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FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS, better Known as Julian the Apostate (Iulius Apostata), was born in 331 in Constantinople as son of Julius Constantius and nephew of Constantine the Great (His father, Julius Constantius, was Constantine's half-brother).
The later ruler of the Roman empire (from 361 until his death in 363) Flavius Claudius Julianus is known to history as "the apostate" because he formally renounced the Christian religion in which he had been raised and tried with only partial and ephemeral success to revive the old Roman state Paganism, placing himself at its head as high priest and "philosopher-king."
Aside from rare visits from his half-brother Gallus, the young Julian was without many family contacts, his mother had died shortly after his birth and his father was eventually murdered by Constantine's son and successor Constantius when Julian was five.
Julian was raised a Christian, but educated in the Pagan classics--the only books of literature, philosophy and science available--such as the works of Homer and Plato. In his teens he was baptized and ordained a "reader," the lowest step on the clerical ladder, charged with giving the lessons from the Old and New Testament during worship services.
Later he had also experienced moments of mystic insight that did not seem to fit into a Christian worldview; by his twentieth birthday, he decided privately that he was philosophically a Pagan although he had never encountered Pagan religion in practice.
At about the same time in his life, the political climate changed and Julian was allowed to travel where he liked as long as he stayed out of political affairs. His studious nature led him to one Aidesios, a student of the late Neoplatonist teacher Iamblichus, and through other of Aeidesios's students heard of Maximus, a charismatic man who combined philosopher, ritual magician and freelance Pagan priest. Using the works of Iamblichus, which countenanced ritual magic as a step in the soul's journey toward the One--the source of all existence--and other magical texts such as the second-century Chaldean Oracles, Maximus offered initiation into what amounted to a secret, esoteric Neoplatonic religion. Julian became his initiate. Later he was also initiated into the all-male cult of Mithras, the Persian Sun god widely worshiped in the Roman army--Mithraism with its ranks and lodges filled a place somewhat similar to modern Freemasonry for soldiers stationed far from home.
But eventually the emperor's net caught him too. Accused of plotting treason, he was summoned to Constantius's headquarters in Milan. On the way he visited the city of Troy (much reduced from its Homeric glory) and was escorted by a bishop to the shrines of the goddess Athena and the hero Hector. Both shrines were still in use, something that did not seem to offend the bishop, and both the continuance of Pagan practice and the bishop's tolerance--perhaps even approval--affected Julian deeply.
Unlike his half-brother, Julian escaped execution, but was held for a time under house arrest and then exiled to Athens, now a political backwater but still an important center of learning. Here he continued his studies and was also initiated into the ancient cult of the goddess Demeter at Eleusis.
But after less than a year, he was recalled to Milan in 355; facing another coup attempt, Constantius decided to summon his sole adult male relative and invest him as his deputy, for all that he had destroyed Julian's father and brothers.
The quiet, scholarly 24-year-old gave up his philosopher's beard and philosopher's gown. Suddenly he was a high officer: Caesar of Gaul, Britain, and Spain. He also undertook a political marriage with Helena, Constantius's sister, who was about 30.
The flash point came in 360 when Julian, headquartered in Paris, was requested by the emperor to send six legions--many of them romanized Germans--far to the east for a campaign against the rising Persian Empire. Although he tried to comply, the soldiers refused to go, instead proclaiming him their emperor. They surrounded his palace all night, chanting "Iulianus Augustus!" ("Julian for emperor!").
In the morning he came out and was lifted high, standing on a shield held by a group of soldiers--a German ritual of tribal chieftainship transplanted to the Roman legions.
Thrust toward civil war, Julian tried negotiating with Constantius. The negotiations dragged on: Constantius was commencing a campaign against the Persians while Julian meanwhile continued punitive expeditions against the German tribes. In the summer of 361, however, the Persians backed down, and Constantius began to prepare for war with his former subordinate who in turn moved down the Danube to meet the emperor in the eastern empire. But Constantius died between Antioch and Constantinople in November 361; Julian, in fact, was able to reach Constantinople in time to meet the late emperor's corpse as it was brought to the capital.
Now emperor at age 29, Julian tried to become Plato's "philosopher king." He trimmed the extravagant imperial court and issued edicts of religious toleration. Not only did he permit Pagans and Christians their religious practices equally, but he stopped the Christian clergy's government salaries and refused to intervene in disputes over heresy. In fact, he ordered that Christian clerics exiled for heresy by his predecessor be allowed to return home. He issued a decree ordering that Pagan temple property confiscated under Constantine and his successors be returned to its original owners; in some areas, this provided an excuse for anti-Christian looting and the martyrdom of some believers. But beyond that, he tried to turn educated people and the upper classes away from Christianity. He encouraged Pagan theologians--a novelty, as classical Paganism had done without theologians, having only poets and priests.
In May, 362, Julian left Constantinople for Asia and made active preparations at Antioch for a great war with Persia.
While at Antioch in the winter of 362-63, he wrote his books against the Christians.
In March, 363, he advanced from Antioch into Mesopotamia, successfully crossed the Tigris, and fought a successful battle with the Persians.
On 26 June, 363, he was wounded in the side by an arrow in a small cavalry skirmish, and died during the night.
