframe computer for judging the pitch accuracy of melodic
patterns.
·Ned Deihl works with a large computer on ear training for instrumentalists.
·Don Bitzer develops the PLATO system. G. David Peters and Robert Placek use GUIDO ear-training curriculum.
·The National Consortium for Computer-Based Music Instruction (NCCBMI) is established.
Late 1970s to 1984
·The Apple IIe personal computer is developed, followed by personal computers from IBM, Atari, Radio Shack, and other companies.
·Micro Music introduces the first commercial library of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) software.
·Computer technology becomes affordable enough for purchase by school systems.
·Computer languages such as BASIC and LOGO allow students and educators to design custom software.
1985 to 1994
·The sixteen-bit Macintosh platform with built-in sound emerges, and new IBM machines follow.
·Advances in hard disk and removable storage allow more educators to experiment with their own computer programs.
·The MIDI (Music Instrument Digital Interface) protocol is introduced.
·Laser-driven CD-ROM drives that can play audio CDs are developed.
·Interactive music teaching software programs Music Mousin, Ban-in-a-Box, and Practica Musica become available.
·The Deluxe Music Construction Set, ENIGMA (which later became Finale), MusicPrinter Plus, and Nightingale use MIDI support
and laser-printing technology for music notation.
·Programs such as Digital Performer, Musicshop, and Vision help musicians and students experiment with music production.
·Robert Winter uses Aplle's HyperCard to design an interactive program on Beethoven's Symphony no.9.
1995 to the present
·Enhanced CDs are readily available for many forms of music.
·Making Music and Making More Music, as well as Music Ace and Music Ace 2, offer guided interactive instruction in music
composition and theory.
·SmartMusic and Intonation Trainer provide accompaniment support and help in the teaching of intonation.
·Educators use programs such as Peak and Sound Forge to record and process sound.
·Teaching materials, recorded music, and published music become available on the Internet.
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A Dynamic Half Century for Music Education
By Michael L. Mark
The second half of the twentieth century was a period like no other in the history of American music education. As the profession strived
for maturity during those five decades, it became obvious that maturity in education did not mean reaching a certain point of growth or evolution. Its true meaning could be described as the ability to continue serving the needs of an evolving society, one that changes rapidly and profoundly. This definition is exemplified in the five topics selected for this special focus issue on “Changing Perspectives in Music Education.” These topics-- philosophy, multiculturalism, psychology, technology, and advocacy--were central to the profession during this period of self-discovery, growth, and development. They represent the broad spectrum of professional interests and activities that occupied music educators during this fertile time and helped focus and determine new directions for the future.
Philosophy
The 1950s saw the beginning of a new philosophy of music education-aesthetic education. Aesthetic education became the guiding
intellectual basis for the profession by the 1960s and remained unchallenged until the 1990s, when a group of philosophers began to advocate a praxial philosophy. As music educators became more involved in advocacy in the 1970s, the justifications for school music began to overshadow philosophy, reflecting such ancillary values as better performance in other school subjects and improved behavior. Although these values appear to be the opposite of valuing music for its own sake, music education advocates have not repudiated music education as aesthetic education. The ambivalent dichotomy between musical and nonmusical values as a foundational basis for music education continues to this day.
Multiculturalism
It is ironic to quote the president of a country that has traditionally denied equality to its minority citizens, but Vladimir Putin, president of
Russia, eloquently stated in September 2000 during the dedication of a Jewish community center in Moscow what might be considered the American multicultural ideal: “Our country's spiritual revival is unthinkable without the understanding that Russian culture is a combination of the traditions of all the people who have lived in Russia for centuries. Every person and every ethnic group has been adding the colors of their own discoveries, energy, and talent to the palette of our common culture.”
Respect for all has been the American theme as well. Since the judicial decisions and Congressional legislation of the 1950s and 1960s
about civil rights, Americans have become sensitive to the fundamental right of equality for all people in every aspect of life. One of the most important outcomes was the mandate for multicultural education in schools to which music educators responded by including in the curriculum the musics of many cultures and ethnicities, as well as jazz and popular music. Leaders began to emerge in the field of multicultural music education, and new publications, recordings, teacher-training practices, and curricula appeared in a relatively short time. Multicultural music in schools is now embedded in virtually every aspect of the music curriculum, and multicultural education is a significant part of the education of every teacher. Multiculturalism has also influenced philosophical beliefs and advocacy practices.
Psychology
Although psychologists discussed music and music education long before the middle of the twentieth century, it was during the latter part
of the 1950s that contemporary psychology began to influence music education. Cognitive psychology became a major factor in the 1960s and has gone through an extensive evolutionary period from the time of Jerome Bruner's The Process of Education (1960) to current theories of multiple intelligences. In the 1990s, cognitive psychologists were joined by neurological researchers in studying the effects of music on people. The alignment of psychology and neurobiology has been the basis for extensive research that explores how people respond to music and how it might best be taught to children. There has also been a burgeoning synergy between the philosophy of aesthetic education and psychology. Findings of psychological and neurobiological researchers have provided data and advocates for music education depend upon to justify music education.
Technology
One of the major factors that drive innovation in music education practices is new equipment, in this case, technology. Throughout the
second half of the twentieth century, technology continually evolved to levels that could not even have been imagined a few years earlier. Technology, especially computer-based technology, has led music education because few of us can visualize new technological needs until a new invention comes along, and we wonder then how we ever got along without it. New technological tools to create, teach, record, and manipulate music still amaze more mature music educators who began their careers using long-playing phonograph records and radios. Younger music educators tend to absorb these changes quickly, often without a sense of marvel. Technology has affected every music educator in one way or another and is likely to have even more influence in the future.
Advocacy
Contemporary advocacy in American music education has been influenced by the entrance of the federal government into many aspects
of education, especially curricular matters, which formerly had been the responsibility only of state governments. When MENC hired its first public relations specialist in 1966, the groundwork was laid for growth in the field of advocacy. MENC has had great success in its role as advocate for the profession and has been instrumental in training many music education leaders for state and local advocacy. Other organizations have also advocated for arts education, and a number of coalitions have been created among arts disciplines to strengthen advocacy efforts.
This Issue
These five topics are inextricably intertwined, and each can be understood bed in its relationship to the others. The goal of this special
focus issue of Music Educators Journal is to help music educators understand why the profession has developed into what it is today and to provide a historical basis for making decisions about the future. I invite you to read and reflect on the following articles:
·“Music Education Philosophy: Changing Times” by Marie McCarthy and J. Scott Goble
·“Music Education in a Time of Cultural Transformation” by Patricia Shehan Campbell
·“Psychology and Music Education since 19950” by Roger R. Rideout
·“Historical Perspectives on Technology and Music” by Peter Webster
·“A History of Music Education Advocacy” by Michael L. Mark.
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The article “A Dynamic half Century for Music Education” by Micheal L. Mark, Summarized the major issues in music education and the ways
that it has changed over the past century. Taking time to discuss Philosophy, Multiculturalism, Psychology, Technology and Advocacy. This article briefly touches on each of these and suggests that you read those, which are following which talks about some of these things in a little more depth.
The Philosophy section points out how since the 90's instead of arguing just the philosophy of music, advocacy has begun to play a part
by arguing how music can help in other subjects as well and is better for a well rounded student. Multiculturalism discusses how music incorporates many different cultures into the classroom now. Far better then most things have in the past. Psychology tells how cognitive psychology has begun to play a major role in music education since the 1960's. Technology lets us take music and anything else further. It helps develop things faster and is great for us. The federal government has greatly influenced the advocacy in Music in our schools.
I think these are all very important things that are worth discussion. Philosophy is a thing that is unique to the person and takes a long time
to figure out. Experience is needed for this and it will change over time. Multiculturalism is very important for music. This is a way that music can step up above many other things. Different cultures can be discussed but I think by hearing there music and discussing that lets you better understand certain things then any other way of looks at culture. Psychology is something that is incorporated with everything it always will be. It is important to know about in music because music can effect people and change how they feel and such. Technology should always be given a chance, can do great things. I would say one of the most important things for future teachers to spend time on.
I think the article did a wonderful job outlining the main things that need to be discussed and talked about.
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Singing in the Band Rehearsal
By Mark Wolbers
The National Standards for Music Education emphasize both singing and playing instruments as important parts of every student's music
education. However, when a child begins the study of a band or orchestra instrument, the use of the singing voice in class is often overlooked. This is an unfortunate circumstance, not only in light of the National Standards but also because an important tool for developing ensemble and individual musicianship is being ignored. What follows is a discussion of possible instructional approaches for including singing in the band rehearsal.
Singing to Develop Aural Skills
As in the playing of instruments, singing in the band rehearsal should begin with warm-ups. If vocal warm-ups and singing techniques are
new to you, consult your school's choral educators or other respected vocal colleagues. They will almost certainly be glad to share their thoughts on the subject of healthy singing. Armed with that information and a piano or an electronic tuner that sounds the pitches, you can begin enhancing your curriculum.
Vocalizing in the band rehearsal can help students develop their aural skills, despite his other flaws as a teacher, Harold Hill from The
Music Man was correct in suggesting that students should “think” the sound they wish to produce before they play it. When students are properly guided, singing can help them develop their aural perception and provide an alternative to a “button-pushing” mentality. This mistaken frame of mind suggests that playing in tune requires simply having the instrument pulled to the correct length while fingering the right note. Students must be taught to hear the music they are producing, not just to simply see it.
Ideally, students should be singing in their beginning band class. The longer you wait to introduce singing in the rehearsal, the more
recalcitrant and self-conscious students will be. Perhaps the easiest approach with beginning band students is to simply have them sing the exercises out of their beginning band book before they play them. You may wish to use a solfeggio movable-do system in singing. It has the advantage of consistent harmonic/melodic function (do is always tonic) while making use of pure Italian vowels, which help to foster a beautiful singing tone. Probably the most utilitarian reason for using the movable-do system is that is allows all students to sing the same syllables regardless of their instrument's key of transposition. Most beginning band exercises are in unison or octaves. Thus, in the concert key of B-flat, the saxophonist who sees a written G and the trumpeter who sees a C will sing do, just like the concert-pitch instrumentalists who are seeing a written B-flat.
Do not be surprised if some students have trouble matching pitch with their voices or identifying comparative sharpness or flatness. With
encouragement, patience, and persistence, students will develop these skills over time. Reinforce pitch discrimination often by encouraging accurate unisons with the voice and instruments. Try making a game out of tuning practice. Sound a reference pitch, have one student play, and quiz another student as to whether the player is sharp, flat, or in tune. Sometimes the difference between pitches is more apparent if the student sings or hums the pitch first and then plays or hears it.
Once students can determine whether they are sharp or flat, they need to o know how to properly correct their pitch. After they have
tuned and adjusted the length of their instrument, all other pitch manipulations should be accomplished with embouchure, voicing, valve-slide, and so forth. Be prepared to share pitch-manipulation strategies that are appropriate to each instrument, and have the students practice using them on a regular basis. Teaching students how to tune their instrument to one or two tuning notes, although important, does not necessarily enable students to play in tune within a musical context. In addition, it has been shown that students can perceive correct intonation but be unable to duplicate it on their instruments; therefore, teaching strategies that develop the perceptual-to-performance connection may be more effective in improving intonation.
Pitch discrimination and correction skills are necessary for achieving a beautiful and mature ensemble sound. Many educators
underestimate the importance of intonation. A number of studies have shown that listeners have a demonstrated preference for intonation over tonal quality. Yet many teachers are reluctant to incorporate singing and ear training into their band classes. In our drive for an efficient rehearsal, we often point out to our students that they are flat or sharp. How much better it would be to empower their individual capacities for pitch discrimination and correction.
Outside class, students can practice interval matching and tuning with the help of an electronic tuner that sounds reference pitches.
Encourage the students not to look at the tuner's meter. Instead, sound a reference pitch and have them use their ears. You may want to cover the meter with a piece of tape. After all, the students most likely have 20/20 eyesight. It is their ears that need improvement!
One proven technique for teaching beginning students how to match pitches is to have them listen for the interference beats between the
sound they are producing and the reference sound. These pulses are created by the compressions and rarefactions of two sound waves sounding at slightly different frequencies (out of tune). As the students move their pitch closer to the reference pitch, the beats will slow and stop altogether when the two sounds are in tune. This is often referred to as “beatless” tuning.
You can continue to develop ear training in class with easy warm-ups, such as singing vowels on whole and half steps. One simple
pattern consists of singing vowels up a whole step, then back to the original note, and then down and back up a half step; repeat a number of times by moving the pattern upward or downward chromatically. This reinforces a typical cadential pattern of do-re-do-ti-do. Reverse the pattern of whole and half steps by singing mi-fa-mi-re-mi. When students master that pattern, expand to intervals of minor and major thirds. You can teach thirds by singing up a portion of the scale and then outlining the interval of the major or minor third-as in the pattern do-re-mi-re- do-mi-do. This pattern can also be repeatedly sung through an ascending or descending chromatic pattern.
When your students have mastered melodic thirds, they are ready to begin singing harmonic intervals. Sing up the first notes of the scale;
then conclude with the ensemble split to sing the tonic and the third combined-as in do-re-me-re-do-do/mi. It is recommended that you only sound the starting note or chord on the piano in your vocal warm-ups. Let the students learn to place the third by ear. With minimal coaching, they will automatically find the natural tuning. Remember that a naturally tuned (just intonation) interval of a third differs substantially from what an equal-tempered instrument, such as a piano, will sound. In major chords, for example, the third must be lowered almost 14 cents (half step = 100 cents) on an equal-tempered instrument. Let your students experience what major thirds really sound like.
Once you work your way up to intervals of a perfect fifth, you are ready to begin outlining chords. A pattern such as do-re-mi-fa-sol-
fa-mi-re-do-mi-sol-mi-do works well, and lowering (flattening) the third scale degree (mi) will easily accommodate the singing of minor chords. As before, once outlining is mastered, split the group into three sections and have them sing the chord harmonically before moving up or down a half step and repeating the pattern. If you keep working in this manner every day in rehearsal, it will not be long before you are outlining and singing seventh chords.
Singing the Music
Those who play instruments have often been encouraged to emulate the voice when playing. In his Complete Conservatory Method
for Cornet or Trumpet, J.-B. Arban admonishes readers to “seek out, among singers … the most illustrious models.” Carl Baermann in the Celebrated Complete Method for Clarinet, Op. 63, advises that the clarinet tone should resemble “a full, beautiful soprano voice.” Perhaps the best words in regard to singing by instrumentalists were written by C. P. E. Bach in his Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. He says to “lose no opportunity to hear artistic singing. In so doing, the keyboardist will learn to think in terms of song. Indeed, it is a good practice to sing instrumental melodies in order to reach an understanding of their correct performance.
Singing a part can allow players to become acquainted with the intervals of their line. Conceptualizing and hearing the intervals before
playing them can greatly assist brass players with note accuracy and both brass and woodwind players with intonation. A horn player who can sing and hear intervals will be a more accurate player. When you have students sing their band parts, encourage them to ignore the register of the part and sing in a range appropriate for their voice.
Unlike string players, wind players do not benefit musically from the natural inflections afforded by the bow. Consequently, student wind
players can produce a mechanical flow of notes with little regard for phrase shape, inflection, or direction. The fact that little or no dynamic making appears under the notes often lulls the student into simply playing the notes and rhythms. Early in the rehearsal of the music, the teacher should challenge the students to explore the nuances of what they are playing. If the students experience the music in an “unmusical” manner for a prolonged time, they will come to learn and accept this style as the only possibility and look for no greater interpretation.
Try putting a melody from one of the pieces you are studying on the board and ask for suggestions concerning the unwritten dynamic
nuances. Mark these nuances in great detail by writing in small crescendos and decrescendos so that every not is part of, or has, a shape or direction. After you garner a few suggested phrasings, have everyone sing the melody with the proposed dynamic inflections. It is often amazing how the voice will make the phrase shapes sound natural. In addition, the breathing points will manifest themselves, and the line will take on human, not mechanical, characteristics.
Students should be reminds that in regard to shape, direction, and phrasing, every note is either coming or going. It either belongs in a
phrase with the notes that precede it or with the notes that follow. Long note values are often the most puzzling. It may be useful for students to consider what happens to long sounds in nature. After being struck, does a gong or drum become louder, stay the same, or become softer? What is the impact upon dynamic shaping of the underlying harmonic goals and cadences? Once again, the voice can often inform us if we listen with sensitivity to how we sing a line.
It is important that all ensemble members take part in the phrasing exercises even though most may not play the melody. You may want
those who are performing the accompanying role to support the shape and direction of the melodic line. Once again, their music will indicate nothing dynamically, and if they do nothing, your efforts at nuance will be undermined. The entire group's involvement also makes all students aware of their importance in regard to balance.
In this way, signing in the band rehearsal becomes a tool to discover pitch, balance, and, most importantly, musical syntax. By exploring
the musical shapes and nuances that stir musical emotions, you and your students share in an artistic journey that leads to the “heart” of the subject.
Singing Related Songs
Many compositions that make up the wind-band repertoire are based upon songs or chorales. If you are willing to include a
developmental curriculum of vocal warm-ups and ear training in your rehearsal, then you should consider extending the signing process to the next level. It may take some research, but, with a few tools and a bit of determination, you can discover the sources that inspired many band compositions. This can provide your curriculum with very natural paths to the others areas of the National Standards for Music Education.
For the band that is just beginning to sing, folk songs are good choices because they are often monophonic. As the band's singing ability
becomes more advanced, you can begin adding works that require more than one part. The advantage of learning the source song for an instrumental piece is that students come to understand what the composition is about. This has an impact upon the manner with which they sing and how they phrase the song. This leads to a deeper understanding of the composer's intentions and affects the way in which students play the composition on their instruments.
For example, let us say that you wish to explore with your high school students the “Variations on a Korean Folk Song” by John Barnes
Chance. Chance uses the Korean folk song “A-ri-rang” as the basis for his composition. For lesson plans dealing with Standard 6 (“listening to, analyzing, and describing music”), knowledge of the folk song is crucial for understanding the variations in the Chance composition. You may wish to turn the process around and create a lesson plan that deals with Standard 4 (“composing and arranging within specified guidelines”) by having students compose their own variation of the folk song. An analysis of the folk song will also lead you and your students into an exploration of pentatonic scales. Lesson plans concerning Standard 3 (“improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments”) could be easily structured around the pentatonic scale.
For lesson plans dealing with Standard 9 (“understanding music in relation to history and culture”), the Korean folk song has much to
offer. In translation, it can be difficult for students to understand the poetic metaphors of the verses. The first verse of this old song is about a loved one who leaves. He is told that he should stay, presumably in order to overcome the difficulties that cause him to want to leave. During the thirty-six years of Japan's occupation of Korea in the beginning of the twentieth century, the singing of the song came to evoke nationalistic feelings. After you explore the song's connection to Korean history and culture, the way you and your students sing and play this work will be forever altered.
For your first foray into having your high school band sing in parts, you may wish to explore a Bach chorale from one of the many
collections that choral directors use for warm-ups. Depending on the age of your singers, you may need to start out by singing just the upper parts. As the male voices in your ensemble mature in high school, full four-part singing will become possible. If possible, locate and use the original version of the chorale with German text. Your school's choral educator or the choir leader at a local church may be able to help. If that is of no avail consult your local university library. A good source book, if available, is The Four-Part Chorales of J.S. Bach by C.S. Terry. The chorale can serve as part of a cross-disciplinary project with your school's German instructor. If you have students who study German in your band, have them help you translate and/or teach pronunciation.
For lesson plans dealing with analyzing music (Standard 6), using chorales provides a wonderful opportunity to analyze simple chords and
identify nonchord tones. After students identify one of Bach's chord progressions, they can compose a melody over the progression (Standard 4). An alternate activity might lead students into devising an alternate orchestration that is appropriate to the text. Like the Korean folk song, Bach chorales can be useful in lesson plans exploring music in relation to history and culture (Standard 9). Your lesson plans can engage students in an exploration of Bach and the late Baroque period of music or perhaps the writings of Martin Luther and the history of the Protestant Reformation.
Most importantly, however, your students will have the opportunity to sing in harmony. This can help your students learn to aurally
identify the members (root, third, and fifth) of the chords they sing or play. With this ability, they can begin to more fully understand their role in tuning and balance.
When dealing with tuning issues, always begin by identifying the students who have the root and fifth of the chord. After these students
sing the perfect fifth in tune, have the remaining students sing the third. Then, have them transfer that sound concept to their instruments. Remember that the third only provides the color of the chord and should be placed inside the sound of the root and fifth for proper balance.
Our singing adventures need not be limited to the rehearsal. Why not present singing at the band's concerts? It can be invaluable I
helping an audience understand the works that the band performs. For example, singing the Persichetti chorale “Turn Not They Face” prior to performing the rather abstract wind-band prelude of the same title can allow the audience to embrace the composition in a way that would be impossible without first hearing the origins of the work.
Examining the songs upon which our wind-band literature is based is a wonderful way to explore issues of composition, melody, phrasing,
history, culture, and context. Both teacher and student gain a richer and deeper understanding of the music being studied by examining and singing the songs upon which the music is based. The sidebar lists a number of resources for finding the vocal source-material used in many band compositions. Through singing in the band rehearsal, your students will be able to develop aural skills crucial to great-sounding ensembles. |
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Singing in the band rehearsal
By, Mark Wolbers
“Giving instrumentalists opportunities to sing can help them to develop better intonation pitch discrimination and musical understanding.”
Taken from the article in the Music Educators journal. This quote pretty much sums up the intent of the article and the main idea's that it is trying to convey.
Wolbers starts his article with singing to develop aural skills this is the largest part of the article, in which Wolbers discusses how to
bring basic singing into the band rehearsal and how it will help. Things such as having the kids sing tuning notes and then playing them and teaching themselves to adjust accordingly. Then goes onto discuss why movable do is the way to go. Makes great points and pretty much shows that in a band setting it is the only way to go. This section then builds on interval singing with the children. Taking do and building on it, steps at first all together and working toward harmonies so the kids can hear the intervals.
Singing the music is the next section. Pretty straight forward, have the kids sing their music then they can hear what others in the piece
are playing. They can concentrate on the center of the pitches and know what to listen for when they play. They can use this opportunity to identify phrases, feel the flow of the music without trying to manipulate an instrument.
Singing related music this section deals with the music that you play in band as well but he is asking that you introduce the students to
things that inspired the music and have them explore the things that brought the music about.
I think this article is GREAT the first part is very important. Students should sing in band it will help them to identify pitches and teach
them to listen to the things that they are playing. This is important in intonation. I love how movable do was presented and supported that was great. I also think that singing the songs that you are laying is important because it builds phrases and balance. The last part of the article I think is good but maybe a little much. It is wonderful to have students understand music and help them to figure out where it came from and why it is what it is now, but asking them to research and make music similar and other such things that he suggests to do is a little much not because the kids couldn't do it but because time is limited and you have to find a balance, but I would highly recommend the first two parts and if time allows the third. |
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THE BALANCING ACT
Nurture Individual Voices and Get a Great Group Sound
Choral directors are changed with the difficult task of molding a cohesive ensemble while nurturing and protecting the voices of the singers
in their choirs. However, Sometimes in the course of building a choral sound- Emphasizing blend and uniformity or choosing demanding repertoire- Choral directors can unintentionally cause singers to develop unhealthy singing habits. Good choral singing can be compatible with healthy singing as long as the choral director is aware of a few guidelines.
Choosing repertoire carefully. The great vocal pedagogue William Vennard said that when building young voices, “It is best to begin
in the middle part of the voice and work upward and downward until the voice classifies itself” (Singing- The Mechanism and the technique. New York: Carl Fisher, 1967, p. 78). Unfortunately, in a choral ensemble sometimes we must assign singers to specific parts before their voices are ready to meet the demands of those parts. Young voices can suffer when singing loudly in a too-wide range or taxing tessitura.
Suggestions: When selecting music for young voices, be especially cautious of range, tessitura, and volume levels. Too often,
conductors choose music they've heard performed by older choirs and try to make it fit their young choir. Listen to recordings and live performances of choirs of all ages to develop realistic tonal expectations. Encourage young tenors and basses to use falsetto on extremely high pitches, and instruct young altos not to use a heavy chest voice. If necessary, modify pitches that lie outside their comfortable range. This can often be done without much effect on the overall sound. When warming up, use descending vocalizes, which will teach your singers to carry the lighter head voice down rather then carrying the heavier chest voice up.
Beware the tendency to overcorrect. Some singers may think that if a little breath support is a good thing, a whole lot would be even
better. This isn't necessarily the case. Too much support can cause tension in the larynx and greatly inhibit vocal freedom. Many singers use too much abdominal pressure if the conductor calls for more breath support.
Suggestion: Remind singers to let their breath flow freely for a full and healthy tone. Increasing breath support does not fix every vocal
problem. Breathiness is usually caused by a lack of vocal-fold coordination, not a lack of breath support. A certain amount of breathiness is normal in young singers; with physical maturity and better singing coordination, breath control should improve.
Static vowel shaping can also result in overcorrection. Be careful not to encourage dark, nonresonant singing by constantly asking
for vertically shaped vowels. Holding one shape can make diction labored and words hard to understand.
Suggestions: Couple vertically shaped vowels and an open throat with bright, forward resonance. The healthiest articulation allows the
tongue and lips to move fluidly from one vowel or consonant to the next, rather than holding one static shape.
Look for visual clues. Watch for sings of excessive tension and poor body alignment, such as stiff or slumped posture, grimacing, head
held forward, rigid arms or fingers, one shoulder elevated, forward -jutting jaw, raised shoulders on inhalation, head lifted for high notes, and pulsing the beat with the body. The se are all signs that the student needs individual help to determine the source of tension. Artistic singing requires a high degree of muscular coordination, and singers need to be guided into habits that will stand them in a good stead for a lifetime.
Suggestions: Begin each rehearsal with stretching, loosening, and relaxation exercises in preparation for singing. This is an excellent time
to discuss tension and model healthy body alignment. The Alexander Technique addresses body alignment for all types of performers and could help singers who exhibit a high degree of tension.
Listen for aural clues. Frequently, you are the only vocal specialist the student will see. This fact makes it imperative that you take the
time to listen to students sing individually so that bad habits don't go undetected in the early stages. Listen for these aural clues: Singing flat; singing sharp; tense, tight, edgy, or strident tone; dark, swallowed tone; too-slow, too-fast, or too-wide vibrato; excessive breathiness; and hoarseness.
Suggestions: Set up a routine to listen to members of your choir individually or in small groups. Create a nonthreatening environment to
minimize nervousness and allow singers to reveal their true voices. You'll not only learn a lot about individual singers, but also discover which sections of songs are hard on their voices.
Listen to what your singers say about their voices. Many times singers will express dissatisfaction with some aspect of their singing,
such as an inability to sing high notes or a discomfort with singing a straight tone. When they describe vocal distress. Listen carefully, even though they may not have technical knowledge or vocabulary to fully explain their symptoms.
Suggestions: Create a rehearsal atmosphere in which students feel comfortable discussion their voices. Sometimes a particular vocalize
or a relaxation exercise can be suggested. Perhaps the student would benefit from reading a excerpt from a textbook on singing that explains the physiology of singing. Such as Richard Miller's The Structure of singing or James McKinney's The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults (see the resource list).
Acknowledging the individuality of the singers in our choirs may seem like a time-consuming task, but the payoff can be immense, not only
for the singers, but for the choral ensemble as well. After all, voices are the raw material of our choirs, and the ensemble will sound better if we nurture the vocal development of each individual in the group. Singers will feel more invested in the coir if they know their voices are valued. One of the greatest gifts we can give our students is the knowledge and skill to sing in a healthy an expressive way throughout their lives.
By Debra Spurgeon, assistant professor of choral music education at the university of Mississippi in Oxford.
Resource List
McKinney, James C. The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville: Genevox Music Group, 1994
Miller, Richard. The Structure of Singing. New York: Schirmer Books, 1986.
Patton, John Glenn, and Van A. Christy. Foundations in Singing: A Basic Textbook in Vocal Technique and Song Interpretation. 7th ed.
Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002.
Vannard, William. Singing-The Mechanism and the Technique. New York: Carl Fisher, 1967.
For an introduction to the Alexander Technique, go to www.alexandercenter.com <http://www.alexandercenter.com>.
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I took this article from Teaching Music, The balancing act: Nurture Individual Voices and Get a Great Group Sound. The article is
directed to the voice director, more specifically the Choral director. It breaks down the many important things to look for in the voices of children.
The main categories that the article discusses is to choose repertoire carefully, Beware the tendency to overcorrect, Static Vowel shaping
can also result in over correction, Look for visual clues, Listen for aural clues and listen to what your singers say about their voices.
I think each one of these categories in the article is very good. The First about repertoire reminds the instructor to be careful and make
sure that the music they choose is suitable for the voices of their choir. Obvious stuff but sometimes easily forgotten. The Tendency to over correct has to deal with breathing and making sure that you make it clear that you want support but not they the student over do it and cause tension. Vowel shaping, again don't over do it and just cause a different problem. Looking for visual and aural clues pretty straightforward. Look for tension in joints posture shoulders and so on and listen for pitch and vocal attributes. You do this to catch problems early and fix them before they become habit. Then finally it says to listen to what your children think of their voices and try and decipher what it is that they are saying.
I think this article is just great. It discusses very important things. I have encountered some of these problems with Vocal instructors and
I have seen others among choirs I have been in. I think that the best part of the article is at the end of each statement suggestions are given on how to look for the problems and how to fix them. This is wonderful. I think the article is extremely useful and is something I would hold onto and definitely give the time to look over and experiment with. |
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The Conductor as Servant-Leader
By Ramona M. Wis
The conductor of an ensemble is, by definition, a leader. With a gesture or move of the baton, conductors decide when the sound starts
and stops. They make the large scale decisions regarding choice of repertoire, curriculum, and program design, as well as the day-to-day preparation for this role, aspiring conductors complete undergraduate programs covering conducting technique, vocal, and instrumental pedagogy, rehearsal methods, and how to be “in control” of the class-all designed to develop their ability to lead from the podium.
Yet something is missing. All these courses, techniques, and skills help music education majors become efficient and technically proficient,
but do these things prepare them for the leadership role of the conductor?
Where and when do conductors learn to lead? How do they develop leadership abilities, and from whom do they learn how to lead?
What is the role of leadership as it relates to conductors, and how can their approach to leadership provide for the optimal ensemble experience?
Roots of Leadership: The Development of a Personal Philosophy
Like so much of what is learned, an individual's approach to leadership can often be an amalgam of the styles of individual teachers and
conductors to which one has been exposed over the years. Philosophies are absorbed, consciously or unconsciously, by experiencing each teacher's particular method of providing leadership. But to become a leader, each conductor must question the nature of those experiences (and the philosophies that underlie those experiences) to test of they reflect who they conductor is and what he or she believes. If inherited philosophies and, by extension, inherited approaches to leadership are not examined, conductors may simply imitate their teachers and may find themselves, sooner or later, teaching “through someone else's skin”-feeling unrewarded, uncomfortable, and dispassionate, not because they chose the wrong profession, but because they have no real understanding of the conductor's role.
The first step toward becoming a leader is to consciously examine one's beliefs about music-its nature, role, and power-and about
teaching. Reading, reflecting on, and debating the writings of philosophers and educators in the field, especially within the context of a well-taught philosophy of music education course, can be life-changing. Without a consciously developed personal philosophy, there is little foundation on which to build personal leadership.
The second step toward becoming a leader is to purposefully study leadership. Though often aimed at the corporate environment, the
field of leadership studies is fast-growing and offers much insight to the conductor who wishes to pursue excellence in leadership, as well as in artistry. The principles and practices found in the wealth of materials on this topic can easily be adapted and applied to the conductor's role as a leader.
Leading vs. Managing
Before going further, it is important to define what is meant here by “leadership.” Perhaps the best way to do this is to contrast leadership
with management. While managers maintain a certain course, leaders have the ability to change course. Managers are focused on efficiency, whereas leaders are focused on effectiveness. Managers can get things done, but leaders have the ability to create a vision and inspire the momentum needed to inspire the momentum needed to move things forward. As Steven Covey says in Principle-Centered Leadership, we “manage things, but lead people.”
As critical as they are to one's success, clean conducting, good diagnostic/prescriptive techniques, and the ability to keep the ensemble
attentive are only the means to a much greater end. Without a larger goal for the ensemble experience, the conductor relying solely on these tools is, at best, a skillful manager of the musical experience. The major shortcoming of the skillful manager model is that it perpetuates the notion that the ensemble experience is the conductor's experience, that the artistic decision0making is, in the words of Bennett Reimer, the “sole prerogative” of the conductor. “When performance group directors… are directing the music making of students but make all the decisions for them, … those directors are creating, but their students are surely not,” observes Reimer. With this model, the musical growth and aesthetic experience also belong primarily to the conductor, clearly making the ensemble experience only tangentially educational fro the ensemble and leaving little room for individual or collective growth.
Conductors must be skilled, and their role indisputably charges them with many management tasks. But those skills and managerial
abilities must be subordinated to the role of leader. At the optimal level, the ensemble experience should provide students with the opportunity to develop a part of themselves-their aesthetic sensitivity and artistic intelligence-in a unique and empowering way. If approached as music education through performance, instead of performance education through music, the ensemble experience can be the venue through which students learn how to perceive what is going on in the music, how to make artistic and creative decisions, and how to sing or play expressively. For this to happen, however, the conductor must go beyond traditional notions of leadership to a different approach in which the needs of the students, as well as the art, are served.
A new view of leadership from the podium is required if the ensemble is to grow and if its members are to function as artists rather than
artisans. The conductor who desires optimal growth for the individual and the group strives to serve the ensemble in all aspects of the job, from programmatic decisions to day-to-day methods used in rehearsal.
An Alternative View from the Podium: The Servant-Leader Approach
Though not a contemporary concept, the idea of servant leadership has recently been brought to prominence by Robert K. Greenleaf. In
his seminal essay “The Servant as Leader,” Greenleaf describes the essence of the servant-leader:
The servant-leader is servant first… it begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings
one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. For such, it will be a later choice to serve-after leadership is established. … The best test, and difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?
Initially, it may be difficult to fully understand what servant leadership really means because the term “servant” can conjure up several
negative images. For some, “servant” can imply someone who is weak, unskilled, unable to lead, incapable, or without freedom or creativity. Isn't serving the opposite of leading? How can these two terms go together? And what about all those courses and books on classroom management that say things like “don't smile until after Thanksgiving,” demanding the immediate establishment of “authority” and control? How does all that match up with the notion of servant leadership?
While such confusion is understandable, serving and leading are really two sides of the same coin. If the leader (in this case, the
conductor) always asks, “What is best for the students?”-he or she is leading by serving the students before considering personal needs and desires. This kind of conductor rejects the notion that leaders must be autocratic and trusts that all the musical goals will be reached if the focus is on serving the musicians and the music.
Thus, serving involves using one's gifts in ways that add value to others' gifts. In Leadership from the Inside Out, Kevin Cashman
discusses the relationship between purpose and service:
Purpose always serves-it is the manner in which we use our gifts to make a difference in the world. Purpose is not purpose without adding
value to others. It is not self-expression for its own sake; it is self-expression that creates value for those around you. Therefore, key into your gifts, but don't stop there. Focus on expressing your gifts to improve the lives of everyone and everything you touch.
Servant-leaders are not focused on displaying their gifts; rather, they use gifts to make a difference, to create positive change. In this way,
they serve rather than impose; they empower rather than control.
Conductors as Servant-Leaders
“Leadership focuses more on people than on things; on the long term rather than the short term; on developing relationship rather than o
methods, techniques, and speed,” observes Covey. In developing these priorities, one must understand that servant leadership is not an exact model; there is no prescribed “to-do list” that, when completed, qualifies one as a servant-leader. Rather, what is important is an approach to leadership that focuses on people, principles, and the “big picture.” Servant-leaders are recognized by several characteristics.
Service. Servant-leaders are primarily motivated by a desire to serve and to “see life as a mission, not as a career.” They have a passion
for their work, seeing it as a kind of calling. They understand and accept that they have a responsibility to others, and they see their gifts and endeavors as contributing to a larger whole, much greater than themselves.
As a conductor, the servant-leader demonstrates a passion for every aspect of the experience: the music, rehearsals, musicians, and
audience. Such conductors see their role as facilitating the student's entire musical experience, one that extends beyond the bounds of technical knowledge and skill. They realize that they stand between the music and the student's experience, and they consciously strive to be a doorway rather than a wall. Often these conductors, as students, were “servants”: they spent time during lunch or after school helping their band or choir director plan a tour, organize the music library, or run sectional rehearsals. And they did it because they wanted to help, to make things better-to serve.
Vision. Servant-leaders are, according to Greenleaf, “better than most at pointing the direction.” They have vision:
The leader needs two intellectual abilities that are usually not formally assessed in an academic way: he needs to have a sense for the
unknowable and be able to foresee the unforeseeable. Leaders know some things and foresee some things which those they are presuming to lead do not know or foresee as clearly.
This ability to have vision is one of the most telling differences between a conductor who is a leader and one who is only a manager.
Vision implies forward motion and growth, exploration, and risk, while managing tends to focus on efficiently maintaining the status quo.
For the conductor, vision is rooted in philosophy: What kind of program is this going to be? What are the musical and educational goals?
How do these fit into the bigger picture (the school district, the community, or state and national standards)? What unique gifts do I have that can move this program forward? Answers to questions like these help the conductor shape a plan for the future and provide a sense of forward momentum at all times.
Vision is also responsible for the every day managerial and pedagogical decisions. From choosing repertoire to scheduling performances
to deciding how to tier multiple ensembles within a program, the conductor with vision understands how these decisions relate to and impact everything and everyone, from the larger goals to each individual musician who walks through the doors.
For example, consider the issue of determining the number, size, and makeup of ensembles within a program. While there is no one
“right” way to design a program, the conductor's driving question should be “What will best serve the students?” Common practice may point toward a “bigger-is-better” mentality, but the servant-leader may opt for smaller ensembles to ensure that each student's individual contribution can be felt and each student's educational needs can be better met.
Another common issue has to do with seniority: tradition may dictate that seniority, rather than ability, is the main determinant for moving
students to upper-level ensembles. The servant-leader, however, understands the challenges presented by teaching varying ability levels in the same group-challenges of selecting repertoire and managing students; boredom or frustration-and may opt for ability-level grouping. In these examples, the common thread is not the decision itself, but the conductor's conscious choice to look beyond “what has always been done” to what may be best for given students at a given time in order to reach unified goals.
Perhaps the most artistic manifestation of the conductor's vision relates to the music itself. When choosing repertoire, the conductor asks,
“What will the ensemble learn from this piece? How will it help them grow individually and collectively?” When rehearsing, the question is “How can I help students understand the music more fully?” Focusing on these questions, the conductor strives to choose music that is expressive but not trite, challenging but not a mere exercise in technical skill. In rehearsal, the conductor resists an autocratic approach, involving students in creative decision making by asking questions rather than providing all the answers. “When students are being involved in creating art, they must be involved in making artistic decisions,” says Reimer. The National Standards support this approach by calling for students to listen to, analyze, describe, and evaluate the music that they perform, in addition to mastering the necessary technical skills.
In every case, the conductor's vision involves risk-taking by dealing with the “unknowable and unforeseeable.” Conductors without vision
are less likely to provide opportunities for aesthetic growth because they usually function on automatic pilot. Such managers tend to see only the obvious and do the expected, an approach that can seem bereft of vitality. This lack of energy will, sadly, be reflected in the music itself.
Responsiveness. Servant-leaders listen carefully to those they serve and accept responsibility for the situation:
The usual leader in the face of a difficulty tends to react by trying to find someone else on whom to pin the problem, rather than by
automatically responding: “I have a problem. What is it? What can I do about my problem?”
Conductors who are servant-leaders will understand that virtually every problem can in some way be tracked back to them. Without
becoming paranoid or unrealistic, these conductors recognize their responsibility for creating the learning environment and the overall atmosphere, as well as the actual curriculum and the day's rehearsal plan. If students are supposed to work out a weak spot in the music before the next rehearsal and they do not, then the students are responsible. But the servant-leader realizes that, at a greater level of responsibility, he or she may have failed to set up clear expectations or manage the rehearsal schedule well; or may have set a task before the ensemble in a coercive, rather than persuasive, way. This kind of awareness is necessary if conductors are to assume full responsibility.
Trust. Servant-leader set great standards of excellence by believing in other people. They trust others:
Truly, believing is seeing. We must, therefore, seek to believe in the unseen potential. This creates a climate for growth and opportunity.
Self-centered people believe that the key lies in them, in their techniques, in doing “their thing” to others. This works only temporarily. If you believe it's “in” them, not “in” you, you relax, accept, affirm, and let it happen. Either way, it's a self-fulfilling prophecy.”
This characteristic is one of the most important for servant-leaders. In dealing with those whom they serve, they must trust: trust that
individuals can accomplish the goal, that they possess untapped potential, and that, if they are shown where they can go, they will want to go there. For this atmosphere of trust to exist, conductors themselves must be trustworthy-they must be consistent and reliable in their daily attitudes, preparation, procedures, and methods, of dealing with people. An ensemble will have difficulty trusting the conductor who is a different person from day to day or situation to situation.
Once trust is established, accountability can legitimately take place. The ensemble that does not meet the conductor's high standards and
clear expectations should be held accountable in a professional way. This means honestly telling students: “this is not your best work. We could accept it, but you and I know it's not your best. You deserve to do better, and I'm here to help you get there. What do we need to do to make this better?”
Conductors who are servant-leaders cultivate a forward-looking atmosphere in rehearsal even if problems arise, because they always
expect growth. They do not view rehearsal as a process in which the ensemble has something done to it; rather, they look at rehearsal as the drawing out of the ensemble's potential. When there is always the expectation of growth, students remain excited about setting standards of excellence. When they achieve their goals (whether an excellent performance, a trophy, the mastery of a difficult passage, or a Division I rating), they realize that these accomplishments are the result of a regular, consistent, daily work, not the goal of that work. As Cashman says, “Achievements come as natural by-products of our connection to our purpose.”
Persuasion. Servant-leaders have a healthy perspective on power; they understand their potential influence and use it in persuasive,
rather than coercive, ways:
You can't have empowerment without first having trust. If you don't trust the people you are working with, then you must use control rather
than empowerment.
While on some level it may be true that tiles create leaders and positions create power, the essence of authentic power is influence.
Conductors, because their role is an especially visible one, must recognize this power to influence and use it in a positive way.
Autocratic leadership views power as coercion: “You will do this because I say so.” Servant leadership views power as persuasion:
“You will want to do this when you understand why.” Coercive power can take subtle forms-guilt trips, sarcasm, or musical punishment (extra rehearsals)-or can be more obvious (threats and displays of temper or frustration). Unfortunately, conductors are not only excused but sometimes deified when they exhibit these behaviors. Historically, conductor' fits and tantrums have been viewed as evidence of great artistic ability and passion. In reality, coercion has no place at the podium. The power of the music, strength of teaching, and quality of trust between the ensemble and conductor are the elements that work together to move the ensemble in the right direction. Coercion may appear to have the same or even better results, but these results tend t be short-lived and achieved at a greater cost. Greenleaf explains it in this way: “The trouble with coercive power is that it only strengthens resistance. And, if successful, its controlling effect lasts only as long as the force is strong. It is not organic.” Covey observes:
Coercive power is based on fear in both the leader and the follower. Leaders tend to lean on coercive power when they are afraid they
won't get compliance. It is the “big stick” approach. It is an approach that few publicly support but may use, either because it seems justified in the face of other, bigger threats hovering over the leader or it is the expedient thing to do and seems to work at the time. But its effectiveness is an illusion.
But what about students who do not choose to follow the leader, do not respond positively to the conductor, or challenge authority?
How does the servant-leader handle this situation? The guiding question in this approach is “What will best serve the students?” not “What do the students want?” With this critical clarification mind, the conductor understands that structure, clear expectations, and consistent consequences combine to form a foundation for serving the needs of the ensemble. When this foundation is accompanied by solid teaching methods, high- quality repertoire, and an authentic passion for the students and their experience, the conductor focuses on the music, not on managing the students. When challenges present themselves, they must be dealt with individually and immediately; broad labeling of all students in an ensemble is ineffective, creating barriers between the conductor and the ensemble and leading to low morale. Students who choose to be disruptive and uncooperative must understand that they will be dealt with in an appropriate manner. These interactions are best done outside rehearsal and without showing anger or degrading the individual in any way. Even in these situations, professionalism and respect for the student must be maintained.
Character. Servant-leaders understand that character counts of everything. They work to improve “from the inside out.” They “radiate
positive energy.” Cashman observes: “Managers control by virtue of their doing. Leaders lead by virtue of their being.”
Character, one of the most humbling and difficult of attributes, involves wrestling with the realization that who we are off the podium is
who we are on the podium. Although some conductors seem to have different personalities in different settings, their essential qualities-whether they are passionate, compassionate, detail-oriented, lackluster, angry, underconfident, or otherwise-will come out intentionally or unintentionally. Servant-leaders tend to be people whom others enjoy being around-they are attractive no because of charisma but because of purpose. Everyone wants to be a part of something purposeful and significant. Servant-leaders bring people to action because their internal compass is set for true north; people instinctively want to come along on the journey.
The Road to Servant Leadership
Leadership is many things: responsibility, influence, passion, and service. Leadership involves multiple sphere of influence, including, for
music educators, the ensemble. While the realization of the many facets of leadership can be daunting, the conductor wishing to grow as a leader should take heart in one very important fact: leadership can be learned.
The lifelong pursuit of excellence in leadership, as well as attempts to grow as a servant-leader on the podium, can be fueled by specific
actions. First, conductors must continue their own development as musicians. Though musical skill alone will not ensure leadership ability, a positive correlation exists between effectiveness as a leader and basic musical knowledge and ability. Without a solid musical foundation, conductors cannot offer students what they deserve. Leaders must, as part of their growth, “master the context” by remaining lifelong students of music, fully available to students and fully prepared to guide their learning.
Secondly, conductors must continue to work on refining their management skills, whether as managers of tasks or monitors of the
atmosphere in the rehearsal room. In the quest for excellence in leadership, good management techniques and managerial skills alone are not sufficient, but they are necessary to provide structure and consistency. Nothing can be accomplished in a chaotic, confused, or indecisive atmosphere. Leaders realize what the managerial needs are and find ways to take care of the details.
Finally, as conductors strive to be servant-leaders, they must prepare “from the inside out”-observing, interviewing, reading, and
reflecting. The focus needs to be more on the who than on the what, a message that, though not often verbalized, comes across clearly from the podium. When mistakes are made, they need to be admitted, learned from, and used to change direction. As Cashman concludes,
Ultimately, a leader is not judged so much by how well he or she leads, but by how well he or she serves. All value and contribution are
achieved through service. Do we have any other purpose in life but to serve? As leaders, we may think we're “leading,” but in reality we're serving.
George Bernard Shaw also gave food for thought in these observations about service:
This is the true joy in life-that of being used for a purpose recognized by yourself as a mighty one, that of being a force of nature instead of a
feverish, selfish little clod of ailments and grievances complaining that the world will not devote itself to making you happy. I am of the opinion that my life belongs to the whole community and, as I live it, it is my privilege to do for it whatever I can. I want to be thoroughly used up when I die. For the harder I work, the more I live. I rejoice in life for its own sake. Life is no brief candle to me. It is a sort of splendid torch which I've got to hold up for the moment and I want to make it burn as brightly as possible before handing it on to future generations. |
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Singing to serve: A Community Choir Makes Connections
This article is very good. It is aimed at pointing out the variety of things that are needed for starting up a good community choir and why a
community choir is important. A great deal of the things that it points out are related too service agencies.
I think this article is very useful it breaks all the things that need to be taken into consideration for a community choir and breaks them
down about as simply as possible. The mission statement as part of the article is great gives the reader a central focus kind of. This was very helpful. The discussion of the different performing groups from large to small and from one location to the next and how each will apply is very good, certainly something that needs to be taken into consideration and might sometimes be over looked. I know this from personal experience, my small choir group in high school performed at a few places where there just wasn't enough room for us. This probably could have been avoided if the teacher had considered things such as performance place and size of voices needed. Along with that making sure that there is a piano is also mentioned very good.
The Other most interesting and important thing that I found in this article is its mention of why a community choir is important. For the
exposure and pleasure that it brings to some. People in the community a lot of time will not go to see a performance but if you move it to where they are chances are they will be there and like it. Leading to them viewing and supporting more often. Every year before the opening night for our musical we all went to a local Italian fairly popular restaurant in town and we would always be so hyper and end up singing songs for people and we would get free food and a fair amount of people would make an effort to come and pick up the left over seats on the side for the show.
This article is very useful. If I had a choir to control I believe I would take it and maybe make myself a little checklist out of it just as a
reference point. One can forget many things when they get busy and it is good to have a point of reference. |
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