York University Professor Marc Egnal's History 2600 Final Exam Website
QUICKLINKS:
Agricultural Adjustment Act
Booker T. Washington
Clinton's Welfare Reform
Dawes Act
Department Stores
Iran Contra Affair
John D. Rockefeller
League of Nations
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition
The Lusitania
The Marshall Plan
N.A.A.C.P.
Plessy vs. Fergusson
Populism
*NEW!* Tet Offensive
William Jennings Bryan
The Agricultural Adjustment Act sought to raise crop prices by reducing production. The objective was to blunt farmers' natural instinct to increase their production as prices fell, a process that drove prices still lower. In summer 1933, the government paid southern cotton planters to plow under much of their crop and mid-western farmers to slaughter 6 million piglets. The killing of pigs at a time when many people were going hungryy became a public-relations debacle.
In May 1933, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) began paying commodity producers to take acreage out of production. Food processors paid a tax that supported the program, and in turn they passed the cost on to consumers in the form of higher food prices. Parity- the restoration of farmers' purchasing power to its 1909-1914 level- was the AAA's goal.
In January 1936, the Supreme Court declared the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional. To replace it, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, which paid farmers to cut production of soil-depleted crops such as wheat and cotton and to plant soil-conserving grasses and legumes instead. When agricultural prices remained depressed, Congress passed another major farm law in 1938.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 set up procedures for limiting the production of basic commodities such as cotton, wheat, corn, and tobacco. It also created a mechanism by which the government, in years of big harvests and low prices, would make loans to farmers and store their surplus crops in government warehouses. In years of rising prices, farmers could repay their loans and market their commodities at a profit.
SIGNIFICANCE - These measures sharply expanded federal involvement in the national economy and were important toward addressing economic revival. These provisions helped to stabilize farm prices and established the framework of federal agricultural policy for decades to come.
Booker T. Washington was born into slavery in Virginia in 1856 and died in 1915. He was the son of a black slave and her white master. He believed that African-Americans should prove their economic worth to white people and then racism would slowly ebb and end as the whites accepted them in the work place they would accept them in society. This was called the Atlanta Comprimise after he made a speech about it in Atlanta, GA. in 1895. To this end he had organized a vocational school in 1881 in Tuskegee, Alabama.
Many African-Americans believed in his ideas although many others did not accept his ideas. With the rise of racism and the Klu Klux Klan at the beginning of the 20th century most though his ideas were unrealistic. He met with President T. Roosevelt in the White House.
Significance
He was significant to American History in that he was a respected African-American leader in a time when white Americans were just beginning on the road to accepting African-Americans as citizens and countrymen. Booker T. Washington gave a message of peace and hope to his fellow former slaves and encouraged them to become develop a good work ethic and become useful members of society.
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Bill Clinton initially adopted health-care reform as his central domestic goal. As his 1992-1996 presidential term drew to an end, he later adopted welfare reform action. Welfare reform materialized in 1996, after Clinton signed the Republican welfare-reform bill.
Prominent results of the reform bill:
1) Ended 60 years of federal funding for welfare programs.
2) Instilled individual states with the duty of creating their own welfare programs using lump-sum grants.
OTHER REFORM RESULTS – just F.Y.I.
3) Set 5-year limit on benefits.
4) Required able-bodied welfare recipients to seek employment after 2 yrs.
5) Cut federal food stamp program.
6) Cut all aid (except emergency aid) to legal immigrants.
Significance:
Clinton’s welfare reform did not occur in a political vacuum. It was adopted after a significant partisan shift towards a Republican revival in 1994-95. Particularly, after the Republican Party took control of Congress—in both houses—for the 1st time since 1954.
Clinton had concerns for a presidential re-election in 1996, which depended on how well actions—like welfare reform—affected his approval rating among conservative/right-wing voters.
Reference: Boyer text, pp. 671-673. Lecture for March 30th, 2004.
1887.
- Well intentioned humanitarians concluded the best way to protect Indian interests lay in breaking up reservations, ending all recognition of the tribes ,and propelling native Americans into mainstream society. They would solve the "Indian problem" by eliminating Indians as a culturally distinct entity. Hence, they threw their support behind the Dawes severalty act of 1887.
- The Dawes act aimed at reforming the "weaknesses" of Indian life eg, the absence of private property and the nomadic tradition.
- How? By forcing Indians to be farmers and land owners.
- The law emphasized severalty, the treatment of Indians as individuals instead of as members of a tribe, and called for the break up of reservations.
- Each head of an Indian tribe that accepted the law would receive 160 acres of land for farming or 320 acres for grazing, to be carved up out of reservation lands with the rest being sold.
- Supporters- Western speculators who coveted reservation lands and military authorities who wanted to break up reservations all lobbied heavily for the dawes act.
- * Strongest support came from such "friends of the Indians" as Helen Hunt Jackson who wanted to relieve the native peoples suffering, but also believed in the innate superiority of white American culture. "Civilize" the Indians
-- Significance
- Dawes act made Indians U.S Citizens, with all the rights and responsibilities thereof, including the protection of federal laws and the requirement to pay taxes.
- Dawes act proved a boon not to Indians but to speculators who obtained the best land.
Some native Americans who received land under the Dawes act became large scale farmers or ranchers, but countless others languished. Hunting restrictions prevented many form supplementing their yields, hence, government support steadily increased Indian dependence on federal aid.
Alcoholism, a continuing problem worsened as whiskey became a trade item.
By the early 1930’s , whites owned about two-thirds of the land that native Americans had possessed in 1887, including the most valuable acreage, while 170,000 native Americans mostly lived in a world of poverty, scant education, poor health care and bleak prospects.
1880's merchandisers encouraged Americans to loosen their purse strings and enjoy prosperity by emphasizing the high quality and low cost of their goods.
Key to changing attitudes about consumption was the department store
In the final quarter of the nineteenth century, entrepreneurs like Roland Macy, John Wanamaker and Marshall field made department stores a Urban institution
This transformed the shopping experience of the middle and upper-class that were reluctant to spend
They did this by advertising products at rock bottom prices and by waging price wars to validate their clams
Major downtown establishments tried to make shopping and adventure. The stores became more and more ornate, with stain glass windows, marble staircases, brilliant chandeliers and plush carpets
They lavished care and attention on shoppers, especially women. Richly decorated lounges, elegant restaurants serving modestly priced lunches, and glittering holiday decorations enticed visitors to linger and buy on impulse
The large urban department store became a social club and home away from home for affluent women
Department stores made luxury acceptable by clothing it in the guise of efficiency and good taste.
Who : Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, a military aide to the National Security Council. President Ronald Reagan
American political scandal of 1985 and 1986, in which high-ranking members in the administration of President Ronald Reagan arranged for the secret sales of arms to Iran in direct violation of existing United States laws. Profits from the $30 million in arms sales were channeled to the Nicaraguan right-wing “contra” guerrillas to supply arms for use against the leftist Sandinista government. The $30 million from these sales had been sent to the contras in direct violation of the Boland Amendment, which Congress had passed in 1984 and which prohibited direct or indirect U.S. military aid to them.
The sale of arms to Iran was initiated at the suggestion of the Israeli government with the dual goal of bettering relations with Iran and of obtaining the release of American hostages held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian terrorists. North was instrumental in setting up a covert network for providing support to the contras, with its own ship, airplanes, airfield, and secret bank accounts.
In February 1987 the Tower Commission, a special panel headed by former U.S. Senator John Tower of Texas, issued a report castigating President Reagan and his advisers for their lack of control over the National Security Council.
In December 1992 President George Bush, who had been vice president under Reagan and who had also been implicated, but not charged, in the scandal, issued pardons to many of the top government officials who had been charged or convicted for their role in the Iran-Contra affair.
Who: An American industrialist and philanthropist (petroleum king)
What: The petroleum king of American industry. In 1863 he established, with his partners, an oil refinery, entering and industry already thriving in Cleveland. In 1870 he and his associated, S.V Harkness, H.M. Flagler, and his brother William, organized the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, capitalized at $1 million. Through strict economy and efficiency, through mergers and agreements with competitors, by ruthlessly crushing weaker competitors, and by accumulating large capital reserves, Rockefeller soon dominated the American oil-refining industry. This practically established a near monopoly. By 1911, on the heels of a supreme court-decision, Rockefeller and his partners were required to dissolve and relinquish their control over the numberous subsidiaries. Retired in 1911
When: Born 1839, died 1937. 1870-Standard Oil Company of Ohio, 1911-retired after accumulating enourmous wealth.
Where: born Richford, New York. Cleveland, Ohio, his oil company.
Significance: Was wealthiest man in America and showed that anybody could strike it rich like he did with his oil. If his fortune was measured in today's terms, he would be wealthiest man in American history.
WHO- President Woodrow Wilson
WHAT- Assembly of world powers
Wilson 's Fourteen Points
• goal to spread democracy worldwide
• Points 1-8 dealt with territorial settlement in post-war Europe
• Point 9- colonial disputes should be resolved by the interests of the colonial peoples as well as of the European powers
• Points 10-14- a world of free navigation, lowered trade barriers, reduced armaments, openly negotiated treaties, and “a general association of nations” to ensure peace and resolves conflicts by negotiation
• focused on the creation of a liberal, harmonious, and rational world order
• 1920 election ended any American involvement in the League of Nations as Conservative Republican Warren G. Harding was elected into office
• concept of league based on a collective effort against the criminal threat of war
WHEN- Jan 1918 (14 points speech), Jan 1919 (Treaty of Versailles), 1920 US election
Significance
• Marked first time world powers assembled
• Built foundations of United Nations, which was adopted twenty five years later
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition
- 1904 in St. Louis, Missouri for the centennial anniversay of acquiring the Louisiana Territory from France attended by 19 million people.
- Intended to stimulate economic development, showcase new technology, and American prowess.
- The Anthropology exhibit, headed by WJ McGee, recreated Filipino villages. The Americans had just supressed a rebellion there.
- Filipino natives were brought over to live int he 47 acre exhibit so Americans could observe their culture.
SIGNIFICANCE -
Justified American Imperialism in several ways:
- Social Darwinism Ideals ~ USA was the strongest country and had the right to expand
- White Man's Burden ~ belief that it is the White man's duty to westernize "savages"
- Religious Duty to spread Christianity
- Economic - to sell surplus goods overseas and set up naval bases and refueling stations in their colonies
- The villages that were set up at the exposition misrepresented Filipino culture. The organizers decided to showcase the more primitive cultures in order to stimulate shock in the audience so they would support US imperialism for the reasons mentioned above.
- The expo fostered support for further intervention in the Phillipines. The Americans set up a school system and proper elections but the Filipino govt was essentially a puppet regime of the US. Naval bases WERE built and the CIA intervened in the government. There was also a larger gap between the rich and poor.
• British ship sunk by a German submarine on May 7, 1915
• 1198 people were killed – of which 128 were Americans
• Americans were warned against taking British vessels by the Imperial German Embassy in the morning papers on the day that the vessels were scheduled to leave New York
• Immediately following this disaster, there were many demands for immediate declaration of war
• President Wilson chose the diplomatic course, sending a note to German officials asking for reparations
• Germany refused to accept responsibility. Instead, they issued secret orders to submarine commanders not to attack passenger ships without warning
• Eventually, Germany finally took responsibility for its actions against the Lusitania – agreeing to make reparations and to discontinue sinking passenger ships without warning
• This immediate crisis between the United States and Germany soon subsided. However, this incident contributed to the rise of American sentiment for the entry of the United States into World War I.
- June 1947 Congress passed measure
- Named after secretary of state George C. Marshall
- The winter of 1946-1947 was particulary harsh on Europe and Soviets were not doing anything to help out
- U.S decided to send massaive economic aid to restore the democratic balance of Western Europe.
- U.S would help the starving/homeless pple in Europe
- this would help Truman in his determination to end the spread of communism
- a strong Western European economy would also benefit the U.S b/c of the spread of Amcn goods
-Over 5yr period $17Bilionl sent to Western Europe
- also - there was anti-Soviet propaganda to ensure that communism would not spread
Importance/Significance
- shows Trumans determination to have America reign over USSR
- fueled the Cold War
- Soviet Union economy suffered while Amca economy boomed
National Associaton for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP)
- Founded by scholar, W.E.B. Du Bois in 1909
- Began as Niagra Movement (Annual meetings held in Niagra Falls)
- 1909 the two groups merged to form modern day NAACP
- NAACP called for equality for all African Americans, and an end to racial discrimination
- Attracted urban black middle class, by 1914 NAACP had over 6 000 members
Significance: NAACP was formed to help the progression of rights for African Americans across the United States, and continues to do so today. The group helped unite black people across the country and formed one large voice that the government could not ignore
NOTES GARNERED FROM LECTURES
february 3 lecture 'African-American Society 1865-1929'
in the 2nd main heading II. Emergence of Jim Crow Laws 1850-1915
in A. Reasons for the Rise of Jim Crow Laws
i. failure of populism
ii. SUPREME COURT DECISION PLESSY VS. FERGUSSON "SEPERATE BUT EQUAL"
iii. scientific racism
- plessy vs. fergusson remained in effect until it was overturned in 1954 ruling of brown vs. board of education of topeka
FROM ENCARTA
In June 1892 Homer A. Plessy bought a first-class ticket on the East Louisiana Railroad and sat in the car designated for whites only. Plessy was of mixed African and European ancestry, and he looked white. Because the Citizens' Committee wanted to challenge the segregation law in court, it alerted railroad officials that Plessy would be sitting in the whites only car, even though he was partly of African descent. Plessy was arrested and brought to court for arraignment before Judge John H. Ferguson of the U.S. District Court in Louisiana. Plessy then attempted to halt the trial by suing Ferguson on the grounds that the segregation law was unconstitutional.
In 1896 Plessy's challenge reached the U.S. Supreme Court, where Tourgee argued that segregation violated the 13th Amendment's prohibition of involuntary servitude and the 14th Amendment's guarantee of equal protection of the law. Tourgee asserted that these amendments, along with the Declaration of Independence, protected all Americans from discrimination. He told the court that the 14th Amendment gave constitutional power to the Declaration of Independence, which he described as “the all-embracing formula of personal rights on which our government is based.” Joining Tourgee in these arguments was Samuel F. Phillips, a former Solicitor General of the United States, who in 1883 had unsuccessfully argued the Civil Rights Cases, a U.S. Supreme Court decision that had severely curtailed the power of Congress to protect the rights of blacks in the South.
The court rejected Tourgee's arguments by a vote of 7 to 1. Speaking for the court, Supreme Court Justice Henry Billings Brown declared that the 14th Amendment was adopted “to enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law,” but he argued the amendment “could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political equality, or a commingling of the two races.” Ignoring the reality of segregation in the South, Justice Brown denied Tourgee's argument that “the enforced separation of the two races stamps the colored race with a badge of inferiority.” Brown asserted that segregation was not discriminatory because whites were also segregated from blacks. Thus, if segregation made blacks feel inferior, “it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses to put that construction upon it.”
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As farms doubled from the Civil War to the 1890s, wheat and cotton prices dropped which made farmers angry. In response to the lack of relief from the government, farmers formed the Grangers, led by Oliver H. Kelley, concerned with the economic plight of farmers.
Grievances: the railroads, because farmers felt cheated by railroads w/ the Long and Short Haul Grievance: the shorter the distance the more it cost farmers. Farmers went to Supreme Court to rule against commissions to lower the price of using the railroads. 1896 Wabash , Indiana decision for Railroads.
Interstate Commerce Act 1887
Rise of Populist Party:
Populist Party Formation: The Populist Party was formed in Omaha , Nebraska in 1892, responding to the Farmers' Alliance . It attracted recruits from the Farmer's Alliances & disenfranchised southern whites. Fields is nominated as President, and Weaver as vice-President. The Pop. Party did not trust the Deomcrats and Republicans.
Election of 1892 Omaha Platform: 1) called for an income tax 2) nationalization of railroads 3) price support for farmers 4) wanted gov't to print more money 5) democratic reforms 6) pro-labor planks.
They fought hard during their 1892 campaign but lost. 1896 marked the end of the Populist party, the money issue being the biggest issue they overlooked.
Significance: Populism helped America out of the economic slump that plagued the nation from the Civil War to the early 1900s. It promoted farmers' grievances and solutions and put pressure on the other political parties to address these concerns, which ultimately led to the prices of farmers' produce to rise, and the country to get out of recession.
Refer to Boyer pgs: 417-422 and Lecture on January 8, 2004.
Who: The North Vietnamese launch the Tet Offensive against the American troops
What: A massive military strike against American bases in thirty-nine Southern Vietnamese cities.
When: Jan 31 1968 (Vietnamese New Years)
Where: More then one hundred South Vietnam towns
Significance: Said to be the changing moment in the Vietnam war, the American viewing public at home first realized that the media had falsly been portraying the war, and that the enemy who was supposedly being defeated was in reality much stronger and a larger threat then they had previously been lead to believe. Lyndon Johnson president at the time releasing reports from the White House lost credibility with the American public after the attack and by March announced he would not seek nomination for another term as president.
If anyone has anything to add to this please do so, I don't have lecture notes from this one so I was going based on the textbook and the web only.
William Jennings Bryan was a 36 year old young lawyer and an advocate of free silver. He was also a three time presidential candidate.Throughout his political career he endorsed the free and unlimited coinage of silver and as well prasied the farmers as the nations bedrock in need of debt aid. He was supported by a separte Populist group whose intentions were to siphon votes to help guaruntee a Republican victory. He spoke across the country, often in the back of railroad cars. Bryon travelled because he thought that was the best course of action in winning the country.
His 1896 loss to Willaim McKinley was again repeated in 1900 and largely due to the overwhelming support and money from JP Morgan and othe industrial strongheads. Bryan's platform was unappealing to factory workers, immigrants and the middle class whose vote is a signifigant portion of the U.S. He later became an enormous supporter of the anti imperialism movement.
Due to the fact that the Democarts strength lay in the south, the border states and the nothern cities(many that were awkwardly split in opinion) and the ever changing status of locally based politics and diminished presidency. He went on to participate in the highly debated "Scopes trial" in 1925.
During this period fundamentalism was a fueling reation to the newly accepted finding in science that were challenging religious standings. The theory of evolution was being challenged by Darwin which was seen as a blatent rejection of biblical truth. Bills were issued that prohibited the teachings of evolution and this was endorsed by Bryan as well.
ACLU 9 American Civil Liberties Union offered to defend any teacher willing to challenge the law and John T. Scopes admitted to the challenge in 1925. Headed by Clarence Darrow a famed criminal Lawyer. Bryan was cross examined by Darrow and his ignorance on the subject of scientific knowledge and religious beliefs became very clear to many. Scopes was found guilty but the larger victory was in the setback that fundamentalism would never fully recover from.
After the trial the degree to which these opinions were express was clearly diminished and although many still preached their belief through various outlets such as radio it was a victory of newfound thinking and acceptance.
QUICKLINKS:
Agricultural Adjustment Act
Booker T. Washington
Clinton's Welfare Reform
Dawes Act
Department Stores
Iran Contra Affair
John D. Rockefeller
League of Nations
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition
The Lusitania
The Marshall Plan
N.A.A.C.P.
Plessy vs. Fergusson
Populism
*NEW!* Tet Offensive
William Jennings Bryan
