ࡱ>      7 bjbjUU -(7|7|l(((((((<????,?<hAAAAAAAAuwwwwww$^ ~6(AAAAA\H((AA\H\H\HAr(A(Au\HAu\HH\HH1U'((9AA _̀<=?B}9<Ư0%,\H9\H<<(((( The Stylistics Analysis Of Bengali Language By SUBHABRATA BANERJEE. The Stylistics Analysis of Bengali Language is a dissertation submitted for the attainment of D.Litt Degree in the Univerity of Calcutta India under the kind guidance of Professor Somnath Bhattacharya and Professor Subhadra Kumar Sen in the Department of Linguistics on the Subject of Natural Language Processing. CERTIFICATES: THE THESIS COMPLETION CERTIFICATE WILL BE AVAILABLE IN THE HARD COPY OF THE THESIS. FOR ANY KIND OF QUESTION A PERSON MAY CONTACT THE CONVENOR, PH.D.COMMITTEE, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA,87/1,COLLEGE STREET, KOLKATA. 700073.INDIA. DISCLAIMER: The Copyright of the thesis rests with the Registrar, University of Calcutta,Kolkata and many portions of the research work are guarded by US Patent laws and International Copyright laws lying with various journal and International Conference Bodies. To copy/modify any part of the work without proper permission in any form thus violates the law of dissertations of the University of Calcutta and is a punishable offence by law. Summary Introduction about/to Sanskrit language The laborers of the general school of Sanskrit grammar reached a climax in the grammarian Panini, whose textbook, containing the facts of the language cast into the highly artful and difficult form of about four thousand algebraic formula like rules (in the statement and arrangement of which brevity alone in had in view, at the cost of distinctness and unambiguousness), because for all after time the authorative, almost sacred, norm of correct speech. By the term classification or later languages, as constantly used in grammar is meant the language of those literary monuments which are written in conformity with the rules of the native grammar: virtually, the whole proper Sanskrit literature. Phonology of Sanskrit Grammar If more constants than one precedes the vowel, forming with it a single syllable, their characters must be combined in to a single compound character. the short a has no written sign at all; the consonant sign itself implies a following a unless some other vowel sign is attached to it. In some cases, however, there is more or less abbreviations or disguise independent form of a consonant sign in combination. The Hindu grammarians call the different sounds, and the characters representing the, by a kara (smaller) added o the sound of the letter, if a vowel, or to the letter followed by a, if consonant. Thus the sound or character a is called akara, and a, ka, etc. are used alone. Declensions Gender. Declensional forms are made by the addition of endings to the stem, or base of inflection. Paradigm According to the distributionalists, discovers of syntagmatic relationship constitutes the fundamental object of linguistic investigation, for language is above all a combinatorial system. The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns all of which are inflected in essentially the same manner. detail treatment of case is given while treating paninian aspect. (ii) Conjugation : The subject of conjugation or verbal inflection involves, as in the other languages of the family, the dissentions of voice, tense, mode number and person. The middle forms outside the present system (for which there is a special passive inflection) and sometimes also within that system, are liable to be used likewise in a passive sense. a So -called pluperfect. The Present System : it is composed of the present tense with its modes, its participles, and its preterit which we have called the imperfect. The perfect system: It is composed of the perfect tense (with, in the Veda, its modes and its preterit, the so-called pluperfect) and its participle. The aorist system: It is simple reduplicated and sibilant composed of the aorist tense along with, in the later language, its "precaution" optative (but in the verb with its various modes and its principles). The future systems: 1. In the classical Sanskrit, there remains a single infinitive, of accusative case - form, having nothing to do with the tense-systems. A so-called gerund (or absolute) - being, like infinities, a stereotypes case - from of a derivative noun - is a part of the general verb-system. The secondary conjugation. 1. the passive; 2. the intensive, 3. the derivative, 4. the causative. In these, a conjugation-stem, instead of the simple root, underlies the whole system of inflection. Under the same general head belongs the subject of denominative conjugation, or the conservation of noun and objective - stems into conjugation - stems. The characteristic of a proper (finite or personal) verb-form in its personal ending. The general participle endings are ant. Augment: The augment is a short a, prefixed to a tense - stem - and if the latter begin with a vowel, combining with the vowel irregularly into the heavier or viddhi diphthong. The general principle of reduplication in the prefixation to a root of a part of itself repeated - if it begins with consonants, the initial consonant and the vowel, if it begins with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or with a following consonant. Derivative or Secondary Conjugation Causative; V. Denominative. 1. Passive: The passive has a special present system, the stem of which in present only, and did not made the basis of any of the remaining forms: this stem is formed with the accounted class - sign ya', and it takes the middle endings. This present-system is treated with the others. In the remaining tenses, the middle forms are used also in a passive sense. It is decidedly less extended beyond the limits of a present-system than any other of the derivative conjugation. The grammarians tenth that any noun stem is the language may be converted, without other addition than that of an a (as union vowel enabling it to be inflected according to the second general conjugation) into a present-stem and conjugated as such. Demonstratives are formed at every period in the history of the language, from the earliest down. DIVISION OF VEDIC AND CLASSICAL SANSKRIT AND SCOPE OF VEDIC An Introduction to Vedic Grammar Hundreds of Panini's sutras deal with the language of the Vedas; but the account they give of it in anything but comprehensive. Phonology in Vedic Grammar Evidence throwing light on the phonetic character of the language of the Samhitas is furnished not only by the pronunciation of its sounds by the Brahmanas of to-day, who still recite those texts, but also by the transcription of Sanskrit words in foreign languages, particularly Greek, in ancient times; by the summary information contained in the works of the old Sanskrit grammarians, Panini and his successors, and more especially by the detailed statements of the Pransakhyas and the Siksas. CLASSICAL SANSKRIT Panini composed the bulk of the classical Sanskrit literature at a period very much later than the fixing of the language. We have therefore in the Epics extensive documents of Sanskrit belonging to a period wearer to Panini than the classical literature in the narrow sense. Among the common deviations of the Epic language a few characteristic types may be quoted. The distinction between the active and middle forms of the verb, which was still fully alive in Panini's time, and for which he later in some detail, in beginning to be blurred in the Epic, Active forms are used for middle and vice-versa, and even the passive verb sometimes takes active endings. The careful rules of Panini concerning the use of the alternative forms ate and anti in forming the feminine of present particles are not strictly observed. The language of the Epics served also as a model for the language of the puranas, of which the earliest core dates to the same period. The special characteristics of classical Sanskrit arise from that most of the literature dates from a period very much later than the period in which the form of the language was fixed. If Kalidasa is to be dated (AD 450 a period of no loss than sight hundred years separates him from the grammarian Panini. The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions (e.g. of Rudradaman, A.D. 150) show the existence of a developed Sanskrit Kavya. The dates given for Panini are pure guesses. Panini was a Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Sanskrit was the classical literary language and Panini is considered the founder of the language and literature. It is interesting to note that the word "Sanskrit" means "complete" or "perfect" and it was thought of as the divine language, or language of the gods. A treatise called Astadhyayi (or Astaka ) is Panini's major work. Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 basic elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, consonants he put them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. is explained as ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to modern theory. [Sanskrit's] potential for scientific use was greatly enhanced as a result of the thorough systemisation of its grammar by Panini. On the basis of just under 4000 sutras [rules expressed as aphorisms], he built virtually the whole structure of the Sanskrit language, whose general 'shape' hardly changed for the next two thousand years. An indirect consequence of Panini's efforts to increase the linguistic facility of Sanskrit soon became apparent in the character of scientific and mathematical literature. Joseph goes on to make a convincing argument for the algebraic nature of Indian mathematics arising as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit language. In particular he suggests that algebraic reasoning, the Indian way of representing numbers by words, and ultimately the development of modern number systems in India, are linked through the structure of language. Panini should be thought of as the forerunner of the modern formal language theory used to specify computer languages. There are other works which are closely associated with the Astadhyayi which some historians attribute to Panini, others attribute to authors before Panini, others attribute to authors after Panini. We also promised to return to a discussion of Panini's dates. One can use this technique and see who Panini mentions. There are ten scholars mentioned by Panini and we must assume from the context that these ten have all contributed to the study of Sanskrit grammar. Well of course Panini uses many phrases to illustrate his grammar any these have been examined meticulously to see if anything is contained there to indicate a date. There are references by others to Panini. Let us end with an evaluation of Panini's contribution by Cardona in [1]:- Panini's grammar has been evaluated from various points of view. It was written circa 400 BC by the Indian grammarian Panini, and it describes the grammar completely. It has 3,995 language rules but also covers historical, social, and geographical subjects. Panini The Astadhayi, also called Astaka in a grammar of Sanskrit. It consists of eight (asta) chapters (ad hyaya), further subdivided into quarter chapters (pada) and contains about 4,000 rules called Sutra, preceded by a catalog of sounds itself subdivided into 14 groups and variously called the pratyahara - sutras ("abbreviation sutras"), Siva-sutras, and mahesvara - sutras. In those rules Panini refers to groups of verbs and nominal bases in various ways. These bases appear in two ancillaries to the corpus of rules, a catalog of roots called the dhath-patha and a catalog of nominal bases called gana-patha. (a) A detailed survey of Panini's grammar. (b) Panini on Ellipsis and stylistics (c) Application of rules in Bengali and Hindi General Review of Panini Panini's grammar is descriptive, not prescriptive (Staal, 1965: 109). The rulers of the grammar serve to derive forms, which accord with correct usage. These rules (sutra) are also called laksana characteristic, that by which... is characterise, that is, to explain by derivation, the forms of correct usage. These correct forms are, accordingly, called laksya that which is to be characterized. Basic to this derivational system is the distinction between bases (prakrti) and affixes (pratyaya). The grammar provides for introducing affixes after bases under given conditions to derive items terminating in verbal or nominal endings. These are called pada. The bases themselves are of two general types: verb roots (dhatu) and nominal bases (pratpadika). In addition, bases are either primitive or derived primitive verb roots appear in the dhater-patha. Applying rules of the grammar gets derived bases. Derived verb roots are formed from both primitive roots and nominal forms. Derived nominal bases too are gotten from both verb roots and nominal forms. Bases such as pak-a-'cooking', pac-aka 'cook' are derived from the root pea by introducing the primary affixes (called krt) ghan (=a and nvul (=aka) respectively. From nominal forms are derived compounds such as raja purus a 'king's man' and items such as anpagava 'descendent of upagu, tatra 'there' which contain affixes called taddhitas. Some rules state meanings as conditions: affix A is introduced after I when meaning M is denoted. Some rules state co occurrence conditions : affix A is introduced after item I if item] is introduced. Similarly, to the pada upagu - as can be introduced the taddhita affix a form upagu - as - a, when we derives aupagava. In introducing affixes to denote Quarks, primly is granted to verb affixes. The substituted r and replacements can be bases, affixes or sounds alone. Panini' System; Studies of general aspect. There has not been published to date in European language a single work in which Panini's total system is et froth clearly an with insight . The most ambitious work attempting to give a full picture of Panini's system in a European language is by Vidya Niwas Misra (1966). Panini operates with a syntactic system, and his principal aim was to provide a word analysis, but he also notes that Panini's karaka system implies a sentences analysis. It cannot be defined that Panini does deal with syntactic relations and relations among certain kinds of sentences. In recent years, several papers have appeared in which is treated Panini' derivational system is general, including syntax, S.D. Joshi (1969) deals with Panini's syntactic system and illustrates the complete derivation of a sentence by Paninian rules. Rules of the section beginning with 3.1.1 through the fifth chapter, introduce units classed as affixes. This large section of rules has subsections ; rules which introduce post verbal affixes denoting in and ap, taddita addition rules. Rules under the heading of 6.1 .84 . Rules of the section beginning with 6.4.1 state operation for padas. The final three quarter chapters-called the hiptadi - constitute a separate section, the rules of which don not generally operands for rules of the preceding seven and one quarter chapters. The major types of rules are: definition (samjna - sutra), metarules(paribhasa), headings (adhikara - sutra), operational rules (vidhi - sutra), restrictions (niymma - sutra), extension rules (desa - sutra), negation rules (nisedha-sutra). In Paninian parlance, a definition or meta rule forms a single utterance (eka-vakya) with the rules it serves to interpret Two views are hold concerning this. The partyachara sutra: These fourteen aphorisms contain the arrangement of Sanskrit alphabets for grammatical purposes. The Sutras Sutra no. 1 (Book 1. Chapter 1) Sutra n. 22 (Book 1. Chapter 1) Sutra No. 2b. (Book 1 Chapter 1). The affixes xta and ktavatu are called NisthA Sutra no. 27 (Book 1. Chapter 1) The words sarva, 'all' and the rest are called Sarvanama or pronouns Sutra no. 28 (Book 1. chapter 1) Sutra No. 29 (Book 1. Chapter 1) The words srav & c are not sarvanama. Sutra no. 30 Sutra no. 31 (book 1 Chapetr 1) Sutra no. 32 Sutra no. 33 Sutra no. 35 Sutra no. 36 Sutra no. 42 The affix Si is called sarvanamasthana Sutra no. 58 Sutra no. 59 Before an affix, having an initial vowel, which causes reduplication, the substitute which takes the place of a vowel in like the original vowel even in form, only for the purposes of reduplication and no further. Sutra no. 60 Book 1. Sutra No. 49 Sutra no. 50 Sutra no. 51 Sutra no. 52 Sutra no. 63 Sutra no. 64 Book 1. Sutra no. 6 The lit or perfect Tense affixes after the roots indhi 'to kindle' and buce' to become' are also kit. Sutra no. 7 Sutra no. 8 Sutra no. 9 The affix san beginning with a letter of Pratyahara jhal in like kit, after verbs ending in ik vowels. Sutra no. 10 And after a root ending in a consonant and preceded by a vowel of the pratya hara ik, the affix san beginning with a jhal consonant, is like kit. Sutra no 11 After roots ending in a consonant, the adjoins a vowel of ik prtyahara, the substitutes of lin and sich when they begin with a consonant of jhal pratyahara, are kit, when the atmanepada affixes below. Sutra no. 12 Sutra no. B Sutra no. 14 The sich atmanepada affixes are kit after the root has 'to kill'. Sutra no. 15 The affix sich before Atmanepada affix as, is kit after the verb yam, when meaning 'to divulge'. Sutra no.16 Sutra no. 17 The affix sich before Atmanepada affixes, in kit after stha ' to stand' and ghu verbs, and these verbs change their A in to 1 before these terminations. Sutra no. 18 The affix ktva when it takes the argument it is not kit. Sutra no. 19 Sutra no. 20 Sutra no. 21 Sutra no. 22 Sutra no. 23 Sutra no. 24 AShTAdhyAyI (AD) and Indian Linguistic Tradition (ILT) Panini's grammar AD (approximately 7th BCE) is important for linguistic computation for two reasons. One, it provides a comprehensive and rule based account of a natural language in about 4000 rules - the only complete grammatical account of any language so far. SOUND CLASSES (phonetic module) | RULE-BASE (parser/grammar module) | LEXICONS (lexical interface modules) The possibility that a Natural Language (NL) parser based on Panini can help analyze Indian languages has gained momentum in recent years. Panini was a culmination of a long tradition of unbroken tradition of linguistic thought in India which started with the Vedas about 5000 years ago. Kapoor (1993) has divided the Indian linguistic tradition in four phases - Phase I: earliest times up to Panini Speculations in shruti texts, four of the six vedangas (vyAkaraNa, chanda, nirukta, shikShA), work of Yaska, Rk PrAtishAkhya, AcAryas mentioned by Panini. Phase II: PANini up to Anandavardhana (9th CE) AD of PANini, vArttika of Katyayana, mahAbhAShya of Patanjali, mImAmsAsUtra of Jaimini, vAkyapadIya of Bhartrhari, works on poetics from Bharata up to Annandavardhana. Phase III: Ramachandra (11th CE) to Nagesh Bhatta (18th CE) Pedagogical grammars based on Panini's AD. Phase IV: Franz Kielhorn onwards Modern textual interpretations and machine analysis of language. AD has 8 chapters divided into 4 padas. For example sUtra 1.1.1 (vRRiddhirAdaic) is adhyaya one, pada one and sUtra one. akSharasamAmnAya (14 sUtras called shiva-sUtras) (AS) sUtrapATha (4000 sUtras - 3983 in kAshikAvRRitti) (SP) dhAtupATha (1967 verb roots - 2014 including kaNDvAdi roots) (DP) . gaNapATha (other pertinent items like primitive nominal bases, avyayas) (GP) The SP is Panini's comprehensive rule base for Sanskrit. Panini tells us how to form a pratyAhAra (sigla) - where Nj=Number of sounds in group j (like 3,2,2,2...in the 14 groups) i = element number in group j, k = group number of it. Panini uses these sound classes for calling in his rules using this mechanism. For example the sUtra Here Panini has used the pratyAhAra 'aK' [a I u RRi LLi] from SS 1 -2 and says that the operation of vowel lengthening will operate on the list called 'aK' la] from SS 1 - 6 ? Panini has given the answer. sUtras are verb-less sentences unlike those in natural language and give an impression of formulae or program like code. samjna (introduce class and conventions) Example: supti~Nantam padam(1.4.14) ' bases ending in nominal case affixes (suP) or verbal affixes (ti~N) are called padas (syntactic words) This rule restricts the application of previous rule sheShoghyasakhi (1.4.7). The DP lists about 1967 verb roots (2014 including kaNDvAdi roots) distributed in 10 conjugation classes (gaNas) to undergo peculiar operations. Other technical devices of Panini Besides, Panini uses many abbreviations like suP, ti~N, kRRit etc for different sets of affixes for the purpose of brevity. Similarly, 'ti~N' denotes verb affixes from `tiP' to `mahi~N'. Panini's samj~nA sUtras introduce various other such classes and abbreviations that are to be called in the sUtras - vRRiddhi (1.1.1), guNa (1.1.2), anunAsika (1.1.8), savarNa (1.1.9), hrasva-dIrgha-pluta (1.1.27), udAtta-anudAtta-svarita (1.2.29-31), samprasAraNa (1.1.45),prAtipadika (1.2.45), pada (1.4.14), amredita (8.1.2), niShThA (1.1.26) etc. In case of a match, the words of dissimilar case endings from the previous sUtra will be understood in the later sUtra. For example, the rule `AdguNaH' (3.1.87) will read `at' (abl.sing.5-1) `aci' (loc.sing.7-1 from `ikah yaNaci' 6.1.77) `samhitAyAm' (loc. sing. 7-1) `pUrvaparayoH'(loc. sing.7-1) `ekaH'(nom.sing.1-1 from 6.1.84) `guNaH'(nom.sing.1-1 from 6.1.87) `bhavati'(part of convention). The sandhi or euphonic combination of sounds can take place between vowels and vowel, vowels and semivowels, semivowels and semivowels, consonants and consonants, and between visarga and other sounds. Among some of the general rules for such morphophonemic combinations, the following can be noted - vowel lengthening: akaH savarNe dIrghaH (6.1.101) +cons -> +voice /- +voice +cons -> +cons /- +cons dental retroflex retroflex +cons -> +cons /- +cons -nas +nas +nas The purpose of Panini's derivational process is to generate complete syntactic words called padas which Panini defines as `supti~Nantam padam' (that is, bases with either 21 suP affixes or 9+9 ti~N affixes). Padas with suP affixes constitute the NPs (subanta pada), and those with the ti~N affixes can be called VPs (ti~Nanta pada). The verb roots also are either basic or derived. The affix `L' is introduced after a verb root to mark temporal situations (by ten lakAras like laT,liT...) agent. which consists of related padas (p) in which the nominal affixes (En) and verbal affixes (Ev) follow the respective bases. `vAkya' does not come under Panini's samj~nA category. Panini's rules pertaining to kAraka explain a situation in terms of action (kriyA) and factors (kArakas) which have a function in the accomplishment of action. The present tense equivalent in Panini, `laT', expresses agent-ship, goal, or goal-less state (intransitivity). Panini's is an essentially formal system which suits very well for computation with little formalization. This fact leaves ample scope for language processing insights from Panini. The NLP/Computational Linguistics community has already started using Panini as a model for Indian languages with reasonable success. It may be interesting to see if Paninian formalism will work for other languages of the Indo European family. Introduction about/to Sanskrit language The name Sanskrit (san skrta, 1087d, adorned, elaborated, perfected) which is popularly applied to the whole ancient and sacred language of India, belongs more properly only to that dialect which, regulated and established by the labours of the Indian grammarians, has led for the last two thousand years or more an artifical life, like that of the Latin during most of the same period in Europe, as the written and spoken means of communication of the learned and priestly caste; and which even at the present day fills that office. It is thus distinguished, on the one hand, from the later and derived dialects as the Prakrit, forms of language, which have datable monuments from as early as the third century before earliest, and which are represented by inscriptions and coins, by the speech of the uneducated characters in the Sanskrit dramas and by a limited literature, the Pail, a Parrot dialect which became the sacred language of Buddhism in Middle India and is still in service and yet later and more altered tongues forming the transmission to the languages of modern India. And, on the other hand, it is distinguished, but very much less sharply and widely, from the older dialects or forms of speech presented in the canonical literature, the Veda and Brahmana. This act, of the fixation of learned treatment of an authorized mode of expression, which should henceforth be used according to rule in the intercourse of the educated, in the cardinal one in Indian linguistic history; and as the native grammarian literature has determined the form of the language by European scholars. Much in the history of the learned movement is still obscure, and opinions are at variance even as to points of prime consequence. Only the concluding works in the development of the grammatical science have been preserved to us; and though they are evidently the perfect fruits of a long series of learned labours, the records of the latter are lost beyond recovery. The time and the place of the creation of Sanskrit are unknown; and as to its occasion, we have only our inferences and conjectures to rely upon. It seems, however, altogether likely that grammatical sense of the ancient Hindus, was awakened in great measure by the study of traditional sacred texts, and by their comparison of its different language with that of contemporary use. It is certain that the grammatical study of those texts (cakhas, branches), phonetic and other, was zealously and effectively followed in the Brahmanic schools, this is attested by our possession of a number of phonetico-grammatical realizes, tactical khyas (prati sakhan belonging to each each other several text), each having for subject one principal vedic text, and nothing all its peculiarities of form; these both by the depth and exactness of their own researches and by the number of authorities which they quote, speak plainly of a lively scientific activity continued during a long time. What past, on the other hand, the notice of differences between the correct speech of the learned and the altered dialects of the vulgar may have borne in the same movement is not easy to determine; but it is not customary that a language has its proper usages fixed by rule until the danger is distinctly fact of its undergoing corruption. The laborers of the general school of Sanskrit grammar reached a climax in the grammarian Panini, whose textbook, containing the facts of the language cast into the highly artful and difficult form of about four thousand algebraic formula like rules (in the statement and arrangement of which brevity alone in had in view, at the cost of distinctness and unambiguousness), because for all after time the authorative, almost sacred, norm of correct speech. Especially his period, nothing really definite and trustworthy is known; but he is with much probability held to have lived some time (two or more centuries) before the Christian era. He has had commentators in abundance, and has undergone at their hands some measure of amendment and completion; but he has not been overthrown or superceded. The chief and most authoritative commentary on his work is that called the Mahabhasya great comment, by Patanjali. A language, even if not a vernacular one, which is in tolerably wide and constant use for writing and speaking in, of course, kept in life principally by direct tradition, by communicating from teacher to scholar and the study and imitation of existing texts, and not by the learning of grammatical rulers; yet the existence of grammatical authority, and especially of a single one, deemed infallible and of prescriptive value, could not fail to exert a strong regulative influence, leading to the avoidance more and more of what was, even if lingering in use, inconsistent with us teachings, and also, in the constant reproduction of texts, to the gradual effacement of whatever they might contain that was unapproved. Thus the whole more modern literature of India has been paninianized, so to speak, pressed into the would prepare by him and his school. What are the limits of the artificiality of this process is not yet known. By the term classification or later languages, as constantly used in grammar is meant the language of those literary monuments which are written in conformity with the rules of the native grammar: virtually, the whole proper Sanskrit literature. For although parts of this are doubtless earlier than Panini, it is impossible to tell just what parts, or how far they have escaped in their style the leveling influence of the grammar. The whole, too, may be called so far as artificial literature as it is written in a phonetic form which never can have been a truly vernacular and living one. Nearly all of it is metrical: not poetic works only, but narratives, histories (so far as anything deserving that name can be said to exist), and scientific realizes of every variety are done into verse; a prose and a prose literature hardly has an existence (the principal exceptions, aside from the voluminous commentaries, are a few stories, as the Da,Ca Kemaracarita and the Vasavadatta) of linguistic history there is next to nothing is it all; but only a history of style, and this or the most part showing a gradual depravation, n increase of artificiality and an intensification of certain more undesirable features of the language such as the use of passive constructions and of principles instead of verbs, and the substitution of compound for sentences. The results of the very earliest literary productiveness of the Indian people are the hymns with which, when they had only crossed the threshold of the country, and when their geographical horizon was still limited to the river basin of the with its tributaries, they praised their gods, the defied powers of nature, and accompanied the rites of their comparatively simple worship. At what period these were made and sung cannot be determined with any approach to accuracy. It may have been as early as 2000 B.C. They were long handed down by oral tradition, preserved by the care, and increased by the additions and limitations with, the change of habits and beliefs and religious practices was becoming variously applied sung in chosen extracts, mixed with other material in to liturgies, adapted which was coming to be of immense calibration and iambically. And, at some time in the course of this history, there was made for preservation a great collection of the hymn-material, mainly its oldest and most genuine past, to the extent of over a thousand hymns and ten thousand users, arranged according to traditional authorship and to subject and length and meter of the hymn: this collection is the Rig-Veda of verses (arc) or of hymns. Other collections were made also out of the same general mass of traditional material: doubtless later, although the interrelations of this period are as yet too unclear to allow of our speaking with entire confidence as to anything concerning them. Thus the Sam Veda of chants (Sman) containing only about a sixth as much, its verses nearly all found in the Rig Veda also, but appearing here with numerous differences of reading : these were passages put together for chanting at the sama sacrifices. Again, collection called by the comprehensive named of Yajur Veda, veda of sacrificial formulas (yajus): these contained not the verses alone, but also numerous prose utterances, mingled with the former, in the order in which they aere practically employed in the ceremonies; they were strictly liturgical collections. Of these, there are in existence, several texts, which have their mutual differences: the Vajsaneyi Samhita and the Tattariya Samhita, Maitrani Samhita , the Kapisthala Samhita. Finally another historical collection, like the Rig Veda but made up mainly of later and less accepted material, and called (among other less than current names) the Atharva Veda of the Atharwas (a legendary priestly family); it is somewhat more than half as bulky as the Rig Veda and contains a certain amount of material corresponding to that of the latter, and also a number of brief prose passages. To this last collection, is very generally refused in the orthodox literature the name of Veda; but form it is the most interesting of all, after the Rig Veda; but for contains the largest amount of hymn material (or matra as it is called, in distinction from the prose trakmana) and in a language which, through distinctly less antique than that of the other, is nevertheless really Vedic. Two versions o it are extant, one of them in only a single known manuscript. The labour of the schools in the conservation of their sacred texts was extraordinary, and has been crowned with such that the text of each schools, in virtually without various readings, preserved with all its peculiarities if dialect, and its smallest and most exceptional traits of phonetic form, pure and unobscured. It is not the place were to describe the means by which, in addition to the religious care of the sectaries, this accuracy was secured: forms of text, lists of peculiarities of dialect, and its smallest and most exceptional traits of phonetic form, pured and unobscured. When this kind of care began in the case of each text, and what of original character may have been effaced before it, or lost in spite of it, cannot be told. But it is certain that the Vedic records furnish, on the whole, a wonedrfully accurate and trustworthy picture of a form of ancient Indian Language (as well as ancient Indian beliefs and institutions) which was a natural and undistorted one, and which goes back a good way behind the classical Sanskrit. Beside the Brhmanas are sometimes found later appendices, of a smaller character, called Aranyaceas (forest sections) as the Aitarey a Aranyalla, Terittiriya Arnyalla, Brhad Aranyalla and so on. Another line of transition is shown in the Sutras (lines, rules). The works thus named are analogs with the Brahmanas is that they belong to the schools of the vedic study and are named from them, and that they deal with the religious ceremonies: treating them, however, in the way of prescription, not of dogmatic explanation. They, too contain some mantra or hymn-material, not up to occur elsewhere, In part (Sutra or kalpa sutras) they take up to the great sacrificial ceremonies with which Brahmnas have to do; in part (grhya sutras), they taken the minor duties of a pious householder, in some cases (smayacarika sutra) they lay down the general obligations of one whose life is in accordance wit prescribed duty. And out of the last two, or especially the last, come by natural development the law books (dharma Sastras), which make a conspicuous figure in the later literature: the eldest and most noted of them being that called b the name of Manu (an outgrowth, it is believed by many of the manava Vedic Schools);to which are added that of yajnavallya, and many others. Two of the leading departments of Sanskrit Scientific literature, the legal and the grammatical, have been already sufficiently noticed; of those remaining, the most important by far is the philosophical. Phonology of Sanskrit Grammar The natives of India write their ancient and sacred language in a variety of alphabets generally, in each part of the country, in the same alphabet which they use for their own vernacular. The mode of writing, however, which is employed throughout the heart of Aryan India, or in Hindustan proper, is alone adopted by European scholars, It is called Devanagari. Whitney explains deva nagari as the nagaric of the brods, or the Brahmans. Our explanation for deva nagari differs. The theory of the Devanagari as of the other Indian modes of writing in syllabic and consonantal. That is to say, it regards as the written unit, not the simple sound, but the syllable (aksara), and further, as the substantial part of the syllable, the consonant, which precede the vowel this latter being merely implied, or if written, being written by a subordinate sign attached to the consonant. The forms of the vowel characters given in the alphabetical scheme above are used only when the vowel forms a syllable by itself, or is not combined with a preceding consonant: that is, when it is either initial or preceded by another vowel. In combination are used. If more constants than one precedes the vowel, forming with it a single syllable, their characters must be combined in to a single compound character. Under A it is to be noticed that the modes of indicating a vowel combined with a preceding consonant are as follows: the short a has no written sign at all; the consonant sign itself implies a following a unless some other vowel sign is attached to it. Thus, the consonant signs are given above in the alphabetic sentence are really the signals of the syllables ka, kha, etc, etc. The lonh a is written by a perpendicular stroke after the consonant: thus ka, dha, ha. Short I and long I are written by a similar stroke, which for short is paced before the consonant and for long is placed after it, and in either case is connected with the consonant by a hook above the upper line: thus, ki, ki, bhi, ni, ni. The u-sounds short and long , are written by books attached to the lower end of the consonant sign : thus ku, ku, du, du. On account of the necessities of combination, du and su are somewhat disguised, thus, d and the formation of r and h are slice more irregular: thus ru, ru, hu, hu. The r vowels, short and long are written by a sub joint book, single or double, opening toward the right, thus, kr, kr, dr, dr in the h-sign, the books are usually attached to the middle. Thus, hr, and hr. The! vowel is written with a reduced from its full initial character; thus kt; the corresponding long has no real occurrences but would be written with a similar reduced sign. The diphthongs are written by strokes, single or double, above the upper line, combined, for o and au, with the a sign after the consonant: thus ke, ko,kau. A consonant sign, however, is capable of being made to signify the consonant sound alone, without and added vowel, by having written beneath it a stroke called the virama (rest, step) thus k, d, h. Under B, it is to be noticed that the consonant combinations are for the most part not at all difficult too make or to recognize for one who is familiar with simple signs. The characteristic part of a consonant sign that is to be added to another is taken (to the exclusion of the horizontal or of the perpendicular framing line or of both) and they are put together according to convenience, either side by side, or one above the other, in a few combinations either arrangements is allowed. The consonant that is to be to be pronounced first in set before the other in the one order, and above it in the other order. In some cases, however, there is more or less abbreviations or disguise independent form of a consonant sign in combination. The semivowel r, in making combinations with other consonants, is treated in a wholly peculiar manner, analogous with that in which the vowels are treated. If pronounced before another consonant or combination of consonants, it is written above the latter, with a book opening to the right (much like the sign of the vowel r, as written under a consonant) thus, rka, rsa, rtva, rmya, rtsma. Further combinations, of three, or four, or each five consonant signs, are made according to the same rules of three consonants, Hva, ddhya, dya, drya, dhrya, psva. A sign called the avagraha (separator) is commonly used in the manuscripts, Sometimes in the manner of a hypmen, sometimes as a mark of hiatus, sometimes to mark the elision of initial a after final e or o, is printed texts, specially European, it is ordinarily applied to the use last mentioned, and to that above, tus, the bruva, so bravit for to abruran, so abravit. The numeral figures are used in combination to express large numbers; they are used in precisely the same way as European digits. The Hindu grammarians call the different sounds, and the characters representing the, by a kara (smaller) added o the sound of the letter, if a vowel, or to the letter followed by a, if consonant. Thus the sound or character a is called akara, and a, ka, etc. are used alone. The r however, is not called ratata, but only ra, or repha. These also know the anusara and visarga. Declensions The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, all of which are infected is essentially the same manner. But which the correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that they cannot well be separated treatment, the pronouns. Declensional forms show primarily case and numbers; but they also indicate gender since, though the distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem itself, they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changes of inflection. Gender. The genders are three, namely masculine, feminine, and neuter, as in the other older Indo-European languages; and they follow in general the same laws of distribution as, for example in Greek and Latin. The cases are including the relative are eight: they are nominative, allusive, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative and vocative. Declensional forms are made by the addition of endings to the stem, or base of inflection. The stem itself, however, in many words and classes of words, is liable to variation, especially as assuming a stronger form in some cases and weaker in others. And between stem and ending are sometimes inserted connecting elements (or what, in the reorded condition of the language, have the aspect of being such). Paradigm In the broad sense, we may call every class of linguistic elements a paradigm, whatever the principle that leads us to group them together. In this sense, we will regard as paradigms the associative groups of which saucer spell, whose elements are hardly linked by anything except association of ideas. Jackobson, too, sometimes seems to base the paradigmatic relationship on simple similarity, on that association by resemblance referred to by associations Psychology. Faced with the multitude of divergent criteria on which such paradigms could be based, many modern linguistics have sought to define a principle of classification that would be linked uniquely to the role of the units within a language. Given that the syntagmatic relationship seems to be in large measure specific to individual languages, linguists have come to base the linguistic paradigm on them, In this narrow sense, two units u and u belong to the same paradigm, if and only if, they are capable of replacing each other in the same syntagma; that is if there exist two syntagmas VUW and VuW. The argument heads to the now classic image of two srant strips, the horizontal representing the syntagmatic order of the units, the vertical representing the paradigm of U, that is, the set of units that could have appeared in its place. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships: Although there is a big consensus in favor of subordinating paradigmatic study to syntagmatic study in practice, linguists diverge on the meaning that sub deviation should have. According to the distributionalists, discovers of syntagmatic relationship constitutes the fundamental object of linguistic investigation, for language is above all a combinatorial system. The establishment of paradigm must therefore be understood only as a convenience to aid in the compact formulation of syntagmatic relationships, constitutes the fundamentals object of linguistic investigation, for language is above all a combinational system. The establishment of paradigms must therefore be understood only as convenience to aid in the compact formulation of syntagmatic relationships. Instead of spelling out each unit's possibilities of combinations with all the others, it is more economical to constitute classes of units having approximately the same combinational possibilities, even if one must then establish sub classes, whose units would have stronger combinatory analogies among themselves, and so on, each new sub division corresponding to a refinement of the approximation. Most European linguistics, on the other hand, have made an effort to give the paradigmatic organisation of language an intrinsic justification. It is remarkable (and paradoxical) that this tendency appears even among the glossematiciaus, for whom however, as for the distributionalists, the fundamental reality of language - its form - is purely combinatorial in nature. For example, constructs two distinct combinatorial, one syntagmatic and other paradigmatic. C. POS In the part of speech segment of Sanskrit (OIA), we shall try to look briefly in to the Declension , conjugation and Derivations. Declensions. The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns all of which are inflected in essentially the same manner. But while the correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that they cannot well be separated in treatment. The pronouns on the other hand have many peculiarities. Declensional forms show primarily case and numbers but they also indicate gender - since, though the distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem itself, they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changes of inflection. Genders are three, namely masculine, feminine, and neuter as in the other older Indo - European languages; and they follow in general the same laws of distribution as, for example in Greek and Latin. The cases are (including the vocative) are eight in number; they are nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive; octave and vocative. detail treatment of case is given while treating paninian aspect. (ii) Conjugation : The subject of conjugation or verbal inflection involves, as in the other languages of the family, the dissentions of voice, tense, mode number and person. further, besides the simpler or ordinary conjugation of a verbal root, there is certain more or less fully developed secondary or derivative conjugation. There are (as in Greek) two voices, active and middle, distinguished by a difference in the personal endings. This distinction is a pervading one, there is no active personal form which does not have its corresponding middle, and vice versa; and it is extended also in part to the participles (but not to the infinitive). Some verbs are conjugated in both voices, others in one only; Sometimes a part of the tenses are inflected only in one voice, others only in the outer or in both; of a verb usually inflected in one wice sporadic forms of the other occur and sometimes the voice differs according as the verbs in compounded with certain prepositions. The middle forms outside the present system (for which there is a special passive inflection) and sometimes also within that system, are liable to be used likewise in a passive sense. The tenses are as follows: a. Present with 2. an imperfect, closely related with it in form, having a prefixed argument; 3. a perfect, made with reduplication (to which in the Veda is added , 4. a So -called pluperfect. mode from it with prefixed argument; 5. an aorist, of three different formations a. simple b. reduplicated c. sigmatic or sibilant 6. a. future with 7. a conditional, an argument tense, standing to it in the relation of an imperfect to a present; and 8. a second, a periphrastic, future (not found in the Veda). In respect to mode, the difference between the classical Sanskrit and the older anguses of the Veda - and , in a less degree, of the Brahmans - especially great. In the classical Sanskrit, the present adds to its indicative and optative and an imperative - of which last, moreover, the first persons are a remnant of the old subjective. And the aorist has also an operative, of somewhat peculiar inflection, usually called the preactive (or benedictive) The present, perfect and future tenses have each one of them, alike in the earlier and later languages, a pair of participles, active and middle, sharing in the various pemtiariies of the tense formations; and in the Veda are found such participles belonging also to the aorist. The tense system: The tenses, then with their accompanying modes and participles, fall in to certain well-marked groups or systems. The Present System : it is composed of the present tense with its modes, its participles, and its preterit which we have called the imperfect. The perfect system: It is composed of the perfect tense (with, in the Veda, its modes and its preterit, the so-called pluperfect) and its participle. The aorist system: It is simple reduplicated and sibilant composed of the aorist tense along with, in the later language, its "precaution" optative (but in the verb with its various modes and its principles). The future systems: 1. The old or sibilant future, with its accompanying preterit, the conditional, and its participle, and 2. The new periphrastic future. Number and person: The verb has, of course, the same three persons, first, second and third. All of these are made in every tense and mode-except that the first persons of the imperative numbers are supplied from the adjunctive. The participles belonging to the tense systems have been already spoken of above. There is besides, coming directly from the root of the verb, a participle, prevailing of past and passive (or sometimes mentor) meaning. Future passive participles, or gerundives, of several different formations are also made. Infinitives. In the older languages, a very considerable variety of derivative abstract nouns - only in a few sporadic instances having anything to do with the tense - systems - are need in an infinitive or quasi-infinitive sense; most often in the dative case, but sometimes also in the alleviative, in the genitive and ablative (and very rarely) in the locative. In the classical Sanskrit, there remains a single infinitive, of accusative case - form, having nothing to do with the tense-systems. Gerunds. A so-called gerund (or absolute) - being, like infinities, a stereotypes case - from of a derivative noun - is a part of the general verb-system. In both the earlier and later languages, being especially frequent in the later language, where it has only two forms, one for simple verbs, and the other for compound. Its value is that of an indeclinable active participle, of indeterminate but prevailingly past tense-character. The secondary conjugation. The secondary or derivative conjugations are as follows. 1. the passive; 2. the intensive, 3. the derivative, 4. the causative. In these, a conjugation-stem, instead of the simple root, underlies the whole system of inflection. Yet there is clearly to be seen in them the character of a present-system, expanded into a more or less complete conjugation and the passive in so purely a present system that it will be described later. Under the same general head belongs the subject of denominative conjugation, or the conservation of noun and objective - stems into conjugation - stems. Further, that of compound conjugation, whether by the prefixation of preposition to roots or by the additions of auxiliary verbs to noun and adjective stems. And finally, that of periphastic conjugation, or the looser combination of auxiliaries with verbal nouns and adjectives. The characteristic of a proper (finite or personal) verb-form in its personal ending. By this alone, is determined its character as regards number and person - and in part also as regards mode and tense. But the distinctions of mode and tense are mainly made by the formation of tense and mode stems, to which, rather than to the pure root, the personal endings are appended. The general participle endings are ant. Augment: The augment is a short a, prefixed to a tense - stem - and if the latter begin with a vowel, combining with the vowel irregularly into the heavier or viddhi diphthong. It is always (without any exception) the accented element in the verbal form of which it makes a part. Reduplication: The derivation of conjugational and declensions stems from roots by reduplication, either alone or along with other formative elements, has been already spoken of and the formations in which reduplication appears have been specified: they are, in primary verb-inflection, the present (of a certain class of verbs), the perfect (of nearly all), and the aorist (of a large number), and the intensive and desirative secondary conjugation contain in their stems the same element. The general principle of reduplication in the prefixation to a root of a part of itself repeated - if it begins with consonants, the initial consonant and the vowel, if it begins with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or with a following consonant. The varieties of detail, however, are very considerable. Thus, especially, as regards the vowed, which in present and perfect and desiderative in regularly shorter and lighter in the reduplication than in the root syllable, in aorist in longer, and an intensive in strengthened. Derivative or Secondary Conjugation Secondary conjugations are that in which a whole system of forms, like that already described as made from the simple root, is made, with greater or less competence, from a derivative conjugation - stem; and is also usually connected with a certain definite modifications of the original radical sense. The secondary conjugations are: J. Passive, G. Intensive, and III. Desiderative, IV. Causative; V. Denominative. 1. Passive: The passive has a special present system, the stem of which in present only, and did not made the basis of any of the remaining forms: this stem is formed with the accounted class - sign ya', and it takes the middle endings. This present-system is treated with the others. There is a special passive 3rd sing. Of the aorist, ending in i. In the remaining tenses, the middle forms are used also in a passive sense. 2. Intensive: The intensive (sometimes also called the frequentive) is that one of the secondary conjugations which is least removed from the analog of formations which is least removed from the analog of formations already described. It is, like the present system of the second conjugation class, the inflection of a reduplicated stem, but of one that is peculiar in having a strengthened reduplication. It is decidedly less extended beyond the limits of a present-system than any other of the derivative conjugation. According to the grammarians, the intensive conjugation may be formed from nearly all the roots in the language - the exceptions being roots of more than one syllable, those conjugated only causatively and in general those beginning with a vowel. By the desiderative conjugation is signified a desire for the action or condition denoted by the simple root. Thus, Pibani, (I drink) - desid - Papasami (I wish to drink). The desirable stem is formed from the simple root by the addition of two characteristics i.e. reduplication, which always has the accent, 2. and appended sa - which however (like the tense - signs of aorist and future), sometimes takes before it the auxiliary vowel i, becoming isa. Causative I: In the later languages, is allowed to be made from most roots a complete causative conjugation. The basis of this is a causative stem, formed by appending the causative sign dya to the usually strengthened root. Denominative: A denominative conjugation is one that has for its basis a noun-stem. The grammarians tenth that any noun stem is the language may be converted, without other addition than that of an a (as union vowel enabling it to be inflected according to the second general conjugation) into a present-stem and conjugated as such. Demonstratives are formed at every period in the history of the language, from the earliest down. DIVISION OF VEDIC AND CLASSICAL SANSKRIT AND SCOPE OF VEDIC In view of the prominent position occupied by the Indo-Aryan brazen in comparative philology and of the fact that the language of the Vedas represents the foundations of the subsequent strata, it seems important for the sake of clearness and definiteness that the earliest phase should be treated as a whole independently of later developments. Our organisation will therefore deal with the grammar of only the mantra portions of the samhitas; that is to say, it will embrace the whole of the Rgveda, the Atharvaveda, the Samaveda, and the Vajasanei Samhita, but will exclude those posses of the Taittiriya Samhita, the Maitrayani Samhita and the Kathaka, which have the character of Brahmanas. Reference will also be made to Mantra material not found in the canonical texts of the Semites, that is, to the Chelas of the Raved and the occasional Mantras of this type occurring in the Brahmanas and Sutras. An Introduction to Vedic Grammar Vedic grammar has never till now been treated separately and as a whole. Both in India and in the west the subject has hitherto been studied only on connection with classical Sanskrit. Hundreds of Panini's sutras deal with the language of the Vedas; but the account they give of it in anything but comprehensive. In the west, Befey was the first, more than half century ago to combine a description of the linguistic peculiarities of the Vedas with an account of the traditional matter of Panini; but as vedic studies were at that time still in their infancy, only the Samveda, and about one-fourth of the Rgveda having as yet been published, the vedic material utilized in his large grammar was necessity very limited in extent. Phonology in Vedic Grammar Evidence throwing light on the phonetic character of the language of the Samhitas is furnished not only by the pronunciation of its sounds by the Brahmanas of to-day, who still recite those texts, but also by the transcription of Sanskrit words in foreign languages, particularly Greek, in ancient times; by the summary information contained in the works of the old Sanskrit grammarians, Panini and his successors, and more especially by the detailed statements of the Pransakhyas and the Siksas. From those sources we derived a sufficiently exact knowledge of the pronunciation prevailing about 500 B.C. This pronunication, however, need not necessarily have coincided in every particular with that of the Samhitas, which date from many centuries earlier. Nevertheless, judging by the internal evidence supplied by the phonetic changes and analogical formations occurring in the language of the texts themselves and by the external evidence of comparative philology, we are justified in concluding that the pronunciation, with the possible exception of a very few doubtful points, was practically the same. There are altogether 52 sounds, 13 of which are vocalic and 39 consonantal. As our aim is to describe Paninian grammar so we are not going into the detail treatise of them. CLASSICAL SANSKRIT Panini composed the bulk of the classical Sanskrit literature at a period very much later than the fixing of the language. An earlier period in literary and linguistic history is represented by the two great popular epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. It does not seem that either of these two works reached its final form until well after Christian era, but the tradition of epic recitation goes back into the Vedic age. The Mahabharata in particular was a long time in forming, and a good deal of what is incorporated in the final reclusion may claim an earlier data. We have therefore in the Epics extensive documents of Sanskrit belonging to a period wearer to Panini than the classical literature in the narrow sense. They provide also evidence of the wide popularity of one type of Sanskrit literature among the masses of the people, since these works were reserved for no special or cultivated audience, but intended for public recital to the population in general. Their language evidences their popular character. This is Sanskrit definitely enough as opposed to the contemporary middle Indo-Aryan, but it in a Sanskrit which continually violates the rules which Panini had laid down and which were always observed in the more orthodox literary circles. Among the common deviations of the Epic language a few characteristic types may be quoted. The distinction between the active and middle forms of the verb, which was still fully alive in Panini's time, and for which he later in some detail, in beginning to be blurred in the Epic, Active forms are used for middle and vice-versa, and even the passive verb sometimes takes active endings. There is some confusion between the grounds in -tva and -tya, and the rule of Panini which restricts the former to uncompounded and the latter to compounded verbs is not always observed. Unaugumented preterits occur, a characteristic which is also found in the Veda, as well as in early middle into-Aryan. Conversely, the augmented forms are occasionally found with the prohibitive particle (ma .... agaman 'do not go'). The particle ma is not used exclusively with the unaugmented aorist according to rule but indifferently with imperative (ma bhava) operative (ma brliyah) future (ma draksyasi) and so on. The tenth class and causative verbs make a middle participle in -ayana (codaya na as opposed to the connect codayamana) a usage to which metrical convenience has contributed. The careful rules of Panini concerning the use of the alternative forms ate and anti in forming the feminine of present particles are not strictly observed. The distribution of set and anit forms frequently does not conform to rule. These and other irregular forms correspond to what is found in early middle Indo-Aryan, indicating that Epic Sanskrit in a later form of Sanskrit than that of Panini. No pre-paninian forms are found in the Epic, which means that although the epic tradition goes back to the Vedic period, and although the Mahabharata story was familiar to people before text must be distinctly later than him. Since for centuries the transmission of the epic stories depended or oral tradition, and not a fixed oral tradition like that f the Vedic schools, it is not surprising that a circle of stories organizing in the Vedic period should in their final form appear in a language of a much later date with no archaic forms preserved. The recitation and transmission of the Epic legends was not the business of the Brahmans, but of the sutras, a class of royal servants whose duties had originally included that of character. It was natural that their language should be of a more popular nature than that of the educated class par excellence, the Brahmanas. The language of the Epics served also as a model for the language of the puranas, of which the earliest core dates to the same period. It is continued in the same numerous later compilations, and further in a variety of sectarian agamas, etc. Linguistically, these compilations are not of great interest, except occasionally in the matter of vocabulary, and many, particularly the later ones, testify to the deficient education of their authors in grammar. The special characteristics of classical Sanskrit arise from that most of the literature dates from a period very much later than the period in which the form of the language was fixed. If Kalidasa is to be dated (AD 450 a period of no loss than sight hundred years separates him from the grammarian Panini. The work of Kalidasa stands almost at the beginning of the body of classical literature which is preserved, and the greater part of this is separated by more than a millenium from the regular of the language. This accounts largely for the artificially of style and language which is not absent from the best authors, and which in some is exaggerated beyond reason. The literary gap in the period immediately preceding and succeeding the Christian era is due to the loss of the bulk of the pre-Kalidasan literature, since it is known that kavya in all its forms was actively practised during all time. The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions (e.g. of Rudradaman, A.D. 150) show the existence of a developed Sanskrit Kavya. Patanjali (C. 150 BC) quotes some Kavya fragments and mentions by name a poet varruci. His own work is a valuable example of the prose style of the period, and it enables us to form a picture of early Paninian Sanskrit at a time when it was still a fully living language. The works of Asvaghosa who flourished under Kaniska (A.D. 78+) preserved in Nepal (and fragmentation in Central Asia), though long forgotten in India, have been preserved by fortunate chance, as the sole example of Sanskrit Kavya literature in its earlier phase. Panini was born in Shalatula, a town near to Attock on the Indus river in present day Pakistan in 520 BC. The dates given for Panini are pure guesses. Experts give dates in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th century BC and there is also no agreement among historians about the extent of the work which he undertook. What is in little doubt is that, given the period in which he worked, he is one of the most innovative people in the whole development of knowledge. We will say a little more below about how historians have gone about trying to pinpoint the date when Panini lived. Panini was a Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Sanskrit was the classical literary language and Panini is considered the founder of the language and literature. It is interesting to note that the word "Sanskrit" means "complete" or "perfect" and it was thought of as the divine language, or language of the gods. A treatise called Astadhyayi (or Astaka ) is Panini's major work. It consists of eight chapters, each subdivided into quarter chapters. In this work Panini distinguishes between the language of sacred texts and the usual language of communication. Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 basic elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, consonants he put them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. is explained as ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to modern theory. In many ways Panini's constructions are similar to the way that a mathematical function is defined today. Joseph writes in [2]:- [Sanskrit's] potential for scientific use was greatly enhanced as a result of the thorough systemisation of its grammar by Panini. ... On the basis of just under 4000 sutras [rules expressed as aphorisms], he built virtually the whole structure of the Sanskrit language, whose general 'shape' hardly changed for the next two thousand years. ... An indirect consequence of Panini's efforts to increase the linguistic facility of Sanskrit soon became apparent in the character of scientific and mathematical literature. This may be brought out by comparing the grammar of Sanskrit with the geometry of Euclid - a particularly apposite comparison since, whereas mathematics grew out of philosophy in ancient Greece, it was ... partly an outcome of linguistic developments in India. Joseph goes on to make a convincing argument for the algebraic nature of Indian mathematics arising as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit language. In particular he suggests that algebraic reasoning, the Indian way of representing numbers by words, and ultimately the development of modern number systems in India, are linked through the structure of language. Panini should be thought of as the forerunner of the modern formal language theory used to specify computer languages. The Backus Normal Form was discovered independently by John Backus in 1959, but Panini's notation is equivalent in its power to that of Backus and has many similar properties. It is remarkable to think that concepts which are fundamental to today's theoretical computer science should have their origin with an Indian genius around 2500 years ago. At the beginning of this article we mentioned that certain concepts had been attributed to Panini by certain historians which others dispute. One such theory was put forward by B Indraji in 1876. He claimed that the Brahmi numerals developed out of using letters or syllables as numerals. Then he put the finishing touches to the theory by suggesting that Panini in the eighth century BC (earlier than most historians place Panini) was the first to come up with the idea of using letters of the alphabet to represent numbers. There are a number of pieces of evidence to support Indraji's theory that the Brahmi numerals developed from letters or syllables. However it is not totally convincing since, to quote one example, the symbols for 1, 2 and 3 clearly do not come from letters but from one, two and three lines respectively. Even if one accepts the link between the numerals and the letters, making Panini the originator of this idea would seem to have no more behind it than knowing that Panini was one of the most innovative geniuses that world has known so it is not unreasonable to believe that he might have made this step too. There are other works which are closely associated with the Astadhyayi which some historians attribute to Panini, others attribute to authors before Panini, others attribute to authors after Panini. This is an area where there are many theories but few, if any, hard facts. We also promised to return to a discussion of Panini's dates. There has been no lack of work on this topic so the fact that there are theories which span several hundreds of years is not the result of lack of effort, rather an indication of the difficulty of the topic. The usual way to date such texts would be to examine which authors are referred to and which authors refer to the work. One can use this technique and see who Panini mentions. There are ten scholars mentioned by Panini and we must assume from the context that these ten have all contributed to the study of Sanskrit grammar. This in itself, of course, indicates that Panini was not a solitary genius but, like Newton had "stood on the shoulders of giants". Panini must have lived later than these ten but this is absolutely no help in providing dates since we have absolutely no knowledge of when any of these ten lived. What other internal evidence is there to use? Well of course Panini uses many phrases to illustrate his grammar any these have been examined meticulously to see if anything is contained there to indicate a date. To give an example of what we mean: if we were to pick up a text which contained as an example "I take the train to work every day" we would know that it had to have been written after railways became common. Let us illustrate with two actual examples from the Astadhyayi which have been the subject of much study. The first is an attempt to see whether there is evidence of Greek influence. Would it be possible to find evidence which would mean that the text had to have been written after the conquests of Alexander the Great? There is a little evidence of Greek influence, but there was Greek influence on this north east part of the Indian subcontinent before the time of Alexander. Nothing conclusive has been identified. Another angle is to examine a reference Panini makes to nuns. Some argue that these must be Buddhist nuns and therefore the work must have been written after Buddha. A nice argument but there is a counter argument which says that there were Jaina nuns before the time of Buddha and Panini's reference could equally well be to them. Again the evidence is inconclusive. There are references by others to Panini. However it would appear that the Panini to whom most refer is a poet and although some argue that these are the same person, most historians agree that the linguist and the poet are two different people. Again this is inconclusive evidence. Let us end with an evaluation of Panini's contribution by Cardona in [1]:- Panini's grammar has been evaluated from various points of view. After all these different evaluations, I think that the grammar merits asserting ... that it is one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence. "The Ashtadhyayi" is one of the first works on descriptive linguistics. It was written circa 400 BC by the Indian grammarian Panini, and it describes the grammar completely. Its mathematical structure has been pared to that of the Turing machine.It is still used today in the teaching of Sanskrit. It has 3,995 language rules but also covers historical, social, and geographical subjects. Although this course presupposes no background in either philosophy or religion, it would be beneficial for the student to have had a standard introductory philosophy course. It is not at all necessary for the student to have previously taken a course in Eastern religions The course provides a survey of the main philosophical traditions that have their inception in the subcontinent of India. The student will thus be introduced to the distinctive philosophical ideas, doctrines, and arguments of these major schools of thought. The main objective of the course, however, is to bring to light a fundamental philosophical debate (over the most basic issues, including the issue of the "definition" of philosophy) between a particular interpretation of the central philosophy of Buddhism and all the other schools that subscribe to the authority of the Vedas. (I put the materialistic Carvaka school and Jainism in the camp of the latter, because they share essentially the same approach to philosophy) Since Advaita Vedanta is arguably the most important philosophical school of the Brahmanic tradition the contrast between it and what I contend is the central philosophy of Buddhism is the most striking, more attention is devoted to these two philosophies. The reading assignments consist of secondary sources used to provide a survey of a school of philosophy, critical studies of a problem or concept in Indian thought, and original writings of philosophers in the various schools and traditions. Panini The Astadhayi, also called Astaka in a grammar of Sanskrit. It consists of eight (asta) chapters (ad hyaya), further subdivided into quarter chapters (pada) and contains about 4,000 rules called Sutra, preceded by a catalog of sounds itself subdivided into 14 groups and variously called the pratyahara - sutras ("abbreviation sutras"), Siva-sutras, and mahesvara - sutras. In those rules Panini refers to groups of verbs and nominal bases in various ways. These bases appear in two ancillaries to the corpus of rules, a catalog of roots called the dhath-patha and a catalog of nominal bases called gana-patha. (a) A detailed survey of Panini's grammar. in phonology in syntax in semantics (b) Panini on Ellipsis and stylistics (c) Application of rules in Bengali and Hindi (d) Algorithm General Review of Panini Panini's grammar is descriptive, not prescriptive (Staal, 1965: 109). The rulers of the grammar serve to derive forms, which accord with correct usage. These rules (sutra) are also called laksana characteristic, that by which... is characterise, that is, to explain by derivation, the forms of correct usage. These correct forms are, accordingly, called laksya that which is to be characterized. Basic to this derivational system is the distinction between bases (prakrti) and affixes (pratyaya). The grammar provides for introducing affixes after bases under given conditions to derive items terminating in verbal or nominal endings. These are called pada. The bases themselves are of two general types: verb roots (dhatu) and nominal bases (pratpadika). In addition, bases are either primitive or derived primitive verb roots appear in the dhater-patha. Primitive nominal bases would appear in a lexicon; the gan a pa tha represents a partial lexicon of items which undergo particular operations. Applying rules of the grammar gets derived bases. Derived verb roots are formed from both primitive roots and nominal forms. Examples of the first are causatives such as kar-i; (make do, have do' ( +len /- +voc +savarNa Example: rAma + avatAra ' rAmAvatAra voicing: jhalAm jashonte (8.2.39) +cons -> +voice /- +voice Example: vAk + IshaH ' vAgIshaH Retroflexization: ShTunAShTuH (8.4.41) +cons -> +cons /- +cons dental retroflex retroflex Example: rAma-s- + ShaShTha -> rAma-Sh-ShaShTha Palatalization: stoH shcunAshcuH (8.4.40) +cons -> +cons /- +cons dental palatal palatal Example: sat + cit ' saccit Nasalization: yaro'nunAsike'nunAsiko vA (8.4.45) +cons -> +cons /- +cons -nas +nas +nas Example: ya-t- + nAsti -> ya-n-nAsti Derivational Process The purpose of Panini's derivational process is to generate complete syntactic words called padas which Panini defines as `supti~Nantam padam' (that is, bases with either 21 suP affixes or 9+9 ti~N affixes). Padas with suP affixes constitute the NPs (subanta pada), and those with the ti~N affixes can be called VPs (ti~Nanta pada). In a subanta pada the base is called prAtipadika(pdk), which are either primitive(as stored in GP) or derived through primary (kRRit), secondary (taddhita), feminine (strI) affixations, and by compounding (samAsa). These prAtipadikas undergo suP affixation under conditions of case, gender, number and the end-characters of the bases to return syntactic words. For example: Derivation of `RAmaH' rAma (pdk) + sU (4.1.2/4.1.3) ' rAma + s (1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' rAma + rU (8.2.66) ' rAma + r (1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' rAmaH (1.4.110/8.3.15). The verb roots also are either basic or derived. The former are stored in the DP distributed in 10 gaNas each with a fixed infix called vikaraNa. The affix `L' is introduced after a verb root to mark temporal situations (by ten lakAras like laT,liT...) agent. The rule `lasya' (of `la') replaces affix `L' by a set of 9+9 (parasmai and Atmane padins) affixes distributed according to person and number (3x3). The ten lakAras are grouped into two - sArvadhAtuka (sdk), and ArdhadhAtuka (adk) of 5 each taking a particular set of arguments. Let Derivation of 'paThati' paThA ' paTh (1.3.1/1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paTh + laT (3.1.91/3.2.123/4.1.2/4.1.3) ' paTh + la (1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paTh + tiP (3.4.79) ' paTh + shaP + tiP (3.1.68) ' paTh + a + ti (1.3.8/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paThati (syntactic word meaning `reads'). Thus the string `RAmaH paThati' is a complete basic sentence. Cardona (1988) posits the following formula for such formation - ( N - En )p ... ( V - Ev )p which consists of related padas (p) in which the nominal affixes (En) and verbal affixes (Ev) follow the respective bases. kAraka and vAkya `vAkya' does not come under Panini's samj~nA category. Such and other non-technical words like `yoga', `samartha', `sAkA~NkSha', `sambandha', `anabhihita',`samAnAdhikaraNa', and `kAraka' etc are used in AD to express relationship between syntactic constituents. Panini's rules pertaining to kAraka explain a situation in terms of action (kriyA) and factors (kArakas) which have a function in the accomplishment of action. In other words, the six Paninian kArakas, that is, apAdAna (source, 1.4.24), sampradAna (beneficiary, 1.4.32), karaNa (means, 1.4.42), adhikaraNa (location, 1.4.45), karman (patient, 1.4.49), and kartRRi (agent, 1.4.54) specify the possible semantic relationship that hold between the nouns and the verb in a grammatical sentence. For example, the sentence `devdattaH odanam pacati' (Devadatta cooks rice) can be described as `devadattaH' (agent or kartRRi), `odanam' (patient or karman), `pacati' (action or kriyA in present tense). The present tense equivalent in Panini, `laT', expresses agent-ship, goal, or goal-less state (intransitivity). The ti~Nanta component will take the root `pac' with `laT' (and related morphological specifications) to generate the action `pacati' with affix `tiP'. Similarly, the subanta component will generate the goal (object) by adding accusative singular (2-1) case affix `am' to `odana' and the agent by adding nominative singular (1-1) `sU' to `devadatta'. Thus devadatta + sU odana + am pac + tiP ' devadattaH odanam pacati Panini's is an essentially formal system which suits very well for computation with little formalization. This fact leaves ample scope for language processing insights from Panini. The AShTAdhyAyI is also important for its linguistic insights into the structure and functioning of many Indian languages genealogically related to Sanskrit. The NLP/Computational Linguistics community has already started using Panini as a model for Indian languages with reasonable success. It may be interesting to see if Paninian formalism will work for other languages of the Indo European family. REFERENCE OF PANINI: READING ASSIGNMENT: I. What is Unique about the Philosophies of India? A. Sourcebook: pp. xxii-xxx. "The Spirit of Indian Philosophy" and "The Value of the Study of Indian Philosophy" Christopher Isherwood: "The Wishing Tree" (From Isherwood, The Wishing Tree) B. Jacob Needleman: "Why Philosophy is Easy?" "Psychiatry and the Sacred" (From Needleman, Consciousness and Tradition) II. The Sources and Traditions of Indian Philosophy A. Sourcebook: pp. xvii-xxii. "History of Indian Thought" P.T. Raju: Chapt. II - The Vedas and Other Sources Chapt. III - The Central Ideas of the Upanisads (From Raju, The Philosophical Traditions of India) III. Carvaka: Materialism and skepticism A. P.T. Raju: Chapt. V - "The Materialistic Tradition of the Carvaka" Sourcebook: pp. 227_249 "Carvaka" IV. Nyaya-Vaisesika: Realism A. Mysore Hiriyanna: "Nyaya-Vaisesika" (From Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy) Sourcebook: pp. 356_370. B. Sourcebook: pp. 356-385 "Nyaya" pp, 397-423 "Vaisesika" C. J. N. Mohanty: "Reflections on the Nyaya Theory of Avayavipratyaksa ("perception of a whole")" (From Mohanty, Phenomenology and Ontology) Bimal Matilal: "Material Bodies and Their Atomic Constituents" and ""Inseparable_Relations (Samavava) (From Matilal, Epistemology Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis) V. Jainism: Relative Realism A. Hiriyanna: "Jainism" P.T. Raju: "The Heterodox Tradition Jainism" B. Sourcebook: pp. 260_271 "Jainism" VI. Sankhya_Yoga: Dualism A. Troy Organ: "The Self in Sankhya_Yoga" (From Organ, Philosophy and the Self: East and West) Hiriyanna: "Sankhya" B. Sourcebook: pp. 424_452. "Samkhya" VII. Avaita Vedanta: Absolutism A. Das: "Introduction" and "Introduction to the Commentary" Sourcebook: pp. S06_509 Deutsch: "Brahman" B. Selection from Das Deutsch: "Levels of Being" and "Brahman and the World" C. Selection from Das and the Sourcebook Deutsch: "The Self" and "Karma" D. Selection from Das and the Sourcebook Deutsch: "Aspects of Advaitic Epistemology" and "Moksa and Jnana_Yoga" E. Thomas Nagel: "The Objective Self" and "Thought and Reality" (From Nagel, The View From Nowhere) VIII. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism A. K.N. Jayatilleke, "The Historical Context of the Rise of Buddhism" (From Jayatilleke, The Messaqe of the Buddha) A.L. Herman: "The Philosphical Environment of the 6th Century B.C.E." pp, 27-53 A.L. Herman: "The Later Life" pp. 55-83 (From Herman, An Introduction to Buddhist Thouqht) B. Sourcebook: 272-292. "Buddhism: Hinayana" C. Vasubandhu: The Soul Theory of the Buddhist Derek Parfit: "Personal Identity" D. Bimal Matilal: "Negation and the Madhyamika Dialectics" (From Matilal, Epistemology, Logic. and Grammar in Indian Philosophical analysis) E. David Kalupahana: "The Emergence of Absolutism" and "Nagarjuna and the MulamadhYamakarika" ("Verses on the Fundamentals of the Middle Way")" F. Sourcebook: pp. 340-345. "The Madhyamika_sastra or Treatise on the Middle Doctrine" David Kalupahana's translation of the above taken from his Nagarjuna BIBLIOGRAPHY Nilima Chakravarty, Indian Philosophy, New Dehli: Allied Publishers Unlimited, 1992 Rashviri Das, ed. & trans., Introduction to Shankara, Calcutta: Firma X.L. Nukhopadhyay, 1968 Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, Honolulu: East_West Center Press, 1969. _____________, Creative Being: The Crafting of Person and World, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992 __________ ed., Culture and Modernity: East_West Philosophical Perspectives, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991. __________ ed., Interpreting Across Boundaries, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988 _________ and van Buitenan, A Sourcebook of Advaita Vedanta Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1971 A.L. Herman, Introduction to Buddhist Thought, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983 ___________, Problem of Evil and Indian Thought, Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976 Mysore Hiriyanna, Essentials of Indian Philosophy, London: Allen & Unwin, 1949 ______________, Indian Philosophical Studies, Mysore: Ravyalaya Publishers, 1972 ______________, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New York: Nacmillan, 1932 Christopher Isherwood, The Wishing Tree, ed. by Robert Adjemian, San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987 R. N. Jayatilleke, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledqe, London: G. Allen Unwin, 1963 _________________, The Messaqe of the Buddha, Mew York: Free Press, 1975 David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1975 ________________, History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992 ____________ ed. & trans., Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyakakarika: The Philosophy of the Middle Way, Albany: SUNY Press, 1986 Bimal Matilal, Epistemology, Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis Analysis, The Hague: Mouton Press, 1971 _____________, Logical Illumination of Indian Mysticism, Dehli: Oxford University Press, 1978 _____________, Perception: An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986 Bimal Matilal and Robert Evans, eds. Buddhist Logic and Epistemology: Studies in the Buddhist Analysis of Inference and Language: Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishers, 1986 J.N. Mohanty, Phenomenology and Ontology, Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1970 ____________, Reason and Tradition in Indian Thought, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992 Thomas Nagel, The View From Nowhere, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Jacob Needleman, Consciousness and Tradition, New York: Crossroads, 1982. Troy organ, Philosophy and the Self: East and West, Athens: Ohio University Press, 1975. Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984 P.T. Raju, The Philosophical Traditions of India, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971. _________, The Structural Depths of Indian Thouqht, Albany: SUNY Press, 1985 Nina Smart, Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy, 2nd edition, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992 Walter Stace, Mysticism and Philosophy, London: Macmillan, 1960 Vasubandhu, The Soul Theory of the Buddhist: Appendix to the VIII Chapter of the Abhidharmakosa, trans. Tscherbasky, Varanas, Bharatiya Vidya Prakasan, 1970 Cardona, George, 1965, On translating and formalizing Paninian rules. Journal of Oriental Institute, Baroda, vol 14, 306-14. Cardona, George, 1970, Some Principles of Panini's Grammar. Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol 1, 40-74. Cardona, George, 1974, Panini's Karakas: Agency, Animation and Identity. Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol2, 231-306. Cardona, George, 1976, Some features of Paninian Derivations. History of thought and contemporary Linguistics. Cardona, George, 1987, Panini: His work and its traditions (vols 1-3, first edn 1987, Motilal Banarasidass, 1988. Deshpande, Madhav M. 1992, Panini in the context of Modernity. Language and text. ed. R.N.Srivastava et al, Kalinga Publications, Delhi. Faddegon, Barend, 1936, Studies on Panini's Grammar. Amsterdam. Jha, Girish Nath, 1993, Morphology of Case Affixes: a computational analysis, M.Phil. thesis submitted to J.N.U. New Delhi Joshi, S.D. 1969, Sentence structure according to Panini. Indian Antiquary. Kanthan, K.L., Formal language system of Panini. Chemical Bank, Information Technology Management, New York. Kapoor, Kapil, 1991, Panini Vyakarana: Nature, Applicability and Organization. Course notes for NLP-91, IIT-Kanpur, 1991. --------------------, 1992, Norm and Variation: A Classical Indian Debate. Language and Text. ed. R.N.Srivastava et al, Kalinga Publications, Delhi. --------------,1993, Text and Interpretation: The Indian Tradition, under publication, D.K. Print World, Delhi. --------------,2004, Essays on Panini's Ashtadhyayi, under publication D.K. Print World, Delhi. Katre, Sumitra, M. 1985, Astadhyayi of Panini (first Indian edn. Motilal Banarasidass, 1989. Mishra, Vidya, Niwas, 1966, The Descriptive Technique of Panini: An Introduction. Mouton & Co., The Hague, Paris) Sangal, R. 1991, Karaka Theory - sentence and nominals. Course notes for NLP-91, IIT-Kanpur. Sharma, Ram, Nath, 1987, The Astadhyayi of Panini. Vol I, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Sharma, Ram, Nath, 1990, The Astadhyayi of Panini. Vol II, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.  Appendix: Phonetic chart (ITRANS 5.0) Vowels aAiIuURRiRRILLiLLIeaioauaMaHConsonants kkh g gh ~Ncch jjh~nTThD DhNtthddhnpphbbhmyrlvshShshLkShj~nshrThe main source of the original writings is Radhakrishnan and Moore's Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. THE TEXTS FOR THE COURSE: 1. Radhakrishnan and Moore, Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy 2. Rashviri Das, Introduction to Shankara 3. Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta 4. Vasubandhu, The Soul Theory of the Buddhist 5. Selected Readings. (The source for each selection will be given with the assignment of the selection) *Note that Das is a "free" translation of Sankara's commentary to the Brahma Sutra, so it covers the same material (and more) that is found in the Sourcebook's section on Sankara.  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