Pheromone Analysis Research involving pheromones have sparked some controversial debates about its physiological and behavioral effects. The wide spectrum of findings involving this compelling chemical have been potentially positive with some ambiguity that has produced some inconclusive results in humans, while providing definitive results in the ovoviviparous cockroach Nauphoeta cinerea. Overall, I found experimental methods of research to be the most credible. In one study, this method revealed apparent behavioral differences in controlled environments where subjects (beetles) were manipulated and later observed for mate guarding activities. Despite these generous findings, I declared the overall experiment to be inadequate, because researchers didn’t examine areas when synthetic pheromone wasn’t present. This lack of thoroughness seemed to be the case with most studies that I reviewed. While correlations between pheromones and their relation to attraction, selection, and the survival of certain species do appear to exist; the cause and effect relationship was better viewed in experimental procedures.

Website address: http://gateway1.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi Article titles: “Physiological and psychological effects of pheromones in human subjects” “Emergence, Mating, and Post mating Behaviors of the Oriental Beetle” “Females avoid manipulative males and live longer “Chemical and behavioral characterization of the rabbit mammary pheromone “ Sexual Differentiation of the Neuroendocrine Mechanisms Regulating Mate Recognition in Mammals

At times these experiences may include daydreams that can be labeled as positive, negative, scattered, or purposeful. Closely related to daydreams, psychologists study sleep, an altered state of consciousness characterized by a reduction in movement and decreased awareness of the surroundings. Sleep entails a variety of functions that involve cycles, stages, and rhythms that detail various physical changes within the body. Although seemingly simple, sleep has proven itself to be a complicated task for many. Sleep disorders like sleep talking, sleepwalking, night terrors, insomnia, apnea, and narcolepsy are problematic for sufferers. Sleep also involves dreams, another complicated experience that has produced several theories about the how’s and why’s of this vivid procession.

Drugs can be classified as depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. Alcohol, a particularly distressing depressant that can be experienced as a stimulant, has several diminishing effects on the body. As such, it’s America’s number one drug problem. Other depressants include barbiturates, and opiates. Stimulants that rouse the sympathetic nervous system producing feelings of optimism and boundless energy include those of amphetamines and cocaine. Other well-known stimulants include those of caffeine and nicotine. In stark contrast to depressants and stimulants, hallucinogens don’t seem to cause withdrawal effects. Popular hallucinogens include LSD and mescaline. Marijuana, another popular drug, has sparked controversial debates about its unlawfulness. Although it has scientifically proven physiological and psychological affects (that can be positive and negative depending on the circumstances of its use) people are concerned that it will follow alcohols detrimental path. On a seemingly less touchy note, to alleviate the need for drugs, some scientists also support meditation and hypnosis. As techniques that can alter consciousness, they are believed to work better when used in accordance with other methods (self-help groups) that can modify behavior through self-motivational and group encouragement. Learning about states of consciousness and the many facets surrounding them are vital components in ascertaining behavior, which is of particular interest to psychologists, along with mental processes.

I recalled a dream where I was dancing on large piano keys. I was happy and carefree.
I dreamed that I was looking down at a lifeless, bloody fetus. I recall feeling helpless and confused. I didn’t know what to do, so I just kept staring at this very bloody figure that was still attached to an umbilical cord.

I was so exhausted that I don’t remember anything. I dreamed that I had an argument with my Uncle. I was then taken to work by his daughter Yakita. Prior to this, I called Harris Teeter (a job I had as a teenager in high school) and spoke to an unknown person to say that I would be late, because Cathy Lee (my old Front End Manager) scheduled me for a time that I was unsure of. As we were traveling along Independence Blvd., I told my cousin that I would give her some gas money when I received my paycheck. She wasn’t pressed about it, which is in sync with the relationship that we now have as adults. As we approached Harris Teeter (which was now close to a car dealership), I jumped out of the car and ran (which didn’t seem like running at all, it was as if I was instantly there) into an unfamiliar place. Harris Teeter didn’t look the same. In fact it had been re-arranged, and I only ended up being 5 minutes late, which didn’t make sense because I didn’t call in until 12:46 pm. In a car, it’s impossible to get to Independence Blvd. from my cousins place of residence in 19 minutes. My families home telephone rang at 6:15 am and this interruption successfully ended this strange dream. I dreamed that I was building something yellow. I can’t recall what it was or why I was doing this. My bedside notes were incoherent.

Two forms of learning that have been studied extensively are those of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Elements of classical conditioning include: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Classical conditioning occurs only when a stimulus tells the learner something new or additional about the likelihood that an unconditioned stimulus will occur. To better understand classically conditioned learning, repeated pairings and spacing of pairings are techniques that generate responses. All manner of learning isn’t pleasant. When learning has been associated with a negative reaction/response, people turn to desensitization therapy to reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation.
Another aspect of classical conditioning involves Seligman’s theory of preparedness that explains why people are prone to fear certain stimuli like snakes. This theory illustrates the selective nature of classical conditioning and its evolutionary process that relates to survival.

When looking at classical and operant conditioning, a person better understands the shared features that they have. The major difference between the two is that in classical conditioning, the learning is passive and the behavior involved is usually involuntary. In operant conditioning, the learner is active and the behavior involved is usually voluntary. Learning also involves the formation of concepts, theories, ideas, and other mental abstractions that psychologists call cognitive learning. Other types of learning include insight, latent, and observational learning. Learning is much more than a pathway to knowledge. Learning entails associations; responses that come under the control of stimuli in the environment, contingencies, schedules, extinction and spontaneous recovery, and new behaviors that have the potential of building on previously established ones. All in all, behavior as it relates to learning is truly complex!

The Basic Dream Theme: The struggles and uncertainties of basic survival for humankind and the dysfunctional attitudes that this sometimes creates. The Theme-to-life: To be quite honest, my cousin had called me earlier in the week to tell me that she and her father were quarreling. I feel that this dream was a way for me to retaliate. I’m not confrontational, so it appears that I use my dreams to say things that I probably wouldn’t have the courage to say in person. My family is precious to me and I get very upset when one of them hurts. My uncle (who married my mother’s sister) has been a problem in our family for over 20 years. Currently my life is in transition. I’m about to re-enter the workforce. This will allow me to help my cousins who are suffering due to selfish behaviors
Universal Symbols: I think my cousin’s car exemplifies the direction that my life is taking with a new job that puts me in charge. I think my old job at Harris Teeter is symbolic of the workforce and how I worked with people, which is something that I plan to do again. The Harris Teeter uniform that I changed into most likely denotes structure and the need for it in my life and my uncle’s life. The people in my dream are people that value and love. Cathy Lee, my former front-end manager was someone who I admired because she balanced her career well with her family life.

Personal Symbols: The fact that I was unsure about my schedule illustrates my anxiety about starting my own business. Since my husband’s boss has been dropping hints about him being transferred, I’ve been a little worried as to whether or not I should proceed. My need to compensate my cousin with gas money shows my longing to be responsible. I don’t like taking people for granted. My mother always taught me to show respect and concern for people who are willing to help you when you need them the most.

Comparing memory capabilities to the functional uses of computers has aided psychologists in their understanding of information processes like encoding, storage, and retrieval of data. Since memory involves massive amounts of information, with social, emotional, and biological factors, we quickly understand how elaborate this ability is. With memory detailing so many life-enhancing skills, information processing has been broken down into several stages. The first stage concerns selecting material to think about and remember. This selection involves sensory registers (entry points for raw info. via the senses) and attention (the selection of incoming material for further processing). Information that we’re not directly focusing on does receive some initial processing, which explains shifts in our attention to other meaningful elements surrounding us.

Opposite STM is long-term memory that stores everything that we learn. LTM’s can store an enormous amount of info. for many years. Encoded info. for storage in LTM can be done so by nonverbal images and meaning. Characteristics of LTM’s include serial position effect (which shows how LTM and STM work together) and maintenance skills that include: rote rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal {linking of new material in STM to familiar material stored in LTM}, and schemata {a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience}. LTM’s can also be specified as episodic (personally experienced), semantic (facts and concepts), procedural (motor skills and habits) and emotional. Another way to distinguish certain types of memories is to determine whether they’re explicit (aware of knowledge) or implicit (unaware of knowledge) memories. Generally speaking, memories work together. One more aspect of memory pertains to its neural structures and pathways. This area leads us to the biology of memories, which remains an inconclusive study due to the how’s and where’s of memory formation and storage. Despite this, all learned material is recorded in the brain in the form of changes in the size, shape, chemical functioning, and connectedness of neurons. In turn, memories are widely dispersed throughout the brain and different kinds of memories tend to be concentrated in different locations. Still another aspect of memory deals with forgetting that can be caused by biological factors, inadequate learning, interferences (retroactive- new material affecting old and proactive- old material affecting new), situational factors (which accentuates environmental and internal cues), and the reconstructive process (which details the distortions of memory). Factors influencing memory may include: culture, autobiographical memory (form of individualistic memory), childhood amnesia, flashbulb memories (vivid events) and recovered memories (that can be insufficient). Despite memories superior capabilities, there are several ways to strengthen them including: retrieval cues, confidence, motivation, focusing, mental imagery, linking new and old material, practice, awareness of recall failures, and the incorporation of other tools like to-do lists. It’s easy to see how memory affects life and learning.

As an introverted person being reared by a hearing impaired mother and stepfather, studying people around me came naturally. I would always have to study facial features and the way that sign language emphasized certain actions and moods that were put into words for my understanding. As the oldest child with hearing and speech capabilities, I grew up fast with an attentive detail to the needs of other people around me. Therefore, the aspect of emotional intelligence that specifies the need to know others emotions has been captivated within me at an early age. My husband has described my ability to recognize others emotions as intuitively uncanny.

As a youngster focusing on being a leader, I had little time for myself. Despite that, as an adult, I think I know myself pretty well. If in fact the EQ test was valid, a score of 124 seems to be pretty reasonable in my self-assessment. If I had a choice to work on certain aspects of my life, I would learn how to handle time crunches better. As an on-the-go mom of twins, I tend to lose self-control when I’m running late. I’d like to manage this better by allowing myself more time and telling myself that it’s not the end of the world if I’m not on time all the time. Usually I have outbursts and find myself on time and feeling guilty that I yelled. In my opinion, yelling is inappropriate and it only promotes more yelling. I want to break the cycle once and for all and using these negative emotions to motivate myself into becoming a better mother and wife is an added bonus for self-improvement of emotional intelligence.

Physical, motor, cognitive, moral, language, and social skills are critical components that greatly influences stages of development throughout infancy and childhood. Some theoretical approaches (I.e., Piaget’s theory and language theories) have prompted controversial points of view, leading to in-depth investigations into overlooked aspects such as social interaction, the comprehensive abilities of infants, experience, interaction, and human diversity. Another controversial aspect of development involves the quality and quantity of television watching and the overall effects that it has on society as a whole. Adolescence, another influential time in life-span development, involves physical, cognitive, personality, and social developments that are generally marked by sexuality, identity formations, relationships, images, and emotions that are shaped by the interactions of people, environments, and biological factors. This in turn leads us to adulthood which distinctively entails developmental milestones like the formation and at times the ending of partnerships, parenthood, and careers that don’t occur at

theoretically timed phases or stages. Adults also undergo cognitive and personality changes which details practical ways to solve problems and feelings of productivity and creativity as they transition towards understanding the overall meanings of their life-span. This shift leads us to late adulthood, which entails life expectancy, retirement, sexuality, death, and the denouncing of common myths that define elderly citizens as incapable and dependent. While the physical changes can’t be denied nor fully explained, the maintenance of a personalized and healthy well being that includes positive attitudes, environments, and social developments play a key role in the satisfaction, adaptability, and enduring qualities that are seemingly characteristic in the lives of most elderly people.

With sleep ailment classifications being so distinct, so as not to confuse them one with another (particularly nightmares and night terrors), do people that suffer from night terrors share similar problematic dilemmas? If so, what are they? Research into common parasomnias has found that “[h]igh anxiety scores were found in children suffering from night terrors (Laberge, Tremblay, Vitaro & Montplaisir, 2000, 67). This controlled study also cited sleepwalking, somniloquy (sleep talking), leg restlessness, sleep bruxism (teeth grinding), and body rocking as other parasomnias that frequently accompany night terrors (Laberge et al, 2000, 67). Other studies conducted by researchers in France using polysomnography found that “sleep-disordered breathing seems to be frequently associated with parasomnias during slow wave sleep, emphasizing the utility of performing esophageal pressure monitoring in cases of sleep walking or night terror” (Espa, Dauvilliers, Ondze, Billiard & Besset, 2002, 871). Moreover, in preschool-aged children, “sleep problems have been correlated with childhood behavior problems and have also been associated with several child psychiatric disorders, including ADHD, mental retardation, and childhood depression” (Stein, Mendelsohn, Obermeyer, Amromin &Benca, 2001, Conclusion section, para. 4). Furthermore, Drs. Vgontzas and Kales have cited genetic, developmental, organic, and psychological factors as projected causes of parasomnias (1999, 392).

Newer research, aimed at attaining a more in depth understanding of night terrors, suggests that former research was indeed advancing in the right direction. In 2003, researchers utilized expansive inquiry methods and standardized evaluations including: 1) Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire’s; 2) interviews regarding child’s medical and sociofamilial history, orthodontic history, schooling, psychological difficulties, medication intake, and family history of medical and sleep disorders; 3) general pediatric physical examination and neurologic, otolaryngological, and craniofacial examination by a specialist; 4) obtaining medical history on variables relevant to early life sleep disorders; 5) polysomnography, which included electroencephalogram, chin and leg electromyelogram, right and left electro-oculogram, and electrocardiogram; respiration was monitored with a nasal cannula/pressure transducer system, mouth thermistor, chest and abdominal bands, pulse oximeter, and neck microphone; respiratory effort was Night Terrors 5 monitored with calibrated esophageal manometry; variables were collected on a computerized sleep system; and 6) available family members with a positive history of sleep terrors and sleepwalking received clinical evaluations similar to those used for index cases; they also underwent ambulatory monitoring with an Edentrace system, which monitors heart rate, body position, oro-nasal flow, chest impedance, breathing noises (neck microphone), and pulse oximetry. Subjects used logs to record “lights out” time, “lights on” time, nocturnal awakenings, and other events that occurred during the night. All original and follow-up recordings were rescored by 2 of 4 randomly selected specialists who were blind to subject identity. Mann- Whitney U tests [were] used for group comparison. Nonparametric x2 test was used to compare percentages of symptoms in symptomatic children versus control children. (Guilleminault et al, 2003, Methods section, para. 1) Results of these numerous methods were quite promising to say the least. “Forty-three of 49 children with SDB (sleep disordered breathing) were treated with tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy, and/or turbinate revision, and 2 of 2 children with RLS (restless leg syndrome) were treated with Pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, at bedtime.” “Treatment of these precipitating sleep disorders eliminated parasomnias in all 45 children” (Guilleminault et al, 2003, Results section, para. 1). Conclusions in this elaborate study determined that the departure of parasomnias, with successive treatments of the SDB or RLS, suggests that they (SDB’s and RLS’s) may actually be the cause of sleep disorders in prepubertal children (Guilleminault et al, 2003). These studies also found genetic associations in twin cohort studies, although it remains to be investigated whether a genetic factor directly influences sleep terror or other disorders that fragment sleep and lead to confusional arousals (Guillemniault et al, 2003). Treatments of night terrors and other prevalent sleep disorders aren’t always successfully managed with surgical treatments. “The most important consideration in managing episodic sleepwalking or night terrors is protection from injury” (Vgontzas, A.N., & Kales, A., 1999, 393). Other ways to manage night terrors, specifically in adults, include “[d]rugs that suppress stage 3 and stage 4 sleep, such as diazepam and Night Terrors 6 flurazepam” (Vgontzas, A.N., & Kales, A., 1999, 393). Drs. Vgontzas and Kales also recommend the use of clonazepam, psychotropic medications, and neuroleptic drugs for particular circumstances and situations depending on the severity and age groups of diagnosed sleep disorder sufferers (1999, 393). As research demonstrates, sleep problems are strongly related to psychological and medical problems (Stein et al, 2001). Research even goes as far as suggesting that genetics (Guilleminault et al, 2003;Vgontzas, A.N., & Kales, A., 1999) play a role in shaping night terrors in families plagued by them. Although all methods of eliminating night terrors aren’t always surgically invasive, linking them to other parasomnias have produced remarkable results. Being that night terrors have the capability of evolving into serious problems, early diagnostics and preventative treatments are likely to inhibit acute adult traumas. These significant findings leave me no other choice but to conclude that night terror research is undoubtedly worthy of intense medical explorations and examinations by the brilliant minds of professionals seeking to understand and inform others about their comprehensive causes, effects, and treatments.

References

Espa, F., Dauvilliers, Y., Ondze, B., Billiard, M., & Besset, A. (2002). Arousal Reactions in Sleepwalking and Night Terrors in Adults: The Role of Respiratory Events. Sleep, 25 (8), 871-75. Guilleminault, C., Biol, D., Palombini, L., Pelayo, R., & Chervin, R.D. (2003). Sleepwalking and Sleep Terrors in Prepubertal Children: What Triggers Them? Pediatrics Online, 111, e17-25. Retrieved October 23, 2003, from http://pediatrics.aapublications.org/cgi/content/full/111/1/e17 Laberge, L., Tremblay, R.E., Vitaro, F., Montplaisir, J. (2000). Development of Parasomnias From Childhood to Early Adolescence. Pediatrics, 106, 67-74. Ohayon, M.M., Guilleminault, C., & Priest, R.G. (1999). Night Terrors, Sleepwalking, and Confusional Arousals in the General Population: Their Frequency and Relationship to Other Sleep and Mental Disorders. [Electronic Version] Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, (4), 268-76. Retrieved October 29, 2003, from http://www.psychiatrist.com/private/cme/cme6004.htm Stein, M.A., Mendelsohn, J., Obermeyer, W.H., Amromin, J., & Benca, R. (2001). Sleep and Behavior Problems in School-Aged Children. Pediatrics Online, 107, (4), e60. Retrieved October 21, 2003, from http://pediatrics.aapublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/4/e60 Vgontzas, A.N., Kales, A. (1999). Sleep and Its Disorders. Annual Review of Medicine, 50, 387-400.

Psychologists use four basic tools to measure personality: the personal interview, direct observation of behavior, objective tests, and projective tests. Overall, every personality theory has received some degree of criticism. While points have been made to justify scientific claims of accuracy or inaccuracy and immeasurable or measurable components, the usefulness of each individual theory has been evident in one aspect or another in determining its direct relation to surveying something as controversial, complex, and as unique as the personality make-up of living beings.

With stress affecting a person’s heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and perspiration, a great deal of work takes place within the body’s make-up when stress is introduced. Long-lasting effects of stress that exposes the human body to powerful biological changes are expressly apparent in (GAS) areas of exhaustion and resistance, causing grave concerns for the health and well-being of sufferers. People who respond to life events with impatience, hostility, competitiveness, urgency, and constant striving are labeled as exhibiting Type A behavior patterns, thereby predicating coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death and disability in the United States. Stress has also been implicated in disrupting the functioning of the immune system, which involves matters like common colds and intense illnesses like cancer. Some extreme sources of stress include unemployment, divorce and separation, bereavement, catastrophes, combat and other threatening personal attacks. Ways to alleviate stress, since it can’t be totally avoided, include finding ways to calm down like exercising, relaxing techniques like breathing exercises, reaching out to friends, family, and the church, helping others, and learning to cope effectively by positively anticipating it with preparations and good humor. Others ways to cope with extreme stress include patience, open-communication, joining qualified support groups, eating well, resting, avoidance of alcohol and drugs, and incorporating or reestablishing a regular routine. While being a well-adjusted person is conducive to well-being, its overall clarity is based on individual needs and inward desires that promote growth and fulfillment, not standards set by norms and society at large. In my opinion, this realization is powerfully gratifying in itself. If all else fails, checking your personality may provide answers since research has shown it to be a strong and consistent predicator of happiness over a period of years.

C) Reaction Formation is an exaggerated expression of emotions or ideas that are the opposite of what we really feel or believe. When my sisters ex-boyfriend asked for a paternity test, I said that I couldn’t believe that he would do such a thing. In hindsight, this was a contradictory statement, because I was in disbelief about my own children’s paternity and I was the one who birthed them. D) Projection is attributing one’s motives and feelings to others. When my husband and I lost our first child, I felt inadequate, sad, and depressed, but I covered up those feelings and projected them onto my husband so I could cope with them better.

E) Sublimation is the redirection of motives or emotions into more socially acceptable forms. I never really experienced a normal childhood. It was as if I always had to be the responsible adult. To overcome this, I’m opening my own daycare to experience this from a truly adult perspective, thereby affording children an opportunity to enjoy the norms of childhood like painting, singing, coloring, and playing outdoors. F) Regression is the reversion to less mature, even childlike behavior. When my sister and I got into an argument (as adults), it was as if we both regressed into children. We were shouting and screaming, ranting and raving like two little kids in a playground brawl. My husband said it was quite a sight.